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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
A comprehensive overview of high precision surveying, including recent developments in geomatics and their applications
This book covers advanced precision surveying techniques, their proper use in engineering and geoscience projects, and their importance in the detailed analysis and evaluation of surveying projects. The early chapters review the fundamentals of precision surveying: the types of surveys; survey observations; standards and specifications; and accuracy assessments for angle, distance and position difference measurement systems. The book also covers network design and 3-D coordinating systems before discussing specialized topics such as structural and ground deformation monitoring techniques and analysis, mining surveys, tunneling surveys, and alignment surveys.
Precision Surveying: The Principles and Geomatics Practice:
- Covers structural and ground deformation monitoring analysis, advanced techniques in mining and tunneling surveys, and high precision alignment of engineering structures
- Discusses the standards and specifications available for geomatics projects, including their representations, interpretations, relationships with quality assurance/quality control measures, and their use in geomatics projects
- Describes network design and simulation, including error analysis and budgeting
- Explains the main properties of high-precision surveys with regard to basic survey procedures and different traditional measurement techniques
- Analyzes survey observables such as angle, distance, elevation difference and coordinate difference measurements, and the relevant equipment, including the testing and utilization of the equipment
- Provides several case studies and real world examples
Precision Surveying: The Principles and Geomatics Practice is written for upper undergraduate students and graduate students in the fields of surveying and geomatics. This textbook is also a resource for geomatics researchers, geomatics software developers, and practicing surveyors and engineers interested in precision surveys.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
About The Author
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1: Precision Survey Properties and Techniques
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Basic Classification of Precision Surveys
1.3 Precision Geodetic Survey Techniques
1.4 Review of Some Safety Issues
Chapter 2: Observables, Measuring Instruments, and Theory of Observation Errors
2.1 Observables, Measurements and Measuring Instruments
2.2 Angle and Direction Measuring Instruments
2.3 Elevation Difference Measuring Instrument
2.4 Distance Measuring Instrument
2.5 Accuracy Limitations of Modern Survey Instruments
2.6 Error Properties of Measurements
2.7 Precision and Accuracy Indicators
2.8 Systematic Error and Random Error Propagation Laws
2.9 Statistical Test of Hypotheses: The Tools for Data Analysis
2.10 Need for Equipment Calibration and Testing
Chapter 3: Standards and Specifications For Precision Surveys
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Standards and the Concept of Confidence Regions
3.3 Standards for Traditional Vertical Control Surveys
3.4 Standards for Horizontal Control Surveys
3.5 Unified Standards for Positional Accuracy
3.6 Map and Geospatial Data Accuracy Standards
3.7 Quality and Standards
Chapter 4: Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Angle Measurement System
4.1 Sources of Errors in Angle Measurements
4.2 Systematic Errors Eliminated by Measurement Process
4.3 Systematic Errors Eliminated by Adjustment Process
4.4 Summary of Systematic Error Elimination
4.5 Random Error Estimation
4.6 Testing Procedure for Precision Theodolites
Chapter 5: Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Distance Measurement System
5.1 Introduction
5.2 General Properties of Waves
5.3 Application of EM Waves to EDM
5.4 EDM Instrumental Errors
5.5 EDM External Errors
5.6 Random Error Propagation of EDM Distance Measurement
5.7 Calibration and Testing Procedures for EDM Instruments
Chapter 6: Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Elevation and Coordinate difference Measurement Systems
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Pointing Error
6.3 Reading/Rod Plumbing Error
6.4 Leveling Error
6.5 Collimation, Rod Scale, and ROD Index Errors
6.6 Effects of Vertical Atmospheric Refraction and Earth Curvature
6.7 Random Error Propagation for Elevation Difference Measurements
6.8 Testing Procedures for Leveling Equipment
6.9 Calibration of Coordinate Difference Measurement System (GNSS EQUIPMENT)
Chapter 7: Survey Design and Analysis
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Network Design
7.3 Solution Approaches to Design Problems
7.4 Network Adjustment and Analysis
7.5 Angular Measurement Design Example
7.6 Distance Measurement Design Example
7.7 Traverse Measurement Design Examples
7.8 Elevation Difference Measurement Design Example
Chapter 8: Three-Dimensional Coordinating Systems
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Coordinate System for Three-Dimensional Coordinating Systems
8.3 Three-Dimensional Coordination with Global Navigation Satellite System
8.4 Three-Dimensional Coordination with Electronic Theodolites
