Physics of Matter E-Book

George C. King

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: The Manchester Physics Series
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 904

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023

Beschreibung

Physics of Matter First year core course introductory textbook on the nature of matter that puts the physics before mathematical description Physics of Matter is an introductory textbook on the nature of matter, based on a description of gases, liquids, liquid crystals and solids in terms of the forces that bind atoms and molecules together and their thermal motion, that discusses the relationship of these phases of matter to heat and the basic principles of thermodynamics. Physics of Matter is unique in its coverage of material and includes topics that have become important in recent times such as graphene and liquid crystals. Material in the book is reinforced by numerous worked examples in the text and problems and solutions at the end of each chapter, the latter ranging in difficulty from simple exercises to challenging problems. The emphasis is on clarity of exposition and explanation, putting the physics before the mathematical with general physical principles that can be more widely applied being stressed. Published in the Manchester Physics Series, which has the reputation of providing insight, depth, and often details on a subject not found in other textbooks, sample topics covered in Physics of Matter include: * Characteristics of atoms (sizes and masses) and Avogadro's number, the forces that bind atoms and molecules together, and the Lennard-Jones potential * Thermal energy, temperature, and the Boltzmann law, covering equations of state, the ideal gas equation, and equipartition of energy * Kinetic theory and transport properties of gases, covering molecular collisions, pressure of an ideal gas, the mean free path and diffusion * Real gases, including Van der Waals equation of state, virial expansion, critical constants, and heat capacities * Reversible processes, entropy, the Carnot cycle, the thermodynamic fundamental relationship, and Gibbs free energy * Solids, including crystal structure, elastic moduli and Einstein's model of heat capacity * Liquids, including liquid flow and Bernoulli's equation, and liquid crystals Physics of Matter is a valuable learning resource for first- and second-year students in physics, chemistry, and engineering, as well as those in adjacent science courses including environmental and biological sciences. The book is written for the subject traditionally called "Properties of Matter."

Leseprobe

The Manchester Physics Series

General Editors

J.R. FORSHAW, H.F. GLEESON, F.K. LOEBINGER

School of Physics and Astronomy,University of Manchester

Properties of Matter

B.H. Flowers and E. Mendoza

Statistical Physics

Second Edition

F. Mandl

Electromagnetism

Second Edition

I.S. Grant and W.R. Phillips

Statistics

R.J. Barlow

Solid State Physics

J.R. Hook and H.E. Hall

Second Edition

Quantum Mechanics

F. Mandl

Computing for Scientists

R.J. Barlow and A.R. Barnett

The Physics of Stars

Second Edition

A.C. Phillips

Nuclear Physics

J.S. Lilley

Introduction to Quantum Mechanics

A.C. Phillips

Dynamics and Relativity

J.R. Forshaw and A.G. Smith

Vibrations and Waves

G.C. King

Mathematics for Physicists

B.R. Martin and G. Shaw

Particle Physics

Fourth Edition

B.R. Martin and G. Shaw

Physics of Energy Sources

G.C. King

Physics of Matter

George C. King

School of Physics and AstronomyUniversity of Manchester

United Kingdom

This edition first published 2023© 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

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The right of George C. King to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data applied for:

Paper Back ISBN: 9781119468585ePDF ISBN: 9781119468592epub ISBN: 9781119468523

Cover Design: WileyCover Image: Courtesy of Ingo Dierking and George C. King

To my wife Michele

Editors' preface to the Manchester Physics Series

The Manchester Physics Series is a set of textbooks at first degree level. It grew out of the experience at the University of Manchester, widely shared elsewhere, that many textbooks contain much more material than can be accommodated in a typical undergraduate course; and that this material is only rarely so arranged as to allow the definition of a short self‐contained course. The plan for this series was to produce short books so that lecturers would find them attractive for undergraduate courses, and so that students would not be frightened off by their encyclopaedic size or price. To achieve this, we have been very selective in the choice of topics, with the emphasis on the basic physics together with some instructive, stimulating and useful applications.

Although these books were conceived as a series, each of them is self‐contained and can be used independently of the others. Several of them are suitable for wider use in other sciences. Each Author’s Preface gives details about the level, prerequisites, etc., of that volume.

The Manchester Physics Series has been very successful since its inception over 40 years ago, with total sales of more than a quarter of a million copies. We are extremely grateful to the many students and colleagues, at Manchester and elsewhere, for helpful criticisms and stimulating comments. Our particular thanks go to the authors for all the work they have done, for the many new ideas they have contributed, and for discussing patiently, and often accepting, the suggestions of the editors.

Finally we would like to thank our publishers, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., for their enthusiastic and continued commitment to the Manchester Physics Series.

J. R. Forshaw

H. F. Gleeson

F. K. Loebinger

June 2023

Author’s preface

One of the fundamental discoveries of science is that matter is composed of atoms and molecules. The book describes the nature of matter in terms of these particles and the forces that bind them together. It aims to show how the microscopic properties of the particles can be related to the macroscopic properties of matter. The interatomic forces give rise to the potential energies of the atoms and molecules. These also have thermal energy, and a theme running through the book is the competition between these potential and thermal energies. Whichever dominates determines the state in which the matter exists – the gaseous, liquid, solid, or liquid crystalline state. These states of matter are the subjects of corresponding chapters of the book. The number of molecules involved in any amount of matter is extraordinarily large and, consequently, statistical methods must be used to describe their average behaviour. The book introduces students to these powerful theoretical methods and related concepts such as probability distributions, which are used in many branches of physical science and beyond. The book presents the kinetic theory of gases and its applications. Thus, a unified treatment of transport phenomena of viscosity, heat conduction, and self‐diffusion is presented. Classical thermodynamics provides a complementary description of the thermal properties of matter. The book presents the principles of thermodynamics and demonstrates their application. A connection is made between macroscopic quantities such as entropy and the statistical behaviour of the atoms and molecules. Modern experimental techniques provide the ability to ‘see’ atoms and to determine the structure of highly complex molecules such as biological molecules. Where appropriate, these experimental techniques are described.

