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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Offers a comprehensive, accessible introduction to experimental design, field monitoring skills for plants and animals, data analysis, interpretation and reporting
This user-friendly book presents field monitoring skills for both plants and animals, within the context of a research project. This text provides a single resource to take the reader all the way through from the planning stage, into the field, guiding through sampling, organism identification, computer-based data analysis and interpretation, and finally how to present the results to maximise the impact of the work. Logically structured throughout, and revised extensively in the second edition, the book concentrates on the techniques required to design a field-based ecological survey and shows how to execute an appropriate sampling regime. It evaluates appropriate sampling and analytical methods, identifying potential problems associated with various techniques and how to mitigate these.
The second edition of this popular text has updated reference material and weblinks, increased the number of case studies by 50% to illustrate the use of specific techniques in the field, added over 20% more figures (including 8 colour plates), and made more extensive use of footnotes to provide extra details. Extensions to topics covered in the first edition include additional discussion of: ethical issues; statistical methods (sample size estimation, use of the statistical package R, mixed models); bioindicators, especially for freshwater pollution; seeds, fecundity and population dynamics including static and dynamic life tables; forestry techniques including tree coring and tree mortality calculations; the use of data repositories; writing for a journal and producing poster and oral presentations. In addition, the use of new and emerging technologies has been a particular focus, including mobile apps for environmental monitoring and identification; land cover and GIS; the use of drones including legal frameworks and codes of practice; molecular field techniques including DNA analysis in the field (including eDNA); photo-matching for identifying individuals; camera trapping; modern techniques for detecting and analysing bat echolocation calls; and data storage using the cloud.
Divided into six distinct chapters, Practical Field Ecology, 2nd Edition begins at project inception with a chapter on planning—covering health and safety, along with guidance on how to ensure that the sampling and experimental design is suitable for subsequent statistical analysis. Following a chapter dealing with site characterisation and general aspects of species identification, subsequent chapters describe the techniques used to survey and census particular groups of organisms. The final chapters cover analysing, interpreting and presenting data, and writing up the research.
- Offers a readable and approachable integrated guide devoted to field-based research projects
- Takes students from the planning stage, into the field, and clearly guides them through organism identification in the laboratory and computer-based data analysis, interpretation and data presentation
- Includes a chapter on how to write project reports and present findings in a variety of formats to differing audiences
Aimed at undergraduates taking courses in Ecology, Biology, Geography, and Environmental Science, Practical Field Ecology, 2nd Edition will also benefit postgraduates seeking to support their projects.
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Table of Contents
Cover
List of Tables
List of Figures
List of Boxes
List of Case Studies
List of Plates
Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the First Edition
Acknowledgements
About the Companion Website
1 Preparation
Choosing a topic for study
Ecological research questions
Creating aims, objectives, and hypotheses
Reviewing the literature
Practical considerations
Statistical considerations in project design
Choosing sampling methods
Summary
2 Monitoring Site Characteristics
Site selection
Site characterisation
3 Sampling Plants and Other Static Organisms
Sampling for static organisms
Quadrat sampling
Pin‐frames
Transects
Plotless sampling
Distribution of static organisms
Forestry techniques
4 Sampling Mobile Organisms
General issues
Invertebrates
Capturing aquatic invertebrates
Capturing soil‐living invertebrates
Capturing ground‐active invertebrates
Capturing invertebrates from plants
Capturing airborne invertebrates
Fish
Amphibians
Reptiles
Birds
Mammals
5 Analysing and Interpreting Information
Keys to tests
Exploring and describing data
Testing hypotheses using basic statistical tests and simple general linear models
More advanced general linear models for predictive analysis
Generalized linear models
Statistical methods to examine pattern and structure in communities: classification, indicator species, and ordination
6 Presenting Information
Written reports
Writing style
Computer files
Specific guidance for writing for a journal
Specific guidance for preparing a poster
Specific guidance for preparing an oral presentation
Summary
Appendix 1Glossary of Statistical Terms
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Example timescales for a short research project.
Table 1.2 Random numbers. Coordinates can be extracted simply by taking pairs...
Table 1.3 Common statistical tests. Note that in each case, there are possibl...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Common factors influencing living organisms.
Table 2.2 Types of bioindicators for monitoring environmental conditions.
Table 2.3 Range of taxa used as bioindicators.
Table 2.4 Major taxonomic groups.
Table 2.5 Major divisions of the Raunkiær plant life‐form system.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 DAFOR, Braun–Blanquet, and Domin scales for vegetation cover.
Table 3.2 Abundance (ESACFORN) scales for littoral species.
Table 3.3 Recommended quadrat sizes for various organisms.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Some considerations in the choice of radio‐tracking equipment.
Table 4.2 Summary of killing and preservation techniques for commonly studied...
Table 4.3 Factors to consider when using pitfall traps.
Table 4.4 Examples of baits and target insect groups.
Table 4.5 Factors to consider when choosing light traps to collect moths.
Table 4.6 Summary of different types of net.
Table 4.7 Example of timed species counts. Using 12 surveys, each of 1 hour (...
Table 4.8 Comparison of bat detector systems.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Abundance of invertebrates in ponds. Percentages in parentheses may...
Table 5.2 Summary of commonly used methods of population estimation based on ...
Table 5.3 Common diversity and evenness indices.
Table 5.4 Commonly used similarity measures.
Table 5.5 Statistics that should be reported for difference tests. These are ...
Table 5.6 Statistics that should be reported for relationship tests. These ar...
Table 5.7 Statistics that should be recorded for tests used to examine associ...
Table 5.8 Using dummy variables. Example of how two dummy variables (large/no...
Table 5.9 A spider indicator species analysis. The respective overall indicat...
Table 5.10 Types of stress measure for computing MDS solutions.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Mean number of individuals
a)
of invertebrate orders found in pollut...
Table 6.2 Uses of different types of graphs.
Table 6.3 Examples of words used unnecessarily when qualifying terms.
Table 6.4 SI units of measurement. To standardise the units in which measurem...
Table 6.5 Conventions for the use of abbreviations.
Table 6.6 Examples of Latin and foreign words and their emphasis.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1
Flowchart of the planning considerations for research projects
.
Figure 1.2
Example timescales for a medium‐term research project
. Note...
Figure 1.3
Example of a section of a data recording sheet for an investigati
...
Figure 1.4
Examples of sampling designs
. (a) Random sampling; (b) systematic...
Figure 1.5
Experimental layouts for five different treatments
. (a) Clustered...
