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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
A new edition of this practical approach to sampling, experimentation, and applications in the field of inductively coupled plasma spectrometry The second edition of Practical Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry discusses many of the significant developments in the field which have expanded inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectrometry from a useful optical emission spectroscopic technique for trace element analysis into a source for both atomic emission spectrometry and mass spectrometry, capable of detecting elements at sub-ppb (ng mL¯.1) levels with good accuracy and precision. Comprising nine chapters, this new edition has been fully revised and up-dated in each chapter. It contains information on everything you need to practically know about the different types of instrumentation as well as pre- and post-experimental aspects. Designed to be easily accessible, with a 'start-to-finish' approach, each chapter outlines the key practical aspects of a specific aspect of the topic. The author, a noted expert in the field, details specific applications of the techniques presented, including uses in environmental, food and industrial analysis. This edition: * Emphasizes the importance of health and safety; * Provides advanced information on sample preparation techniques; * Presents an updated chapter on inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry; * Features a new chapter on current and future development in ICP technology and one on practical trouble shooting and routine maintenance. Practical Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry offers a practical guide that can be used for undergraduate and graduate students in the broad discipline of analytical chemistry, which includes biomedical science, environmental science, food science and forensic science, in both distance and open learning situations. It also provides an excellent reference for those in postgraduate training in these fields.
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Table of Contents
Cover
About the Author
Preface
Acknowledgements
Acronyms, Abbreviations and Symbols
1 The Analytical Approach
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Essentials of Practical Work
1.3 Health and Safety
1.4 Units and Their Use
1.5 Significant Figures
1.6 Calibration and Quantitative Analysis
1.7 Making Notes of Practical Work and Observations
1.8 Data Analysis
1.9 Data Treatment
1.10 Data Quality
1.11 Data Interpretation and Context
1.12 Analytical Terms and Their Definitions
1.13 Summary
2 Sampling and Storage
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Sampling Soil
2.3 Sampling Water
2.4 Sampling Air
2.5 Sample Storage
2.6 Sample Preservation
2.7 Summary
3 Sample Preparation
Learning Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Aqueous Samples
3.3 Solid Samples
3.4 Extraction Procedures
3.5 Summary
Reference
3.A Extraction Reagents for Single Extraction Methods
3.B Extraction Reagents for the Sequential Extraction Method
3.C Extraction Reagents for the Unified Bioaccessibility Method
3.D Extraction Reagents for the In Vitro SELF
4 Sample Introduction
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Nebulizers
4.3 Spray Chambers and Desolvation Systems
4.4 Discrete Sample Introduction
4.5 Continuous Sample Introduction
4.6 Hydride and Cold‐Vapour Generation Techniques
4.7 Summary
References
5 The Inductively Coupled Plasma
Learning Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Radiofrequency Generators
5.3 Inductively Coupled Plasma Formation and Operation
5.4 Processes Within the ICP
5.5 Signal Processing and Instrument Control
5.6 Summary
References
6 Inductively Coupled Plasma–Atomic Emission Spectrometry
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Fundamentals of Spectroscopy
6.3 Plasma Spectroscopy
6.4 Spectrometers
6.5 Detectors
6.6 Interferences
6.7 Summary
References
7 Inductively Coupled Plasma–Mass Spectrometry
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Fundamentals of Mass Spectrometry
7.3 Inorganic Mass Spectrometry
7.4 Mass Spectrometers
7.5 Detectors
7.6 Interferences
7.7 Isotope Dilution Analysis
7.8 Summary
References
8 Inductively Coupled Plasma: Current and Future Developments
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Comparison of ICP–AES and ICP–MS
8.3 Applications
8.4 Current and Future Developments
8.5 Useful Resources
References
Further Reading
9 Inductively Coupled Plasma: Troubleshooting and Maintenance
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Diagnostic Issues
9.3 Tips to Reduce…
9.4 Tips to Improve…
9.5 How To …
9.6 What to do About…
9.7 Shut Down Procedure (At the End of the Day)
9.8 Regular Maintenance Schedule
The Periodic Table
SI Units and Physical Constants
SI Units
Physical Constants
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 An example Control of Substances Hazard to Health (COSHH) form.
