Organic Matter in the Universe E-Book

Sun Kwok

• Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH
• Kategorie: Lebensstil
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 435

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Authored by an experienced writer and a well-known researcher of stellar evolution, interstellar matter and spectroscopy, this unique treatise on the formation and observation of organic compounds in space includes a spectroscopy refresher, as well as links to geological findings and finishes with the outlook for future astronomical facilities and solar system exploration missions. A whole section on laboratory simulations includes the Miller-Urey experiment and the ultraviolet photolysis of ices.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Half Title page

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

Abbreviations

Chaprter 1: History and Introduction

1.1 Origin of Chemical Elements

1.2 Extraterrestrial Organics

Chaprter 2: The Chemistry of Organic Matter

2.1 Families of Organic Molecules

2.2 Different Forms of Carbon

2.3 Molecules of Biological Significance

2.4 Summary

Chaprter 3: Interstellar Molecules

3.1 Electronic, Vibrational, and Rotational Structures of Molecules

3.2 Hydrocarbons

3.3 Alcohols

3.4 Carboxylic Acids

3.5 Aldehydes and Ketones

3.6 Ethers and Esters

3.7 Amines, Nitriles, and Nitrogen-Containing Molecules

3.8 Radicals

3.9 Carbon Chains

3.10 Acetylene Derivatives

3.11 Rings

3.12 Phosphorus Containing Molecules

3.13 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

3.14 Molecules Containing Trace Elements

3.15 Biomolecules

3.16 Diamonds

3.17 Fullerenes

3.18 Spectroscopic Scans

3.19 Search for Large, Complex Molecules

3.20 Summary

Chaprter 4: Organic Molecules in the Interstellar Medium

4.1 Dark Clouds

4.2 High-Mass Star Formation Regions

4.3 Reflection Nebulae

4.4 Diffuse Interstellar Medium

4.5 Cirrus Clouds

4.6 Summary

Chaprter 5: Organic Compounds in Galaxies

5.1 Aromatic Compounds in Galaxies

5.2 The Aliphatic Component

5.3 Other Organics

5.4 Summary

Chaprter 6: Synthesis of Organic Compounds in the Late Stages of Stellar Evolution