Figure 1.6
Data set approximating to a normal distribution
.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1
Phase 1 habitat map
. In the UK, Phase 1 habitat surveys involve ma...
Figure 2.2
Portable weather station
. Many automated weather stations will au...
Figure 2.3
Maximum/minimum thermometer
. As the temperature rises, the alcoho...
Figure 2.4
Types of thermometers
. Old style soil thermometers like the one s...
Figure 2.5
Whirling hygrometer
. This is also called a psychrometer and consi...
Figure 2.6
Anemometers
. (a) Cup anemometer – the device is held in the wind ...
Figure 2.7
Environmental multimeter
.
Figure 2.8
Penetrometer
. Comprises a gauge and a small cone connected to a r...
Figure 2.9
Soil augers
. (a) Soil gouge auger, core‐removing tool, and mallet...
Figure 2.10
Bulb planters
. Gardeners' bulb planters can be used to take core...
Figure 2.11
Aquatic multimeters
. These can be used to measure the physico‐ch...
Figure 2.12
Secchi disk
. This is a circular disk of 0.2–0.3 m diameter, colo...
Figure 2.13
Dynamometer to measure wave action
. As waves drag the ball, the ...
Figure 2.14
Light meters
. (a) Light, or lux, meters such this can give an in...
Figure 2.15
Using ranging poles to measure the inclination of a slope
. Rangi...
Figure 2.16
Using a cross‐staff to survey a shoreline
.
Figure 2.17
Using a GPS
. GPS can be used to estimate location and/or altitud...
Figure 2.18
Lichen zone scale for mean winter sulphur dioxide estimation on
...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1
Quadrats
. From left to right – subdivided wire quadrat (with pin‐...
Figure 3.2
Recording positions on a subdivided quadrat
. Nine cords are set a...
Figure 3.3
JNCC guideline usage of SACFOR
scales
. (a) Scales used for organis...
Figure 3.4
Two nested quadrat designs
. In (a) the area sampled and the total...
Figure 3.5
Using random numbers to identify a position in a sampling grid
. E...
Figure 3.6
Comparison of the perimeter to area ratios of circular, square, a
...
Figure 3.7
Pin‐frame
. From left to right: used on its own, used with a...
Figure 3.8
Comparison of transect sampling techniques
.
Figure 3.9
Kite diagram to indicate the abundance of different species along
...
Figure 3.10
Using a clinometer
. The angle from the horizontal to the top of...
Figure 3.11
Tree coring
. Atlas Cedar (
Cedrus atlantica
), being cored in Mor...
Figure 3.12
Estimating canopy cover
. Using a 10 × 10 grid on top of picture...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1
Observation and marking chambers for invertebrates
. Invertebrates...
Figure 4.2
Use of ink or paint spots to identify individual invertebrates
. U...
Figure 4.3
Differences in rhino horn shape and size that can be used to iden
...
Figure 4.4
Survivorship curves
. Where: l
x
is the number surviving to a parti...
Figure 4.5
‘W’ shaped transect walk
. Similar designs using ‘M’ s...
Figure 4.6
Parabolic reflector
concentrating sound onto the central micropho
...
Figure 4.7
Pond nets
suitable for catching surface, pelagic, and bottom acti
...
Figure 4.8
Belleville mosquito larvae sampler
. The cylinder (without the fun...
Figure 4.9
Using a kick net
and sorting the sample
.
Figure 4.10
Kick screen or banner net
. Ensure that the bottom net is as clos...
Figure 4.11
Surber sampler
.
Figure 4.12
Hess sampler
.
Figure 4.13
Drift net
. Weights (dark spheres shown in the diagram on the lef...
Figure 4.14
Plankton net
. When the net is towed (a) or suspended (b) in the ...
Figure 4.15
Suction sampler
for animals in burrows
.
Figure 4.16
Naturalist's dredge
. The mouth of this net is made of metal ...
Figure 4.17
Grabs
for collecting benthic animals
. (a) Ekman grab with a remo...
Figure 4.18
The Baermann funnel
. A small sample is wrapped in muslin and pla...
Figure 4.19
Bidlingmayer sand extractor
. The sample is spread over the base ...
Figure 4.20
Colonisation samplers
. (a) Hester–Dendy multi‐plate samplers are...
Figure 4.21
Crayfish traps
. The funnel entrances allow the animals to enter ...
Figure 4.22
Crayfish refuge trap
. The steel base frame can be pegged into th...
Figure 4.23
Soil sieves
. (a) Gardener's soil sieve for separating coarse fra...
Figure 4.24
Tullgren funnels
. The soil core or leaf litter should be dried s...
Figure 4.25
Kempson bowl extractor
. The sample is placed between two grids, ...
Figure 4.26
Winkler sampler
. Samples may be dry‐sieved first using a fairly ...
Figure 4.27
Simple inclined tray light separator
. As the sample dries out, a...
Figure 4.28
Baited pitfall trap
.
Figure 4.29
Setting pitfall traps
.
Figure 4.30
Barriers used with pitfall trap
s
. (a) Two or more traps can be ...
Figure 4.31
Birds
‐eye view of an H‐trap
. Barriers are made in t...
Figure 4.32
Ramp trap
. More sophisticated versions can have a ramp on each s...
Figure 4.33
Suction sampler
s
. (a) and (b) G‐vac based on a modified garden ...
Figure 4.34
Emergence traps
. (a) Emergence traps that do not have a floor ca...
Figure 4.35
Pooter
used to suck up small invertebrates
. (a) Pooter (aspirato...
Figure 4.36
Sweep net
and sweep netting invertebrates from a bush
. Sweeping ...
Figure 4.37
Beating
tray
s
. (a) Black and white versions and (b) in use beat...
Figure 4.38
Fogging
in rainforest
. The fogging illustrated was undertaken in...
Figure 4.39
Nets for catching airborne insects
. (a) Types of nets: (from lef...
Figure 4.40
Rothamsted suction traps
. From left to right: Rothamsted pop‐up ...
Figure 4.41
Positioning of sticky traps
.
Figure 4.42
Bottle trap
for flies and other flying insects
. These can be mad...
Figure 4.43
Attractant‐based traps
. (a) Funnel trap; (b) Delta trap. (...
Figure 4.44
Assembly trap
. Virgin females are placed within the mesh contain...
Figure 4.45
Trap‐nests for bees and wasps
.
Figure 4.46
Window trap
. Animals hit the window – made of Perspex or netting...
Figure 4.47
Malaise trap
. Flies, wasps, and other insects hit the centre par...