Table 1.2 Examples of (a) Hazard
a)
and (b) Precautionary
b)
stateme...
Table 1.3 Risk matrix analysis
.
a)
Table 1.4 Some commonly used base SI units.
Table 1.5 Some commonly used derived SI units.
Table 1.6 Commonly used prefixes.
Table 1.7 Recording quantitative data for the analysis of lead by inductively co...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Examples of sample preservation techniques for metals.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Metal chelation extraction: pH dependence of APDC chelation.
Table 3.2 The common acids used for digestion of samples.
Table 3.3 Selected Certified Reference Materials for metal‐species determination...
Table 3.4 Arsenic compounds found in environmental samples.
Table 3.5 Selective‐extraction methods which are diagnostic of plant up...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 A brief history of atomic spectrometry (as related to ICP–AES and ICP–...
Table 5.2 Current commercial ICP–AES and ICP–MS instruments.
a)
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Comparison of the experimental configurations used for axially and rad...
Table 6.2 Diagnostic procedures used for axially and radially viewed ICP sources...
Table 6.3 Results obtained from the diagnostic tests carried out on axially and ...
Table 6.4 Limit of detection (LOD) and background equivalent concentration (BEC)...
Table 6.5 Analysis of two certified (standard) reference materials using axially...
Table 6.6 Comparison of the spectral features of a conventional diffraction grat...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Selected ionization energies (in eV) for a range of elements.
Table 7.2 Examples of the resolution required to separate ions of similar intens...
Table 7.3 Isobaric interferences from Period 4 of the Periodic Table.
Table 7.4 Potential polyatomic interferences derived from the element o...
Table 7.5 Fractional abundance, by weight, of lead.
Table 7.6 Isotope ratio results for Case Study 4.
Table 7.7 Isotopic composition of enriched
206
Pb ‘spike’.
Table 7.8 Relative abundances of selected naturally occurring isotopes ...
Table 7.9 Results from mass spectral interpretation.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Comparison of the performance of ICP–AES and ICP–MS.
Table 8.2 Detection limits for elements using atomic spectroscopic techniqu...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Calibration graphs. (a) a direct calibration graph an...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Potential contaminant distributions across a site.
Figure 2.2 A hand‐held auger (with options for three different sampling...
Figure 2.3 An illustration of a spring‐loaded water sampling device. ...
Figure 2.4 An example of a device used for the passive sampling of air....
Figure 2.5 A schematic diagram of an air sampling device (a) sorbent tu...
Figure 2.6 A schematic diagram of a high‐volume sampler for collection ...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Structure of ammonium pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (APDC). [
N
...
Figure 3.2 Preparation of a soil sample (a) grinding and sieving of a s...
Figure 3.3 Multiple‐sample digester (a) sample digester, (b) digestion ...
Figure 3.4 A typical microwave oven digestion system (a) microwave samp...
Figure 3.5 Alternate decomposition techniques (a) prepared soil sample ...
Figure 3.6 Schematic overview of single or sequential extraction protoc...
Figure 3.7 Overview of the sequential extraction method.
Figure 3.8 Schematic diagram of the CISED centrifuge tube arrangement. ...
Figure 3.9 A photograph of Calabash Chalk. (On the left‐hand side, unre...
Figure 3.10 Schematic layout of the human gastric‐intestinal system.
Figure 3.11 Schematic layout of the human lung system.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Schematic diagram for an autosampler sample presentation uni...
Figure 4.2 Selected common commercially available nebulizers.
Figure 4.3 Schematic diagram of the pneumatic concentric nebulizer.
Figure 4.4 Schematic diagram of the cross‐flow nebulizer.