6.1 Molecular Synthesis in the Stellar Wind

6.2 Beyond the Asymptotic Giant Branch

6.3 Chemical Evolution

6.4 Enrichment of the Interstellar Medium

Chaprter 7: Organic Compounds in the Solar System

7.1 Techniques

7.2 The Sun

7.3 The Earth

7.4 Planets and Planetary Satellites

7.5 Meteorites

7.6 Meteoroids and Interplanetary Dust Particles

7.7 Comets

7.8 Asteroids

7.9 Trans-Neptunian Objects

7.10 Extrasolar Planets

7.11 Summary

Chaprter 8: Organic Compounds as Carriers of Unsolved Astronomical Phenomena

8.1 Unidentified Infrared Emission Features

8.2 Diffuse Interstellar Bands

8.3 The 217 nm Feature

8.4 Extended Red Emission

8.5 The 21 and 30 Micron Emission Features

Chaprter 9: Chemical Structures of Organic Matter in Space

9.1 Optical Properties and Colors of Solids

9.2 Carbon Chains and Rings

9.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon

9.4 Small Carbonaceous Molecules

9.5 Hydrogenated Amorphous Carbon

9.6 Soot and Carbon Nanoparticles

9.7 Quenched Carbonaceous Composites

9.8 Kerogen and Coal

9.9 Petroleum Fractions

9.10 Tholin and HCN Polymer

9.11 Biological Materials

9.12 Summary

Chaprter 10: Laboratory Simulations of Molecular Synthesis

10.1 Laboratory Simulation of Chemical Processes under Interstellar Conditions

10.2 Simulations of the Synthesis of Carbonaceous Nanoparticles in Space

10.3 Chemical Pathways of the Synthesis of Biomolecules

Chaprter 11: Origin of Life on Earth

11.1 Design or Accident

11.2 Prebiotic Chemical Evolution: the Oparin–Haldane Hypothesis

11.3 Panspermia

11.4 Evidence for External Impacts in the Past

11.5 Impact-Origin of Life Hypothesis

11.6 Delivery of Organic Compounds in the Early History of the Earth

Chaprter 12: Lessons from the Past and Outlook for the Future

12.1 Our Journey in Search of Organic Matter in Space

12.2 The Origin and Evolution of Organic Matter in Space

12.3 The Future

Appendix A: Glossary

Appendix B: Astronomical Infrared and Submillimeter Spectroscopic Observational Facilities

B.1 Single-Dish Millimeter and Submillimeter Wave Telescopes

B.2 Ground-Based Infrared Telescopes

B.3 Space Infrared and Submillimeter Telescopes

B.4 Airborne Telescopes

B.5 Millimeter and Submillimeter Arrays

Appendix C: Unit Conversions

References

Color Plates

Index

Sun Kwok

Organic Matter in the Universe

Related Titles

Dvorak, R. (ed.)Extrasolar Planets Formation, Detection and Dynamics 2008 ISBN: 978-3-527-40671-5

Horneck, G., Rettberg, P. (eds)Complete Course in Astrobiology 2007 ISBN: 978-3-527-40660-9

Shaw, A. M.Astrochemistry From Astronomy to Astrobiology 2006 ISBN: 978-0-470-09137-1

Stahler, S. W., Palla, F.The Formation of Stars 2004 ISBN: 978-3-527-40559-6

Spitzer, L.Physical Processes in the Interstellar Medium 1998 ISBN: 978-0-471-29335-4

The Author

Prof. Sun Kwok The University of Hong Kong Faculty of Science Pukfulam Road Hong Kong

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Preface

Since the 1970s, millimeter and submillimeter observations have detected rotational transitions of over 160 molecules, including hydrocarbons, alcohols, acids, aldehydes, ketones, amines, ethers, and other organic molecules. Infrared ground-based, airborne, and space-based spectroscopic observations have found evidence of complex carbonaceous compounds with aromatic and aliphatic structures in circumstellar and interstellar media. These infrared emission features are seen in many distant galaxies, suggesting organic synthesis had taken place even during the early days of the Universe. At the same time, complex organics are being found in meteorites, comets, and interplanetary dust particles. The Cassini mission and the Huygens probe have returned new results regarding the chemical composition of planetary and satellite atmospheres. There is an increasing recognition that organic compounds are major constituents of the atmosphere and surface of Titan. The sample return from the STARDUST mission is currently providing us with a great opportunity to examine the content of stellar material in the Solar System.

Laboratory isotopic analysis of meteorites and interplanetary dust collected in the upper atmosphere, and now cometary materials have revealed the presence of presolar grains similar to those formed in evolved stars. There also exists isotopic evidence that some Solar System organics have an interstellar chemical heritage. The direct link between star dust and the Solar System therefore suggests that the early Solar System was chemically enriched by both stellar ejecta and the products of interstellar processing.

Although this may sound surprising to many scientists, organic compounds are prevalent in the Universe, from our local backyard of the Solar System to distant galaxies formed billions of years ago. How stars and galaxies manage to produce such a large amount of complex organics is still unknown. The solution to this question and some long-standing mysteries such as the diffuse interstellar bands, the 220 nm extinction feature, the extended red emission, and the family of “unidentified infrared emission” bands will depend on the close working relationships between astronomers and laboratory spectroscopists.

The main purpose of this book is to bring awareness to the scientific community that organic matter is indeed commonly present everywhere in the Universe. The question that we pose, and would like to seek answers to, is whether organic matter in diverse locations are related or have a common origin.