Figure 4.48
Slam trap
. (a) Flying insects hit one of the four netting vanes ...
Figure 4.49
Simple light trap
s for insects
. (a) Moths accumulating around a...
Figure 4.50
Moth collection tent
. Moths attracted to the light hanging in th...
Figure 4.51
Examples of moth trap
s
. (a) Rothamsted trap with mains‐run 200‐...
Figure 4.52
Different types of light used for moth trap
s
. From left to righ...
Figure 4.53
Rotary trap
.
Figure 4.54
Water
traps
. (a) Coloured water (pan) traps. (b) Trap with lid a...
Figure 4.55
Slurp gun
. The nozzle can be added or removed depending on the s...
Figure 4.56
Using snorkel and scuba gear to observe fish.
Note: snorkelling ...
Figure 4.57
Sport fishing techniques
. (a) Spear gun; (b) coastal fishing usi...
Figure 4.58
Examples of nets and traps
. (a) Casting a net into shallow coast...
Figure 4.59
Bottle trap
for newts
. Cut a plastic bottle in half and insert t...
Figure 4.60
Drift fence
with side‐flap bucket trap
. Animals move along...
Figure 4.61
Funnel traps for amphibians
. The funnel entrances help to retain...
Figure 4.62
Examples of layouts for drift fencing
. (a) Ring fencing a pond: ...
Figure 4.63
Artificial cover trap
for amphibians
. The trap is set in a suita...
Figure 4.64
Concrete housing for a camera trap
. This design was used in a ju...
Figure 4.65
Equipment for catching reptiles at a distance
. (a) Grabber; (b) ...
Figure 4.66
Refuges as traps for reptiles
. (a) Refuge trap – from left to ri...
Figure 4.67
Measuring captured birds
. (a) Tarsus length; (b) mass.
Figure 4.68
Permanent bird hide
.
Figure 4.69
Bird observation tower
. (a) Observation tower; (b) view over the...
Figure 4.70
Transect layout for Breeding Bird Survey
. Birds are counted from...
Figure 4.71
Goose droppings surveyed using a quadrat
. To survey bird droppin...
Figure 4.72
Mist net
ting
. (a) mist nets set; (b) greenfinch caught in net; ...
Figure 4.73
Propelled nets
. (a) Clap net set. (b) Clap net launched. The net...
Figure 4.74
Marking
birds
. (a) Using a standard metal ring; (b) using colour...
Figure 4.75
Use of colour rings
. Here, 15 individual birds have been marked ...
Figure 4.76
Deer becoming aware of the observer's presence
.
Figure 4.77
Images caught using camera trap
s in tropical forest
. (a) Tapir;...
Figure 4.78
Small mammal tracking tunnel
.
Figure 4.79
Mammal dung used as an indicator of species presence
. (a) Hyena ...
Figure 4.80
Sampling mammal hair
. (a) Badger hair and (b) sheep wool caught ...
Figure 4.81
Bat detector
s
. (a) Range of detectors – two heterodyne detector...
Figure 4.82
Triangle bat walks with frequency settings appropriate for UK ba
...
Figure 4.83
Small mammal traps
. (a) Aluminium Longworth trap; (b) plastic Tr...
Figure 4.84
Longworth trap
for small to medium sized mammals
.
Figure 4.85
Poison bait
dispenser
. Used more in conservation work to remove ...
Figure 4.86
Mole traps
. (a) Classic scissor trap. (b) Talpex type trap (prof...
Figure 4.87
Harp trap
.
Figure 4.88
Cage trap
. (a) and (b) medium sized cage trap; (c) cage traps su...
Figure 4.89
Badger trap
. (a) Trap from front; (b) trap set in undergrowth.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1
Transformations for skewed distributions
. The block arrows indica...
Figure 5.2
Truncation of percentage data
.
Figure 5.3
Bimodal distribution
.
Figure 5.4
Scatterplot of number of bird species found in urban parks with d
...
Figure 5.5
Pie diagram
of the numbers of invertebrates of common orders foun
...
Figure 5.6
Stacked bar graph of the percentage composition of invertebrates
...
Figure 5.7
Clustered bar graph of the number of invertebrates of common orde
...
Figure 5.8
The mean and standard deviation plotted on a data set that approx
...
Figure 5.9
Comparison of different ways of displaying the variation around t
...
Figure 5.10
Box and whisker plots
indicating different ways of displaying me
...
Figure 5.11
Du Feu estimates plotted against number of animals caught
. Popul...
Figure 5.12
Using capture removal to estimate population sizes
. The calculat...
Figure 5.13
Comparison of the central tendency of two samples
. (a) non‐overl...
Figure 5.14
Summary of stages in using inferential statistics
.
Figure 5.15
Example of a scatterplot
. Showing the hypothetical relationship ...
Figure 5.16
Trends of invertebrate numbers with organic pollution
.
Figure 5.17
Regression
line
between the number of aphids found at different
...
Figure 5.18
Examples of common non‐linear graph types in ecology
. (a) ...
Figure 5.19
A canonical variates analysis (CVA)
of spiders across three mana
...
Figure 5.20
Types of cluster analysis
.
Figure 5.21
Dendrogram
following cluster analysis of different habitat types
Figure 5.22
TWINSPAN
of quarry sites on the basis of their component plant s
...
Figure 5.23
Ordination
of a number of quarry sites on the basis of their com
...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1
Two formats for research report presentation
. Use informative hea...
Figure 6.2
Study site in the Nordkette mountains, Austria, showing the steep
...
Figure 6.3
Presenting graphs
. (a) Scatterplot; (b) bar chart. Note that in b...
Figure 6.4
Examples of poster layouts
. (a) Is a very uninspiring design for ...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
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Practical Field Ecology
C. Philip Wheater
Manchester Metropolitan UniversityManchesterUK, M1 5GD
Penny A. Cook
University of SalfordSalford, UK, M5 4WT
James R. Bell
Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, AL5 2JQ, UK /Manchester Metropolitan University, ManchesterUK, M1 5GD
Second Edition
This edition first published 2020
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Edition History
Wiley (1e, 2011)
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Wheater, C. Philip, 1956‐ author. | Cook, Penny A., 1971‐ author. |
Bell, James R., 1969‐ author.
Title: Practical field ecology / C. Philip Wheater, Penny A. Cook, James R. Bell.
Description: Second edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley‐Blackwell, 2020. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019034790 (print) | LCCN 2019034791 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119413226 (paperback) | ISBN 9781119413233 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119413240 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Ecology–Research–Methodology. | Ecology–Fieldwork.