Figure 4.5 Schematic diagram of the V‐groove, high solids nebulizer.
Figure 4.6 Schematic diagram of the ultrasonic nebulizer with desolvati...
Figure 4.7 Schematic diagram of a double‐pass spray chamber (Scott‐type...
Figure 4.8 A typical time–signal profile for ICP analysis: (a) sample i...
Figure 4.9 Schematic diagram of the cyclonic spray chamber: (a) side vi...
Figure 4.10 A schematic diagram of a pneumatic concentric nebulizer – c...
Figure 4.11 Schematic diagram of a single‐pass spray chamber (direct or...
Figure 4.12 A complete nebulizer/spray chamber arrangement
in situ
(for...
Figure 4.13 Schematic representation of laser ablation.
Figure 4.14 Schematic diagram of a LA–ICP system. [
Note
: With MS detect...
Figure 4.15 Effect of a Nd:YAG laser on the surfaces of (a) stainless s...
Figure 4.16 Components of a ‘sample alteration/modification’ module: (a...
Figure 4.17 A schematic diagram of an HPLC–ICP system. [
Note
: With MS d...
Figure 4.18 Typical derivatization reagents used for GC (a) silylation ...
Figure 4.19 An example of a gas–liquid separation device for hydride ge...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Schematic diagram of an inductively coupled plasma torch.
Figure 5.2 Schematic representation of the formation of an inductively ...
Figure 5.3 Axial (end‐on) viewed ICP with shear gas.
Figure 5.4 Comparison of the spectral features and background emission ...
Figure 5.5 Processes that occur when a sample droplet is introduction i...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 The electromagnetic spectrum.
Figure 6.2 Schematic representation of atomic absorption and atomic emi...
Figure 6.3 An energy‐level diagram for sodium.
Figure 6.4 Simplified energy‐level diagram for sodium.
Figure 6.5 Typical shape of a spectral line.
Figure 6.6 Schematic representations of the two viewing modes for ICPs:...
Figure 6.7 Schematic diagram of a blazed grating:
d
, distance between g...
Figure 6.8 Schematic diagram of the optical layout of a spectrometer th...
Figure 6.9 Schematic diagram of the optical layout of a spectrometer th...
Figure 6.10 Schematic diagram of an Echelle grating:
d
, distance betwee...
Figure 6.11 Schematic representation of the two‐dimensional dispersion ...
Figure 6.12 Spectral map generated by the Echelle spectrometer, using t...
Figure 6.13 Schematic diagram of the optical layout of the Echelle spec...
Figure 6.14 Schematic representation of the operation of a photomultipl...
Figure 6.15 Spectral responses of selected photocathode materials.
Figure 6.16 Schematic representation of the operation of a charged‐coup...
Figure 6.17 Different types of spectral interferences: (a) spectral ove...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Resolution, as defined in mass spectrometry.
Figure 7.2 A schematic diagram of an inductively coupled plasma–mass sp...
Figure 7.3 Mass spectra of lead isotopes, showing their relative abunda...
Figure 7.4 Modelling the inductively coupled plasma temperature at the ...
Figure 7.5 Schematic diagram of the inductively coupled plasma–mass spe...
Figure 7.6 Schematic arrangement of the quadrupole analyser arrangement...
Figure 7.7 Different methods of data acquisition (scanning modes) emplo...
Figure 7.8 Schematic diagrams of the layout of high‐resolution mass spe...
Figure 7.9 Resolution achievable using a sector‐field mass spectrometer...
Figure 7.10 Schematic representation of (a) ICP–tandem mass spectromete...
Figure 7.11 Schematic representation of the operating principles for th...
Figure 7.12 Schematic representation of the principle of overcoming spe...
Figure 7.13 An example of the principle of overcoming spectral interfer...
Figure 7.14 Schematic representation of the operation of an ion‐trap ma...