Since the study of organic matter in space requires collaborative efforts between researchers in the astronomical, Solar System, and chemical/biological laboratory communities, it is desirable to have one volume that summarizes the current state of knowledge that can serve as a starting point for researchers who wish to embark on research in this field. The book would also be of interest to the nonspecialist scientist to gain insight into the scientific basis of how our perception of the origin of life has changed in the last 10 years.

Although the book is mainly focused on astronomical observations, I have tried to make it comprehensible to readers from diverse backgrounds. With introduction and background materials, an experienced scientist should be able to grasp an understanding of the issues involved. With extensive discussions on techniques, results, and references, a researcher can use it as a starting point for further research. A casual reader can glance over the technical details and still get a message that organic matter is everywhere in the Universe and there is a likely link between the stars and us.

One of the most enjoyable aspects of working in this interdisciplinary area of research is the opportunity to meet scientists in many different fields. Other than astronomers and physicists, I have met and learned from many chemists, biochemists, biologists, geologists, and planetary scientists. Being present in meetings and conferences, and listening to people whose expertise is completely outside of my own gives one a sense of humility. It is this quality of humility that drives me to continue to learn.

In spite of the amount of work and effort it has taken to write this book, I must say that it has been a very rewarding experience for me. It allows me to summarize my own thoughts on the subject and to express them in a coherent manner. Since my working hours are mostly occupied by administrative duties, writing this book was confined to evenings, weekends, and holidays. Over time, I found solace in writing and came to believe that this book preserved my sanity.

I must first express my gratitude to my colleague Anisia Tang who has skillfully drawn many of the figures and checked the references and the proofs with diligence. Her expert knowledge of LaTex has also saved me from many difficult situations. Many scientists have provided me with advice and expert opinions on the various subjects covered in this book. These individuals include Peter Bernath, Dale P. Cruikshank, Richard Grieve, George Jacoby, David Kring, Stephen Ridgway, Farid Salama, and Scott Sandford. I am also grateful to the scientists who kindly gave me permission to use their figures in the book. I would like to thank my HKU colleagues Jesse Chan, Patrick Toy, and Aixin Yan who provided me with comments based on expert knowledge in their respective fields. Especially, I would like to thank my science writer daughter Roberta, who carefully read the manuscript and provided many useful comments, suggestions, and editorial corrections.

During the early parts of my career, I learned from the examples of Lawrence Aller and Gehard Herzberg. They showed me their dedication to science, and their influences have remained with me to this day.

I am grateful to my wife Emily who has tolerated me as I spent precious family time on this project. The understanding and support of my daughters Roberta and Kelly have always been a strong motivation factor for me.

Hong Kong, 2011

Sun Kwok

Abbreviations

The profusive use of acronyms in scientific literature makes it increasingly difficult for people from other disciplines to read the literature. Since this book covers elements of astronomy, biology, chemistry, geology, and planetary science, a list of the acronyms used within the text is given below. Please consult this list first before looking up a term in the subject index.