Classification: LCC QH541.2 .W54 2020 (print) | LCC QH541.2 (ebook) | DDC
577.072–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019034790
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019034791
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Images: 3D Color Bar © victorhe2002/Getty Images, Frog © Design Pics/Corey Hochachka/Getty Images, Mouse © Graham Codd/EyeEm/Getty Images, Ladybird © Jacky Parker Photography/Getty Images, Cropped Hand Of Person Holding Magnifying Glass © Prakasit Khuansuwan/EyeEm/Getty Images, Close‐Up Of Water Drops © Yuttasak Thongsan/EyeEm/Getty Images
Since the publication of the first edition, three highly skilled field scientists who gave generously of their time and expertise for the first edition of this book have sadly passed away. All three were expert ecologists and each influenced many generations of young scientists.
We would like to dedicate this second edition to our friends and colleagues: Mike Hounsome, Rob Strachan, and Derek Yalden.
List of Tables
Table 1.1
Example timescales for a short research project.
Table 1.2
Random numbers.
Table 1.3
Common statistical tests.
Table 2.1
Common factors influencing living organisms.
Table 2.2
Types of bioindicators for monitoring environmental conditions.
Table 2.3
Range of taxa used as bioindicators.
Table 2.4
Major taxonomic groups.
Table 2.5
Major divisions of the Raunkiær plant life‐form system.
Table 3.1
DAFOR, Braun–Blanquet, and Domin scales for vegetation cover.
Table 3.2
Abundance (ESACFORN) scales for littoral species.
Table 3.3
Recommended quadrat sizes for various organisms.
Table 4.1
Some considerations in the choice of radio‐tracking equipment.
Table 4.2
Summary of killing and preservation techniques for commonly studied invertebrates.
Table 4.3
Factors to consider when using pitfall traps.
Table 4.4
Examples of baits and target insect groups.
Table 4.5
Factors to consider when choosing light traps to collect moths.
Table 4.6
Summary of different types of net.
Table 4.7
Example of timed species counts.
Table 4.8
Comparison of bat detector systems.
Table 5.1
Abundance of invertebrates in ponds.
Table 5.2
Summary of commonly used methods of population estimation based on mark–release–recapture techniques.
Table 5.3
Common diversity and evenness indices.
Table 5.4
Commonly used similarity measures.
Table 5.5
Statistics that should be reported for difference tests.
Table 5.6
Statistics that should be reported for relationship tests.
Table 5.7
Statistics that should be recorded for tests used to examine associations between two frequency distributions.
Table 5.8
Using dummy variables.
Table 5.9
A spider indicator species analysis.
Table 5.10
Types of stress measure for computing MDS solutions.
Table 6.1
Mean number of individuals of invertebrate orders found in polluted and clean ponds.
Table 6.2
Uses of different types of graphs.
Table 6.3
Examples of words used unnecessarily when qualifying terms.
Table 6.4
SI units of measurement.
Table 6.5
Conventions for the use of abbreviations.
Table 6.6
Examples of Latin and foreign words and their emphasis.
List of Figures
Figure 1.1
Flowchart of the planning considerations for research projects.
Figure 1.2
Example timescales for a medium‐term research project.
Figure 1.3
Example of a section of a data recording sheet for an investigation into the distribution of woodland birds.
Figure 1.4
Examples of sampling designs.
Figure 1.5
Experimental layouts for five different treatments.
Figure 1.6
Data set approximating to a normal distribution.
Figure 2.1
Phase 1 habitat map.
Figure 2.2
Portable weather station.
Figure 2.3
Maximum/minimum thermometer.
Figure 2.4
Types of thermometers.
Figure 2.5
Whirling hygrometer.
Figure 2.6
Anemometers.
Figure 2.7
Environmental multimeter.
Figure 2.8
Penetrometer.
Figure 2.9
Soil augers.
Figure 2.10
Bulb planters.
Figure 2.11
Aquatic multimeters.
Figure 2.12
Secchi disk.
Figure 2.13
Dynamometer to measure wave action.
Figure 2.14
Light meters.
Figure 2.15
Using ranging poles to measure the inclination of a slope.
Figure 2.16
Using a cross‐staff to survey a shoreline.
Figure 2.17
Using a GPS.
Figure 2.18
Lichen zone scale for mean winter sulphur dioxide estimation on trees with moderately acidic bark in England and Wales.
Figure 3.1
Quadrats.
Figure 3.2
Recording positions on a subdivided quadrat.
Figure 3.3
JNCC guideline usage of SACFOR scales.
Figure 3.4
Two nested quadrat designs.
Figure 3.5
Using random numbers to identify a position in a sampling grid.
Figure 3.6
Comparison of the perimeter to area ratios of circular, square, and oblong quadrats.
Figure 3.7
Pin‐frame.
Figure 3.8
Comparison of transect sampling techniques.
Figure 3.9
Kite diagram to indicate the abundance of different species along a transect from the high water line.
Figure 3.10
Using a clinometer.
Figure 3.11
Tree coring.
Figure 3.12
Estimating canopy cover.
Figure 4.1
Observation and marking chambers for invertebrates.
Figure 4.2
Use of ink or paint spots to identify individual invertebrates.
Figure 4.3
Differences in rhino horn shape and size that can be used to identify individual animals.
Figure 4.4
Survivorship curves.
Figure 4.5
‘W’ shaped transect walk.
Figure 4.6
Parabolic reflector concentrating sound onto the central microphone.
Figure 4.7
Pond nets suitable for catching surface, pelagic, and bottom active invertebrates.
Figure 4.8
Belleville mosquito larvae sampler.
Figure 4.9
Using a kick net and sorting the sample.
Figure 4.10
Kick screen or banner net.
Figure 4.11
Surber sampler.
Figure 4.12
Hess sampler.
Figure 4.13
Drift net.
Figure 4.14
Plankton net.
Figure 4.15
Suction sampler for animals in burrows.
Figure 4.16
Naturalist's dredge.
Figure 4.17
Grabs for collecting benthic animals.
Figure 4.18
The Baermann funnel.
Figure 4.19
Bidlingmayer sand extractor.
Figure 4.20
Colonisation samplers.
Figure 4.21
Crayfish traps.
Figure 4.22
Crayfish refuge trap.
Figure 4.23
Soil sieves.
Figure 4.24
Tullgren funnels.
Figure 4.25
Kempson bowl extractor.
Figure 4.26
Winkler sampler.
Figure 4.27
Simple inclined tray light separator.