Figure 7.15 Schematic diagram of the layout of a time‐of‐flight mass sp...
Figure 7.16 Overview of ICP–MS technologies.
Figure 7.17 Detectors for mass spectrometry: (a) a discrete‐dynode elec...
Figure 7.18 Mass spectra of isotopes of lead: (a) normal isotopic lead;...
Figure 7.19 Set of mass spectra for peak identification.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Photochemical vapour generation for ICP [1]. [
Notes
:
Figure 8.2 Schematic diagram of a (a) flow Blurring nebulizer an...
Figure 8.3 An electrothermal vaporization (ETV) sample introduct...
Figure 8.4 A significant development in ICP–MS to eliminate inte...
Figure 8.5 Developments in speciation studies because of innovat...
Figure 8.6 Schematic diagram of a commercial ICP–ToF–MS [6]. [
No
...
Figure 8.7 Synchronous vertical dual‐view of a commercial ICP–AE...
Figure 8.8 The main developmental stages in the growth of ICP te...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
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Practical Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry
Second Edition
John R. Dean
Northumbria UniversityNewcastle-upon-TyneUnited Kingdom
Copyright
This edition first published 2019
© 2019 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Edition History
Practical Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry, First Edition, Wiley 2005.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of John R. Dean to be identified as the author of this work is asserted in accordance with law.
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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty
In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of experimental reagents, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each chemical, piece of equipment, reagent, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data applied for
ISBN: 9781119478683
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: Courtesy of John R Dean
Dedication
This book is dedicated to my wife, Lynne and our two now grown-up children, Sam and Naomi, and our newest family member, Harris, the border terrier.
Each of you is pursuing your own goals and ambitions.
About the Author
John R. Dean DSc, PhD, DIC, MSc, BSc, FRSC, CChem, CSci, PFHEA
Since 2004, John R. Dean has been Professor of Analytical and Environmental Sciences at Northumbria University where he is also currently Head of Subject in Analytical Sciences, which covers all Chemistry and Forensic Science Programmes. His research is both diverse and informed, covering such topics as the development of novel methods to investigate the influence and risk of metals and persistent organic compounds in environmental and biological matrices, to development of new chromatographic methods for environmental and biological samples using gas chromatography and ion mobility spectrometry and development of novel approaches for pathogenic bacterial detection/identification. Much of the work is directly supported by industry and other external sponsors.
He has published extensively (over 200 papers, book chapters and books) in analytical and environmental science. He has also supervised over 30 PhD students.
John remains an active member of the Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) and serves on several of its committee's including Analytical Division Council, Committee for Accreditation and Validation of Chemistry Degrees, Research Mobility Grant committee and is the International Coordinator for the Schools' Analyst Competition.
After a first degree in Chemistry at the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST), this was followed by an MSc in Analytical Chemistry and Instrumentation at Loughborough University of Technology, and finally a PhD and DIC in Physical Chemistry at the Imperial College of Science and Technology (University of London). He then spent two years as a postdoctoral research fellow at the Government Food Laboratory in Norwich. In 1988, he was appointed to a lectureship in Inorganic/Analytical Chemistry at Newcastle Polytechnic (now Northumbria University) where he has remained ever since.
In his spare time John is an active canoeist; he holds performance (UKCC level 3) coach awards in open canoe and white water kayak. In 2012, he was awarded an ‘outstanding contribution’ award by the British Canoe Union.
Preface
The technique of inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectrometry has expanded and diversified in the form of a mini‐revolution over the past 55 years. What was essentially an optical emission spectroscopic technique for trace element analysis has expanded into a source for both atomic emission spectrometry and mass spectrometry, capable of detecting elements at sub‐ppb (ng ml−1) levels with good accuracy and precision. Modern instruments have also shrunk in physical size, but expanded in terms of their analytical capabilities, reflecting the significant developments in both optical and semiconductor technology. Each of the nine chapters takes a particular aspect of the holistic field of ICP and outlines the key practical aspects.