AAAaminoadipic acidABAaminobutyric acidAFGLAir Force Geophysical LaboratoryAGBasymptotic giant branch starsAIBaromatic infrared bandsALMAAtacama LargeMillimeter ArrayAROArizona Radio ObservatoryATPadeninosine triphosphatesAUastronomical unitBIMABerkeley-Illinois-Maryland Association ArrayCCDcharged coupled deviceCIRScomposite infrared spectrometerCNPcarbon nanoparticlesCSOCaltech submillimeter ObservatoryCVDchemical vapor depositionDAEdistillate aromatic extractDAHdiaminohexanoic acidDAMNdiaminomaleonitrileDAPdiaminopentanoic acidDHA1,3-dihydroxyacetoneDIBdiffuse interstellar bandsDNAdeoxyribonucleic acidEREExtended Red EmissionESAEuropean Space AgencyESOEuropean Southern ObservatoryGCMSgas chromatography-mass spectrometryGTPguanosine triphosphatesHAChydrogenated amorphous carbonHETG-ACISHigh-Energy Transmission Grating-Advanced CCD Imaging SpectrometerHMThexamethylenetetramineHRTEMhigh resolution transmission electron microscopyHSTHubble Space TelescopeIDPInterplanetary dust particlesINMSion neutral mass spectrometerIOMInsoluble Organic MatterIRinfraredIRACinfrared array cameraIRAMInstitut de Radioastronomie MillimétriqueIRASInfrared Astronomical SatelliteIRISinfrared radiometer interferometer and spectrometerIRSInfrared SpectrographIRTFInfrared Telescope FacilityIRTSInfrared Telescope in SpaceISMinterstellar mediumISOInfrared Space ObservatoryISOCAMInfrared Space Observatory infrared cameraISOPHOInfrared Space Observatory photo-polarimeterIUEInternational Ultraviolet ExplorerJCMTJames–Clerk–Maxwell TelescopeKAOKuiper Airborne ObservatoryKBOKuiper Belt ObjectsLHBlate heavy bombardmentLRSLow Resolution SpectrometerLTElocal thermodynamical equilibriumLUCALast Universal Common AncestorLWSLong Wavelength Spectrometerm-FTIRmicroscope-based Fourier transform infraredMIRSmid-infrared spectralNASANational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationNIRS/NIRSPECNear Infrared SpectrometerNMRnuclear magnetic resonanceNRAONational Radio Astronomy ObservatoryPAHpolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonPDRphotodissociatino regionsPOMpolyoxymethylenesQCCquenched carbonaceous compositesRAEresidual aromatic extractRNAribonucleic acidSCMsmall carbonaceous moleculesSEDspectral energy distributionsSESTSwedish-ESO Submillimeter TelescopeSIMSsecondary ion mass spectroscopySpeXmedium resolution spectrographSSBspinnig side bandsSTXMscanning transmission X-ray microscopeSWASSubmillimeter Wave Astronomy SatelliteSWSShort Wavelength SpectrometerTNOTrans-Neptunian ObjectsUIEunidentified infrared emissionUKIRTUnited Kingdom Infrared TelescopeUVultravioletVIMSvisible-infrared mapping spectrometerVLAVery Large ArrayVLTThe Very Large Telescope arrayWFPCwide field planetary cameraXANESX-ray absorption near-edge structure

Chaprter 1

History and Introduction

The term organic matter was originally created to refer to compounds derived from natural living things which are fundamentally different from those derived from nonliving substances (inorganic matter). It was believed that living things posses a “vital force” which is absent in nonliving things. By the early nineteenth century, advances in chemical techniques had led to the isolation and discovery of an increasing number of organic molecules from living biological organisms. These included amino acids such as asparagine (isolated from asparagus in 1806), cysteine (extracted in 1810 from urinary calculi), leucine (1819, from fermenting cheese), and glycine (1820, from gelatin), fatty acids (1823), proteins (1838), DNA (1869, from yeast nuclei), and the nucleic acid bases guanine (1882), thymine (1883), adenine (1886), cytosine (1894), and uracil (1900) as well as deoxyribose (1909). These and other organic molecules represent the building blocks of life.

At the same time, it was commonly and firmly believed by many chemists that these molecules could only be produced by living organisms. While inorganic matter could be produced in the laboratory by chemical means, scientists thought organic matter could not be synthesized from inorganic matter because it lacked the “vital force”. Although the form of this “vital force” was never precisely described or defined, it was believed to be electrical in nature and involved in the rearrangement of molecular structures. In 1823, Friedrich Wöhler (1800–1882) heated an inorganic salt ammonium cyanate (NH4NCO) and turned it into urea [(NH2)2CO], an organic compound isolated from urine. Although ammonium cyanate and urea are made up of the same atoms, their molecular structures are different. This experiment suggested that it was possible to convert an inorganic molecule into an organic one by artificial means, without the magic of “vitalism”. This was the beginning of the disappearance of the concept of “vital force” from the scientific arena.