Figure 4.28
Baited pitfall trap.
Figure 4.29
Setting pitfall traps.
Figure 4.30
Barriers used with pitfall traps.
Figure 4.31
Birds‐eye view of an H trap.
Figure 4.32
Ramp trap.
Figure 4.33
Suction samplers.
Figure 4.34
Emergence traps.
Figure 4.35
Pooter used to suck up small invertebrates.
Figure 4.36
Sweep net and sweep netting invertebrates from a bush.
Figure 4.37
Beating trays.
Figure 4.38
Fogging in rainforest.
Figure 4.39
Nets for catching airborne insects.
Figure 4.40
Rothamsted suction traps.
Figure 4.41
Positioning of sticky traps.
Figure 4.42
Bottle trap for flies and other flying insects.
Figure 4.43
Attractant‐based traps.
Figure 4.44
Assembly trap.
Figure 4.45
Trap‐nests for bees and wasps.
Figure 4.46
Window trap.
Figure 4.47
Malaise trap.
Figure 4.48
Slam trap.
Figure 4.49
Simple light traps for insects.
Figure 4.50
Moth collection tent.
Figure 4.51
Examples of moth traps.
Figure 4.52
Different types of light used for moth traps.
Figure 4.53
Rotary trap.
Figure 4.54
Water traps.
Figure 4.55
Slurp gun.
Figure 4.56
Using snorkel and scuba gear to observe fish.
Figure 4.57
Sport fishing techniques.
Figure 4.58
Examples of nets and traps.
Figure 4.59
Bottle trap for newts.
Figure 4.60
Drift fence with side‐flap bucket trap.
Figure 4.61
Funnel traps for amphibians.
Figure 4.62
Examples of layouts for drift fencing.
Figure 4.63
Artificial cover trap for amphibians.
Figure 4.64
Concrete housing for a camera trap.
Figure 4.65
Equipment for catching reptiles at a distance.
Figure 4.66
Refuges as traps for reptiles.
Figure 4.67
Measuring captured birds.
Figure 4.68
Permanent bird hide.
Figure 4.69
Bird observation tower.
Figure 4.70
Transect layout for Breeding Bird Survey.
Figure 4.71
Goose droppings surveyed using a quadrat.
Figure 4.72
Mist netting.
Figure 4.73
Propelled nets.
Figure 4.74
Marking birds.
Figure 4.75
Use of colour rings.
Figure 4.76
Deer becoming aware of the observer's presence.
Figure 4.77
Images caught using camera traps in tropical forest.
Figure 4.78
Small mammal tracking tunnel.
Figure 4.79
Mammal dung used as an indicator of species presence.
Figure 4.80
Sampling mammal hair.
Figure 4.81
Bat detectors.
Figure 4.82
Triangle bat walks with frequency settings appropriate for UK bats.
Figure 4.83
Small mammal traps.
Figure 4.84
Longworth trap for small to medium sized mammals.
Figure 4.85
Poison bait dispenser.
Figure 4.86
Mole traps.
Figure 4.87
Harp trap.
Figure 4.88
Cage trap.
Figure 4.89
Badger trap.
Figure 5.1
Transformations for skewed distributions.
Figure 5.2
Truncation of percentage data.
Figure 5.3
Bimodal distribution.
Figure 5.4
Scatterplot of number of bird species found in urban parks with differing habitat diversities.
Figure 5.5
Pie diagram of the numbers of invertebrates of common orders found in clean ponds.
Figure 5.6
Stacked bar graph of the percentage composition of invertebrates of common orders found in clean ponds.
Figure 5.7
Clustered bar graph of the number of invertebrates of common orders found in clean ponds.
Figure 5.8
The mean and standard deviation plotted on a data set that approximates to a normal distribution.
Figure 5.9
Comparison of different ways of displaying the variation around the mean using point charts.
Figure 5.10
Box and whisker plots indicating different ways of displaying median and quartile data.
Figure 5.11
Du Feu estimates plotted against number of animals caught.
Figure 5.12
Using capture removal to estimate population sizes.
Figure 5.13
Comparison of the central tendency of two samples.
Figure 5.14
Summary of stages in using inferential statistics.
Figure 5.15
Example of a scatterplot.
Figure 5.16
Trends of invertebrate numbers with organic pollution.
Figure 5.17
Regression line between the number of aphids found at different levels of pirimicarb (pesticide) application.
Figure 5.18
Examples of common non‐linear graph types in ecology.
Figure 5.19
A canonical variates analysis (CVA) of spiders across three management treatments.
Figure 5.20
Types of cluster analysis.
Figure 5.21
Dendrogram following cluster analysis of different habitat types.
Figure 5.22
TWINSPAN of quarry sites on the basis of their component plant species.
Figure 5.23
Ordination of a number of quarry sites on the basis of their component plant species.
Figure 6.1
Two formats for research report presentation.
Figure 6.2
Study site in the Nordkette mountains, Austria, showing the steep‐sided slopes to the north.
Figure 6.3
Presenting graphs.
Figure 6.4
Examples of poster layouts.
List of Boxes
Box 1.1
Some sources of ecology projects
Box 1.2
Suggested minimum equipment required for fieldwork
Box 1.3
Keeping a field notebook
Box 1.4
Some tips on time management
Box 1.5
Differences between interval and ratio data
Box 1.6
Terms used in sampling theory
Box 1.7
Aspects to be considered when determining the sample size
Box 1.8
Species accumulation curves for two sites
Box 1.9
Checklist for field research planning
Box 2.1
Notes on the resources available for the National Vegetation Classification (NVC)
Box 2.2
Examples of vegetation classification systems
Box 2.3
An example of a code of practice for the use of drones
Box 2.4
Calculations of soil moisture and organic contents
Box 2.5
Measurements of freshwater invertebrates used in habitat quality and pollution monitoring
Box 2.6
Examples of identification guides for British insects
Box 3.1
Calculating population and density estimates from counts of static organisms
Box 3.2
Techniques used to identify and count microbial diversity
Box 3.3
Commonly used plotless sampling methods
Box 3.4
Describing the distribution of static organisms using quadrat‐based methods
Box 3.5
Describing the distribution of static organisms using T‐square sampling methods
Box 4.1
Avoiding problems in behavioural studies
Box 4.2
Butterfly census method
Box 4.3
Calculating the density of flying insects from census walks
Box 4.4
Taking account of missing traps
Box 4.5
Common birds census for territory mapping
Box 4.6
Restrictions on handling birds
Box 5.1
A note of caution about the examples used in this chapter
Box 5.2
Some commonly used statistical software
Box 5.3
Important terms used in the keys
Box 5.4
Some suggested statistical texts
Box 5.5
The Peterson (Lincoln index) method of population estimation
Box 5.6
Testing for significance when carrying out multiple tests
Box 5.7
Multiple comparison tests
Box 5.8
Using a contingency table in frequency analysis
Box 5.9
Analysis of covariance
Box 5.10
Using classification tables in predictive discriminant function analysis
Box 5.11
Generalized linear model: a worked example using a binomial regression
Box 5.12
Generalized additive model (GAM)
Box 5.13
Distance measurements
Box 5.14
Use of ANOSIM
Box 5.15
Examples of agglomerative clustering methods
Box 5.16
Using principal components analysis for data compression
Box 5.17
Using principal components analysis to produce biplots
Box 5.18
Example of distance placement using MDS.