In Chapter 1, information is outlined with regard to the general methodology for trace elemental analysis. This includes specific guidance on the potential contamination problems that can arise in trace elemental analysis, the basics of health and safety in the field and workplace and the practical aspects of recording a risk assessment. The focus of the chapter then moves to the numerical aspects of the topic with sections on units and appropriate assignment of the number of significant figures. Quantitative analysis requires an understanding and application of calibration graph plotting and interpretation. Numerical exercises involving the calculation of dilution factors and their use in determining original concentrations in aqueous and solid samples are provided as worked examples. Finally, the concept of quality assurance is introduced, together with the role of certified reference materials in trace element analysis.
Chapter 2 focuses on the specific area of sampling, sample storage and preservation techniques. Initially, however, the generic concepts of effective sampling are highlighted and contextualized. This is then followed by specific details on the sampling of soil, water and air. The major factors affecting sample storage are then addressed as well as practical remedies for the storage of sample. Finally, the possibilities for sample preservation are highlighted.
Chapter 3 considers the diverse of sample preparation strategies that have been adopted to introduce samples in to an ICP. These include the sample preparation approaches for the elemental analysis of metals/metalloids from solid and aqueous samples. The first part of this chapter is concerned with methods for the extraction of metal ions from aqueous samples. Emphasis is placed on liquid–liquid extraction, with reference to both ion‐exchange and co‐precipitation. The second part of this chapter is focused on the methods available for converting a solid sample into the appropriate form for elemental analysis. The most popular methods are based on acid digestion of the solid matrix, using either a microwave oven or a hot‐plate approach. In addition, details are provided about the methods available for the selective extraction of metal species in soil studies using either single extraction, sequential extraction procedures or non‐specific extraction. Finally, the role of in vitro simulated gastro intestinal and epithelial lung extraction procedures for estimated bioaccessibility are described.
Chapter 4 explores the different approaches available for the introduction of samples into an ICP. While the most common approach uses the generic nebulizer/spray chamber arrangement, the choice of which nebulizer and/or spray chamber requires an understanding of the principle of operation and the benefits of each design. Alternative approaches for discrete sample introduction are also discussed, including laser ablation while continuous sample introduction methods consider the coupling of flow injection and chromatography. Finally, opportunities for introducing gaseous forms of metals/metalloids using hydride generation and/or cold vapour techniques are discussed.
Chapter 5 describes the principle of operation of an ICP and the role of the radio frequency generator. The concept of viewing position is also introduced where it is of importance in atomic emission spectrometry where the plasma can be viewed either laterally or axially. In addition, the basic processes that occur within an ICP when a sample is introduced are discussed. Finally, a brief outline of the necessary signal processing and instrument control required for a modern instrument are presented.
Chapter 6 concentrates on the fundamental and practical aspects of inductively coupled plasma‐atomic emission spectrometry (ICP–AES). After an initial discussion of the fundamentals of spectroscopy as related to atomic emission spectrometry, this chapter then focuses on the practical aspects of spectrometer design and detection. The ability to measure elemental information sequentially or simultaneously is discussed in terms of spectrometer design. Advances in detector technology, in terms of charge‐transfer technology, are also highlighted in the context of ICP–AES.
Chapter 7 describes the fundamental and practical aspects of inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (ICP–MS). After an initial discussion of the fundamentals of mass spectrometry, this chapter then focuses on the types of mass spectrometer and variety of detectors available for ICP–MS. The occurrence of isobaric and molecular interferences in ICP–MS is highlighted, along with suggested remedies. Of particular note is a discussion of collision and reaction cells in ICP–MS. Emphasis is also placed on the capability of ICP–MS to perform quantitative analysis using isotope dilution analysis (IDA).