The book is based on an introductory 24‐lecture course given by the author at the University of Manchester. Chapters on the first and second laws of physics and liquid crystals have been added. The course was attended by first‐ and second‐year undergraduate students taking physics or a joint honours degree course with physics but the book should also be useful to students in chemistry and engineering. Basic knowledge of differentiation and integration is assumed and simple differential equations are used, while undue mathematical complication and detail are avoided.

The organisation of the book is as follows. Chapter 1 deals with the basic properties of atoms, such as their mass and size. The Bohr theory of the atom is described. Although this is a classical model, it can, within certain limits, make useful predictions about atomic energy levels. This chapter also gives an introduction to the quantum mechanical description of atoms. Chapter 2 deals with the forces that bind atoms together and various types of bonding. The general characteristics of atomic forces are discussed and the potential energy between two atoms is described in terms of the Lennard‐Jones 6–12 potential. This chapter also gives a first discussion of why matter takes gaseous, liquid, or solid form. Chapter 3 discusses the thermal energy of atoms and molecules including the ideal gas law. It introduces the concept of probability distributions. The law of Boltzmann is described and various examples of its use are discussed including the Maxwell–Boltzmann speed distribution and the isothermal atmosphere. The theorem of the equipartition of energy is introduced and applied to various microscopic and macroscopic systems. This leads to a discussion of the specific heat of gases and the breakdown of the classical theory of specific heats. Chapter 4 introduces and develops the kinetic theory of gases. It shows how this theory, based on molecular collisions and the mean free path of the molecules, describes various transport phenomena such as the diffusion, thermal conduction, and viscosity of gases. This leads to a more general discussion of the random walk problem. Chapter 5 extends the discussion of ideal gases to real gases. In particular, the van der Waals equation and the virial equation are described, which take account of the finite size of molecules and the interatomic forces of attraction. This leads naturally to a discussion of the phase diagram of a substance. In contrast to the first five chapters, Chapters 6 and 7 take a macroscopic view of matter, i.e. the complementary treatment provided by classical thermodynamics. Chapter 6 deals with the first law of thermodynamics. The relationship between heat and work is discussed, and the concept of internal energy is introduced. Various reversible and irreversible processes are analysed including the expansion and compression of a gas under various conditions. In this chapter, the molar specific heats of an ideal gas are obtained and the concept of enthalpy is introduced. Chapter 7 deals with the second law of thermodynamics. Heat engines and the ideal Carnot engine are discussed along with refrigerators and heat pumps. This naturally leads to a discussion of entropy and various reversible and irreversible processes are described in terms of the change in entropy. The fundamental thermodynamic relationship is presented and phase changes are discussed in terms of the Clausius–Clapeyron equation. The concept and application of Gibbs free energy are also described. Maxwell’s relations are obtained and a statistical approach to the second law is presented. In Chapter 8, attention is turned to the solid state of matter. Various types of crystal structures are described and the classification of crystal structure in terms of a crystal lattice, unit cell, and basis is presented. Bragg’s law is obtained and various experimental techniques of X‐ray crystallography are described along with the complimentary technique of neutron scattering. The macroscopic properties of solids, heat of sublimation, surface energy, and thermal expansion are described in terms of the interatomic forces. Chapter 9 deals with the elastic moduli of solids: Young’s modulus, shear modulus, and bulk modulus and also Poisson’s ratio. Connections between the three moduli are established, and the relationship between elastic moduli and interatomic forces is obtained. Torsional stress and strain are also described. Chapter 10 describes the thermal and transport properties of solids. In particular, the Einstein model of specific heat of solids is presented. The transport properties of diffusion, thermal, and electrical conductivities are also discussed. Chapter 11 deals with the physical properties of liquids, including the latent heat of evaporation, vapour pressure surface energy, and diffusion. It describes the flow of ideal liquids including the continuity equation and Bernoulli’s equation and also the viscous flow of real liquids. Finally, Chapter 12 deals with the liquid crystal phase of matter. The physical features of the liquid crystal phase are described together with various types of liquid crystals. Practical liquid crystal devices usually exploit the birefringence of the liquid crystal material and the polarisation properties of light, and so, these topics are also included.

Worked examples are provided in the text. In addition, each chapter is accompanied by a set of problems that form an important part of the book. These have been designed to deepen the understanding of the reader and develop their skill and self‐confidence in the use of physics. Hints and solutions to these problems are given at the end of the book. It is, of course, beneficial for the reader to try to solve the problems before consulting the solutions.

I am particularly indebted to Fred Loebinger who was my editor throughout the writing of the book. He read the manuscript with great care and physical insight and made numerous valuable comments and suggestions. I am grateful to the editors of the Manchester Physics Series for helpful suggestions regarding the content of the book and to Jenny Cossham, Martin Preuss, and Lesley Fenske of Wiley for their valuable assistance. I am grateful to Helen Gleeson for her comments and suggestions regarding the chapter on liquid crystals and to my wife, Michele Siggel‐King for her encouragement and patience throughout the writing of the book.

George C. King

June 2023