Box 5.19
Techniques for comparing ordinations and matrix data
Box 5.20
Example of use of canonical correspondence analysis
Box 6.1
Citing works using the Harvard system
Box 6.2
Reference lists using the Harvard system
Box 6.3
Commonly misused words
List of Case Studies
Case Study 1.1
The development of a novel net for sampling bats emerging from tree roosts
Case Study 1.2
Processing and transporting marine microbes from one of the most remote places on earth
Case Study 1.3
Monitoring dung beetle richness in East Africa
Case Study 2.1
Proximal sensing from lightweight drones
Case Study 3.1
The Park Grass experiment
Case Study 3.2
Studying tree growth and condition
Case Study 4.1
Using DNA metabarcoding to analyse the gut contents of spiders
Case Study 4.2
Cracking the chemical code in mandrills
Case Study 4.3
Barnacle larva trap
Case Study 4.4
Tarantula distribution and behaviour
Case Study 4.5
Stream invertebrates
Case Study 4.6
Collecting insects in Costa Rica
Case Study 4.7
Butterfly life cycles
Case Study 4.8
The birds and the bees
Case Study 4.9
Constructing low‐cost moth traps
Case Study 4.10
Lake fish populations
Case Study 4.11
Breeding behaviour of neotropical tree frogs
Case Study 4.12
Reptile diet
Case Study 4.13
Counting parrots
Case Study 4.14
Bat conservation ecology
Case Study 6.1
Poster presentation
List of Plates
Plate 1
A land cover map of Greater Manchester combining digitised and remotely‐sensed data with detail on an area of South Manchester (inset)
Plate 2
Environmental monitoring apps
Plate 3
Examples of smartphone apps for species identification
Plate 4
Alignment of sequences from several common terrestrial invertebrate orders at the sites of the original COI barcoding primers
Plate 5
Bird markets
Plate 6
Bird feeders
Plate 7
Dormouse nest box
Plate 8
Example of poster presentation
Preface to the Second Edition
Ecology is a rapidly evolving subject, not least in the techniques available to the field ecologist. Since the publication of our first edition of this project guide, advances have been made in several areas, most notably those that take advantage of modern technological developments. Whilst field ecologists have always sought to invent new methods and improve existing ones for monitoring plants and animals, new mobile technologies increasingly enable the tools for identification and verification of organisms to be literally in a researcher's back pocket. Similar advances in mobile phone apps have facilitated environmental monitoring, which has the potential to reduce the amount of equipment the researcher has to carry and perhaps go some way to providing standardisation of monitoring tools. There has been continued refinement of previously laboratory‐based techniques that provide access to information more cheaply and immediately in the field where once we would have had to take samples back to sophisticated laboratories for analysis. Further developments in other technologies have opened up new and exciting opportunities to survey our environment (in the case of drone technology, the sky is literally the limit!). As these developments bed in, it is appropriate to review the tools available to field researchers.
We have extended this second edition to cover a wider range of methods, with a special focus on more recent developments, emphasising the direction of travel of modern field ecology. Following positive feedback from many students and colleagues, we have increased the number of case studies, which demonstrate the realities of working in the field. Developments have also been made recently in the analysis of ecological data, and this is reflected in a broader coverage of some of the more accessible techniques and available software. Since communication of scientific results is highly relevant in today's confusing mix of fact and opinion, we have also expanded our coverage of presentation skills to include publishing in scientific journals and presentation at conferences.
We have been privileged to have had expert advice and constructive criticism from a large number of experts who, in addition to the input to the first edition of this book, have reviewed the plans and implementation of the second edition, provided case studies and photographs, read and commented on individual sections, and generally encouraged us in our endeavours.
Preface to the First Edition
This handbook is designed as a guide to planning and executing an ecological research project and is intended as a companion to preparing a dissertation, report, thesis, or research paper. The idea for the book arose from many years spent in the field sampling animals and plants, as students ourselves, or later when leading groups of undergraduate or postgraduate students. In so doing, it was clear that there was a need for a book to cover all aspects of planning, implementing, and presenting an ecological research project. Much of the content of this text has been developed from teaching materials we have used over the years in one form or another, refined following discussions with colleagues and the students who used them. We have included those methods that should be accessible to an undergraduate or taught postgraduate student at a university or college. We have purposely tended to avoid devoting too much space to highly technical methods or those techniques that require the user to have a licence. However, we have mentioned some such techniques that generate data sets that may be made available for student projects.
Our experience is that many students develop an interest in a particular group of organisms, sometimes describing themselves as a birder, entomologist, or badger watcher. Rarely, one finds a student principally interested in a particular habitat; this is normally secondary and is often defined by the group under study. Consequently, although we have ordered the sampling chapters by the mobility of the organisms, within the chapter on sampling mobile animals, we have dealt separately with each group of organism under study. We have attempted to take the reader through all the stages in conducting a research project starting from finding a topic on which to do a research project; turning the idea into a provisional title and research question (i.e. the aims); thinking about how to achieve the aims (these are the objectives); and then deciding on the methods to be used. The book then summarises key methodological approaches used by ecologists in the field. The intention has been to cover core, well‐tested, and robust methods relevant to sampling animals and plants in terrestrial and most aquatic habitats, including sandy and rocky shores. Due to additional health and safety requirements and the highly technical nature of off‐shore sampling methods, we stopped short of including these techniques in the book.