Chapter 8 focuses on the current and future developments in ICP technology. After an initial comparison of ICP–AES and ICP–MS, the chapter considers the diversity of applications to which the technology has been applied. Finally, examples have been selected that highlight current and future developments for the ICP, in ICP–AES and ICP–MS. Some useful laboratory templates are also provided. This chapter concludes with guidance on the range of resources available to assist in the understanding of ICP technology and its application to trace element analysis.
Finally, Chapter 9 provides practical guidance on troubleshooting problems commonly encountered in the running of an ICP system. The chapter concludes by providing guidance on the maintenance schedule for maintaining an efficient and functioning ICP system.
John R. Dean
Northumbria University, Newcastle, UK
Acknowledgements
This present text includes material that has previously appeared in several of the author’s earlier books; that is, Atomic Absorption and Plasma Spectroscopy (ACOL Series, 1997), Methods for Environmental Trace Analysis (AnTS Series, 2003), Practical Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectroscopy (AnTS Series, 2005), Bioavailability, Bioaccessibility and Mobility of Environmental Contaminants (AnTS, 2007), Extraction Techniques in Analytical Sciences (AnTS, 2009) and Environmental Trace Analysis: Techniques and Applications (2014), all published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester, UK. The author is grateful to the copyright holders for granting permission to reproduce figures and tables from his two earlier publications.
In addition, the following are acknowledged.
Table 1.1 An example Control of Substances Hazardous to Health form. Reprinted with permission of Dr Graeme Turnbull, Northumbria University.
Figure 2.3 An illustration of a spring‐loaded water sampling device. Reprinted with permission of Dynamic Aqua‐Supply Ltd, Canada.http://www.dynamicaqua.com/watersamplers.html
Figure 2.6 A schematic diagram of a high‐volume sampler for collection of total suspended particulates. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution‐ShareAlike 4.0 License. © CC BY 4.0 AU, Queensland Government, Australia.
https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/pollution/monitoring/air‐pollution/samplers
Figure 3.11 Schematic layout of the human lungs system. Reproduced with permission of Humanbodyanatomy.co.
https://humanbodyanatomy.co/human‐lungs‐diagram/human‐lungs‐diagram‐pictures‐human‐lungs‐diagram‐labeled‐human‐anatomy‐diagram/
Figure 4.1 Schematic diagram for an autosampler sample presentation unit for ICP technology. Reproduced with permission of Elemental Scientific, Nebraska, USA.
http://www.icpms.com/products/brinefast‐S4.php
Figure 4.2 Selected common commercially available nebulizers. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution‐ShareAlike 4.0 License. © CC BY‐SA 4.0, Burgener Research Inc.
Figure 4.10 A schematic diagram of a pneumatic concentric nebulizer – cyclonic spray chamber arrangement. Reproduced with permission of ThermoFisher.com.https://www.thermofisher.com/de/en/home/industrial/spectroscopy‐elemental‐isotope‐analysis/spectroscopy‐elemental‐isotope‐analysis‐learning‐center/trace‐elemental‐analysis‐tea‐information/inductively‐coupled‐plasma‐mass‐spectrometry‐icp‐ms‐information/icp‐ms‐sample‐preparation.html
Figure 4.14 Schematic diagram of a laser ablation (LA) – ICP system. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier. Gunther, D., Hattendorf, B., Trends in Analytical Chemistry 24(3), (2015) 255–265.
Figure 4.17 A Schematic diagram of an HPLC ‐ ICP system. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier. Delafiori, J., Ring, G., and Furey, A., Talanta 153, (2016) 306–331.
Figure 6.14 Schematic representation of the operation of a photomultiplier tube. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley and Sons Ltd., Chichester. Hou, X. and Jones, B.T., Inductively coupled plasma / optical emission spectrometry. Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry, Meyers, R.A. (Ed.), pp. 9468–9485.
Figure 6.16 Schematic representation of the operation of a charged‐coupled device. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley and Sons Ltd., Chichester. Hou, X. and Jones, B.T., Inductively coupled plasma / optical emission spectrometry. Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry, Meyers, R.A. (Ed.), pp. 9468–9485.
Figure 7.4 Modeling the inductively coupled plasma temperature at the ICP‐MS interface [5]. Reproduced with permission of the RSC. Bogaerts, A., Aghaei, M., J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 32, 233–261 (2017).
Figure 7.8 Schematic diagrams of the layout of high‐resolution mass spectrometers for inductively coupled plasma (a) high resolution ICP‐MS (HR‐ICP‐MS), sector field ICP‐MS (SF‐ICP‐MS) or double‐focusing ICP‐MS (DF‐ICP‐MS) (e.g. a reverse geometry double‐focusing magnetic sector MS), (b) ICP‐tandem mass spectrometer (triple quadrupole ICP‐MS or ICP‐QQQ), and (c) multiple collector ICP‐MS (MC‐ICP‐MS).
(a) Reproduced with permission of the RSC. Moldovan, M., Krupp, E.M., Holliday, A.E., Donard, O.F.X., J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 19, 815–822 (2004).
(b) Reproduced with permission of the RSC.
(c) Reproduced with permission of the Journal of Geostandards and Geoanalysis. Rehkamper, M., Schonbachler, M., and Stirling, C., Geostandards Newsletter, 25(1), 23–40 (2000).
Figure 7.10 Schematic representation of (a) ICP‐tandem mass spectrometer (triple quadrupole ICP‐MS or ICP‐QQQ) and (b) its operating modes [11]. Reproduced with permission of the RSC. Bolea‐Fernandez, E., Balcaen, L., Resano, M., and Vanhaecke, F., J. Anal. Atom. Spectrom., 32, 1660–1679 (2017).
Figure 7.11 Schematic representation of the operating principles for the different scanning options available for a ICP‐tandem mass spectrometer (triple quadrupole ICP‐MS or ICP‐QQQ). (a) Product ion scan, (b) precursor ion scan, and (c) neutral mass gain scan [11]. Reproduced with permission of the RSC. Bolea‐Fernandez, E., Balcaen, L., Resano, M., and Vanhaecke, F., J. Anal. Atom. Spectrom., 32, 1660–1679 (2017).
Figure 7.12 Schematic representation of the principle of overcoming spectral interferences for a ICP‐tandem mass spectrometer (triple quadrupole ICP‐MS or ICP‐QQQ). (a) On‐mass approach, (b) mass‐shift approach (1), and (c) mass‐shift approach (2) [11]. Reproduced with permission of the RSC. Bolea‐Fernandez, E., Balcaen, L., Resano, M., and Vanhaecke, F., J. Anal. Atom. Spectrom., 32, 1660–1679 (2017).
Figure 7.13 An example of the principle of overcoming spectral interferences for a ICP‐tandem mass spectrometer (triple quadrupole ICP‐MS or ICP‐QQQ) for the spectral free determination of 80Se operated in MS/MS mode using both the (a) on‐mass approach, and (b) mass‐shift approach [11]. Reproduced with permission of the RSC. Bolea‐Fernandez, E., Balcaen, L., Resano, M., and Vanhaecke, F., J. Anal. Atom. Spectrom., 32, 1660–1679 (2017).
Figure 7.17 Detectors for mass spectrometry: (a) a discrete dynode electron multiplier tube (EMT): mode of operation, (b) a continuous dynode (or channel) EMT: mode of operation, and (c) Faraday cup detector: mode of its operation. (c) Reproduced with permission from ThermoFisher Scientfic. https://www.thermofisher.com/uk/en/home/industrial/spectroscopy‐elemental‐isotope‐analysis/spectroscopy‐elemental‐isotope‐analysis‐learning‐center/trace‐elemental‐analysis‐tea‐information/inductively‐coupled‐plasma‐mass‐spectrometry‐icp‐ms‐information/icp‐ms‐systems‐technologies.html.