This book is not just about the activities associated with field sampling. We felt that it was important to take researchers right through to the end of their project. Many of the more technical hurdles occur once the data has been collected. Ecological research frequently generates complex data sets that require statistical analysis to aid interpretation. There is a need for students to understand the range of methods available to explore and analyse their data and to understand what types of data they need to collect in order to use particular techniques. Frequently, students ask us how they should go about finding and using key references, and how to interpret their own data in the light of current research. Consequently, we also give tips on presentation and writing style. Most research projects are completed in a fairly restricted timescale, therefore we include guidelines for time management during the project. We hope that this text will both encourage and support students in engaging in the fascinating world of ecological research.
Acknowledgements
It would be difficult to find any field biologist who had enough experience to write about sampling animals and plants without contributions from fellow ecologists. We would like to thank all those who were generous with both their time and expertise:
Amanda Arnold (Queen Mary's University, London) advised on aquatic invertebrates;
Joanna Bagniewska, Sandra Baker, Hannah Dugdale, and Stephen Ellwood (WildCRU, University of Oxford) gave advice on survey techniques for mammals;
Katherine Boughey and the Bat Conservation Trust gave advice on monitoring bats;
Philip Briggs (Bat Conservation Trust) provided helpful discussions on bats;
Mary Brierley, David Groom, and Sue Hutchinson (Manchester Metropolitan University – MMU) helped with technical details and supplied equipment for many of the images;
Dave Brooks (Rothamsted Research) provided material on CCA;
Paul Chipman (MMU) contributed to mammal sampling and statistics;
Suzanne Clark, John Cussans and Sue Welham (Rothamsted Research) advised on mixed effects models;
Rod Cullen (MMU) discussed sampling invertebrates;
Cathy Delaney (MMU) advised on soil sampling;
Mike Dobson (Freshwater Biological Association) advised on aquatic invertebrates;
Mark Elgar (University of Melbourne) commented on the proposal for the book;
Alan Fielding (MMU) advised on
Chapter 5
;
Chris Goldspink (MMU) advised on fish sampling;
Mark Grantham, David Leech, Rob Robinson (BTO) supplied information on birds;
Ed Harris (MMU) advised on sampling amphibians and reptiles;
Paul Hart (Leicester University) supplied information on electrofishing;
Øyvind Hammer (Paleontological Museum, University of Oslo) discussed applications within the PAST software package;
Martin Hartup (Burnham Beeches) provided information on, and practical experience of, reptile sampling;
Alison Haughton (Rothamsted Research) provided internet information, alerted us to the less obvious information sources, and contributed to
Chapter 6
;
Mike Hounsome (University of Manchester) advised on bird sampling and statistics;
Martin Jones and Stuart Marsden (MMU) advised on bird sampling;
Jonathan Lageard (MMU) advised on tree coring;
Mark Langan (MMU) commented on
Chapter 1
and provided information on aquatic invertebrate sampling and statistics;
Les May (MMU) provided guidelines on field notebooks and advised on sampling using animal sounds;
Jacqui Morrison (MMU) advised on camera trapping;
Ed Mountford (JNCC) contributed towards the forest techniques section, especially mensuration;
Richard Preziosi (University of Manchester/MMU) commented on the proposal for the book and discussed various sampling and statistical methods;
Liz Price (MMU) helped with plant sampling;
Helen Read (Burnham Beeches) advised on
Chapters 1
–
3
;
Ian Rotherham (Sheffield Hallam University) commented on the proposal for the book;
Robin Sen (MMU) advised on microbial techniques;
Emma Shaw (MMU) advised on sampling and monitoring spiders;
Rob Sheldon (RSPB) was helpful when preparing the bird section;
Dave Shuker (University of Edinburgh) commented on the proposal for the book;
Richard Small and David Wilkinson (Liverpool John Moores University) commented on the proposal for the book and on
Chapters 1
–
3
;
Graham Smith (MMU) advised on GIS and remote sensing;
Nigel Stork (University of Melbourne) provided information on fogging;
Rob Strachan (Environment Agency for Wales) gave insights into less well‐known survey techniques for mammals;
Michelle Tobin (University of Hull) commented on the proposal for the book;
Derek Yalden (University of Manchester) advised on mammal sampling.
Our appreciation to all those who wrote case studies:
Henry Andrews, Katharine Clayton, Oliver Haines, and Thomas Hamilton Koch (Bat Tree Habitat Key Project – BTHKP) and Steaphan Hazell (NHBS) – bat tree‐roost net;
Karen Anderson (University of Exeter) – lightweight drones;
Amanda Arnold (Queen Mary University of London) – aquatic invertebrates;
Chris Bennett (Rothamsted Research) – plants;
Dan Blumgart (Rothamsted Research and Lancaster University) – moth traps;
David Brown (University of Cardiff) – snakes;
Friederike Clever (MMU) – coral reef fish poster;
Jordan Cuff (Cardiff University) – DNA metabarcoding;
Robin Curtis (University of Exeter) – butterflies;
Jenny Jacobs (Rothamsted Research) – bees;
Vicky Larcombe (née Oglivy) (Froglife) – tree frogs;
Erica McAlister (Natural History Museum, London) – insects;
Stuart Marsden (MMU) – parrots;
Helen Read (Burnham Beeches) – trees;
Jo Setchell (University of Durham) – mandrills;
Emma Shaw (MMU) – tarantulas;
Roisin Stanbrook (University of Central Florida) – dung beetles;
Christopher Todd (University of St Andrews) – barnacles;
Gareth Williams (Bangor University) – marine microbes;
Ian Winfield (CEH, Lancaster) – fish;
Matt Zeale (University of Bristol) – bats.
Thanks to the Ordnance Survey for permission to use the map fragment in Figure 2.1. All images are used with permission and are marked with the appropriate initials (e.g. JRB – James Bell, PAC – Penny Cook, and CPW – Philip Wheater). The Park Grass photograph is courtesy of Rothamsted Research (RRES). In addition to those mentioned above who supplied images as part of their case studies, we thank the following for supplying images:
Sandra Baker (SB); Friederike Clever (FJC); Fraser Combe (FC) Sam Cook (SC); Matthew Dennis (MD); Mike Dobson (MKD); Hannah Dugdale (HD); Mike Edwards (ME); Paul Higginbottom (PH); Jonathan Lageard (JGAL);
Mark Langan (AML); Mark Mallott (MM); Sharon Matola (SM); Kelly Reynolds (KR); Miira Riipinen (MR); Rob Robinson (RAR); Emma Shaw (ES); Chris Shortall (CS); Nigel Stork (NES); Rob Strachan (RS).