Figure 8.1 Photochemical vapour generation for ICP [1]. Reproduced with permission of RSC. Sturgeon, R.E., J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 32, 2319–2340 (2017).
Figure 8.2 Schematic diagram of a (a) Flow Blurring® nebulizer and (b) its mode of operation. Reproduced with permission of Agilent com. https://www.agilent.com/en/products/mp‐aes/mp‐aes‐supplies/mp‐aes‐oneneb‐series‐2‐nebulizer.
Figure 8.3 Electrothermal vaporization (ETV) sample introduction device for an ICP [5]. Reproduced with permission of RSC. Hassler, J., Barth, P., Richter, S. and Matschat, R., J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 26, 2404–2418 (2011).
Figure 8.6 Schematic diagram of a commercial ICP‐ToF‐MS [6]. Reproduced with permission of RSC. Hendriks, L., Gundlach‐Graham, A., Hattendorf, B. and Gunther, D., J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 32, 548–561 (2017).
Figure 8.7 Synchronous vertical dual‐view of a commercial ICP‐AES [7]. Reproduced with permission of RSC. Donati, G.L., Amais, R.S. and Williams, C.B., J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 32, 1283–1296 (2017).
Acronyms, Abbreviations and Symbols
A
r
relative atomic mass
AC
alternating current
ACS
American Chemical Society
A/D
analogue‐to‐digital
AES
atomic emission spectrometry
ANOVA
analysis of variance
APDC
ammonium pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate
BEC
background equivalent concentration
C
coulomb
CCD
charge‐coupled device; central composite design
CID
charge‐injection device
COSHH
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (Regulations)
CoV
coefficient of variation
CRM
Certified Reference Material
CTD
charge‐transfer device
Da
dalton (atomic mass unit)
DC
direct current
DTPA
diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid
EDTA
ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid
ESA
electrostatic analyser
ETV
electrothermal vaporization
eV
electron volt
GC
gas chromatography
HPLC
high performance liquid chromatography
Hz
hertz
IC
ion chromatography
ICP
inductively coupled plasma
ICP–AES
inductively coupled plasma–atomic emission spectrometry
ICP–MS
inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry
id
internal diameter
IDA
isotope dilution analysis
IUPAC
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
J
joule
KE
kinetic energy
LC
liquid chromatography
LDR
linear dynamic range
LGC
Laboratory of the Government Chemist
LLE
liquid–liquid extraction
LOD
limit of detection
LOQ
limit of quantitation
M
r
relative molecular mass
MAE
microwave‐accelerated extraction
MDL
minimum detectable level
MIBK
methylisobutyl ketone
MS
mass spectrometry
MSD
mass‐selective detector
N
newton
NIST
National Institute of Standards and Technology
Pa
Pascal
PBET
physiologically based extraction test
PMT
photomultiplier tube
ppb
parts per billion (10
9
)
ppm
parts per million (10
6
)
ppt
parts per thousand (10
3
)
RF
radiofrequency
RSC
Royal Society of Chemistry
RSD
relative standard deviation
SAX
strong anion exchange
SCX
strong cation exchange
SD
standard deviation
SE
standard error
SFMS
sector‐field mass spectrometry
SI (units)
Système International (d'Unitès) (International System of Units)
TOF
time‐of‐flight
UV
ultraviolet
V
volt
W
watt
WWW
World Wide Web
c
speed of light; concentration
e
electronic charge
E
energy; electric field strength
f
(linear) frequency; focal length
F
Faraday constant
h
Planck constant
I
intensity; electric current
m
mass
M
spectral order
p
pressure
Q
electric charge (quantity of electricity)
R
resolution; correlation coefficient; molar gas constant; resistance
R
2
coefficient of determination
t
time; Student factor
T
thermodynamic temperature
V
electric potential
z
ionic charge
λ
wavelength
ν
frequency (of radiation)
σ
measure of standard deviation
σ
2
variance