A huge thanks to all those generations of students and colleagues on many a field course, expedition, or research trip who commented on the early and developing ideas behind this book, discussed the merits of particular techniques, the ways in which to introduce the information to students, and the intelligibility (or otherwise) of the handouts and other teaching materials from which this text derives. JRB would like to thank Ian Denholm for his support and members of PIE for their varied contributions. Finally, thanks to all of those who have supported us and suffered during the writing of this book. CPW and PAC would particularly like to thank Abhishek Kumar, Charlotte, and Henry. JRB is especially grateful to his family and to his friends at Rothamsted for their support.
About the Companion Website
Don't forget to visit the companion website for this book:
www.wiley.com/go/wheater/practicalfieldecology
There you will find valuable material designed to enhance your learning, including:
simple statistics package (FCStats) for use with ecological data
art work for each chapter
weblinks for each chapter
keys to surface active invertebrates
weblinks for each chapter (including many references).
Scan this QR code to visit the companion website.
1Preparation
For many students, honing their research skills is an important component of their academic development. However, inexperienced researchers can be naïve in their approach, and may even attempt highly complicated studies that have little chance of being completed in the time, and with the resources, available. This chapter describes the thought and preparation needed to plan your project, particularly how to formulate your ideas into something structured and workable before going out into the field. In your research, you will search for explanations or patterns, make comparisons, predictions and generalisations, and formulate theories. Research is not simply an exercise in information gathering. Rather, research is about asking questions that go beyond description and require analysis. Your research will be highly individual, and there are no set outcomes. You will form your own opinion, even if this disagrees with previous work. This is because progress in science results from the continual testing, review, and criticism of other researchers' work. Do not expect your research project to answer all your original questions. It is much more typical to find that research generates more questions than it answers. Research submitted for publication or for examination should show evidence of originality. Even if your research is not wholly original, it can show evidence of original thinking. Although the prospect of carrying out original research may seem rather daunting, providing you do not exactly copy someone else's experimental design, methods, sites, etc., your research is almost certainly going to be original. There are several ways in which work can be original:
Executing an entirely new piece of work (e.g. studying a plant or animal for which there is little or no information currently available).
Adding knowledge in a way that has not been previously done before. Many empirical studies do not develop new topics to study but instead advance their work with the use of original experimental designs, new statistical methods, etc. For example, new insights might be generated from exploring the ecology of an otherwise well‐studied animal at different sites to see whether a behaviour or food preference differs between locations.
By testing somebody else's idea, or by carrying out an established idea in a new area, new experimental subject, etc., or by using existing data to develop new interpretations.
Continuing an existing piece of work that is ongoing at your university or with a partner institution. For example, there are many long‐term experiments that invite students to participate in summer work. These opportunities can be symbiotic and provide both you and the scientist running the project with more data that could elucidate a mechanism or generate new hypotheses.
Originality may only be apparent in the breath of the study. Increasingly popular is ‘cross‐disciplinary’ science where, for example, soil scientists, botanists, and entomologists converge on a subject matter or site and work together to test an over‐arching hypothesis.
All research, whether taking place in the laboratory or field, needs careful planning. It is perhaps self‐evident that such planning should involve the correct use of equipment and choice of appropriate sampling methods and collection sites. In addition, a wide range of associated logistic, legal, and health and safety implications need to be considered. Although many of these issues are equally important in field or laboratory‐based investigations, field research may be more limited by time and other factors (access to sites, time of year, weather conditions) than is laboratory research. Thus, field study may need more careful consideration prior to implementation. Chapter 1 details some of the issues involved in planning and designing fieldwork, and culminates in a checklist that may help to prevent problems once research is implemented. Chapter 2 deals with the techniques required for monitoring sampling sites and measuring physical and chemical factors. Chapter 3 covers the methods used to sample static or relatively immobile organisms, whilst Chapter 4 extends this concept to studying mobile animals. The latter includes a consideration of monitoring behaviour and of dealing with both direct and indirect observations, as well as covering the trapping and marking of individual animals. In Chapter 5 we summarise a large number of different approaches suitable for the statistical analysis of ecological data. Finally, in Chapter 6 we cover how to present your results and produce appropriate reports, posters, and presentations.
Choosing a topic for study
The first stage of a research project is choosing a subject area in which to research (see Box 1.1 for a list of some texts that include ecological project ideas). As you will be devoting substantial time to your project, it is important to choose a topic that interests you. You may also wish to make your research relevant to your current or future employment. A variety of organisations – local, national, and international – may be able to help you identify an area of interest that is also of current relevance. Such organisations include local authorities and wildlife trusts, nature reserves, museums, and (inter)national bodies such as the RSPB, Plantlife, and WWF (Naturenet provides a list of some such organisations that may be able to help).1 Pick a topic of the right size: neither too big nor too small – typically the fieldwork component of most undergraduate projects are less than 6 weeks in length. Looking at successful previous projects may assist you in judging how much can be done in the available time (ask more experienced researchers for examples of good projects to look at). Finally, your proposed project has to be feasible; for example, in terms of equipment, access to sites, and realistic timescales. Once you have selected your subject and provisional title, be prepared to be flexible and, if necessary, to change direction. This may happen for a variety of reasons; for example, if a pilot study reveals a more interesting avenue for research, or if your original ideas turn out to be unfeasible. You should note that the planning process should involve a consideration of the whole project to enable you to identify and deal with any potential problems before they become major issues (see Figure 1.1). In all aspects, reading around the subject will allow you to use appropriate techniques, build on existing knowledge, and avoid reinventing the wheel. Inevitably, there can be logistical problems that influence your choice of site, or species, or otherwise prevent you from proceeding exactly as you would have wished. Although you can avoid many such problems by careful planning, there are some aspects that you will not think about until you implement the research. A pilot study will help to identify such issues and may allow you to refine the study in advance of full implementation. If you are unable to do a pilot study, at least try to explain your approach to someone who has spent time doing ecological fieldwork. They may highlight some obvious deficiencies. This is particularly useful for field trips abroad, which preclude a pilot and can be fraught with difficulty.
Figure 1.1Flowchart of the planning considerations for research projects.
Box 1.1 Some sources of ecology projects
There are a number of journal papers that list topics of interest in ecology and associated fields (e.g. Sutherland et al. 2006; Sutherland et al. 2009; Pretty et al. 2010; Sutherland et al. 2013). Even if the projects themselves are not of direct interest, they may inspire other project work since there is plenty of debate stemming from these papers on a variety of blogs and forums.
Natural England has a list of research ideas on their national nature reserves https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/research-opportunities-on-national-nature-reserves-in-england
There are many other resources