8.5 Three-Dimensional Coordination with Laser Systems
Chapter 9: Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: Geodetic Techniques
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Geodetic Deformation Monitoring Schemes and The Design Approach
9.3 Monumentation and Targeting
9.4 Horizontal Deformation Monitoring and Analysis
9.5 Vertical Deformation Monitoring and Analysis
Chapter 10: Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: High-Definition Survey and Remote Sensing Techniques
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Laser Systems
10.3 Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar Technologies
10.4 Comparison of Laser (LDAR) and Radar (ISAR) Technologies
Chapter 11: Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: Geotechnical and Structural Techniques
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Overview of Geotechnical and Structural Instrumentation
11.3 Design of Geotechnical and Structural Monitoring Schemes
11.4 Analysis of Geotechnical Measurements
11.5 Integrated Deformation Monitoring System
Chapter 12: Mining Surveying
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Mining Terminology
12.3 Horizontal Mine Orientation Surveys
12.4 Transferring Levels or Heights Underground
12.5 Volume Determination in Mines
Chapter 13: Tunneling Surveys
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Basic Elements and Methods of Tunneling Surveys
13.3 Main Sources of Error in Tunneling Surveys
13.4 Horizontal Design and Simulation of Tunneling Surveys
13.5 Vertical Design and Simulation of Tunneling Surveys
13.6 Numerical Example: Horizontal Breakthrough Analysis
13.7 Examples of Tunneling Surveys
13.8 Analysis of Underground Traverse Surveys
Chapter 14: Precision Alignment Surveys
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Direct Laser Alignment Technique
14.3 Conventional Surveying Techniques of Alignment
14.4 Optical-Tooling Techniques
14.5 Metrology by Laser Interferometer Systems
14.6 Alignment by Polar Measurement Systems
14.7 Main Sources of Error in Alignment Surveys
Appendix I: Extracts From Baarda'S Nomogram
Appendix II: Commonly Used Statistical Tables
Appendix III: Tau Distribution Table for Significance Level α
Appendix IV: Important Units
References
Index
End User License Agreement
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Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Foreword
Preface
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2: Observables, Measuring Instruments, and Theory of Observation Errors
Figure 2.1 Angle measurement scheme in face left (FL) and face right (FR) positions of the telescope.
Figure 2.2 A typical error ellipse.
Figure 2.3 Relative error ellipse between points 1 and 2.
Chapter 3: Standards and Specifications For Precision Surveys
Figure 3.1 Sample leveling network.
Figure 3.2 Indirect distance measurement.
Figure 3.3 Local accuracy between control points.
Figure 3.4 Network accuracy between a control point and a datum.
Chapter 4: Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Angle Measurement System
Figure 4.1 Relationship among the axes of a theodolite.
Figure 4.2 An illustration of a horizontal collimation error and its effect on angle measurement.
Figure 4.3 An illustration of a vertical collimation error of a theodolite.
Figure 4.4 An illustration of tilting axis error of a theodolite.
Figure 4.5 Extending a straight line by double-centering method.
Figure 4.6 Typical plate bubble vial.
Figure 4.7 Refracted and expected wave propagation paths.
Figure 4.8 Representation of a horizontal angle (
θ
) between survey points.
Figure 4.9 Error in direction measurement due to target miscentering.
Figure 4.10 Effect of instrument miscentering on angle measurement.
Figure 4.11 Example of a looped traverse survey.
Figure 4.12 Test field for horizontal angle measurements showing the position
P
of theodolite and the arrangement of targets 1–4 (with subscript
t
representing set number and subscript
s
representing series number).
Figure 4.13 Test field for zenith angle measurements (with subscript
s
representing series number) showing the position
P
of the theodolite and the invar rod targets 1–3.
Chapter 5: Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Distance Measurement System
Figure 5.1 Familiar circular water waves.
Figure 5.2 General properties of electromagnetic (EM) waves.
Figure 5.3 Electromagnetic (EM) wave propagation in space (
E
is the direction of electric field;
B
is the direction of magnetic field).
Figure 5.4 A portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Figure 5.5 EDM phase measurement technique.
Figure 5.6 Resolving ambiguities in EDM measurements.
Figure 5.7 Baseline measurements with two different EDM instruments.
Figure 5.8 Baselines and measuring arrangement for EDM calibration.
Figure 5.9 Approximate approach of EDM system constant determination.
Figure 5.10 Determination of EDM system constant.
Chapter 6: Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Elevation and Coordinate difference Measurement Systems
Figure 6.1 Relationship between nonverticality of level rod and rod readings.
Figure 6.2 Relationship between instrument leveling error and rod readings.
Figure 6.3 A typical setup of level on a test line.
Chapter 7: Survey Design and Analysis
Figure 7.1 A simple surveying problem.
Figure 7.2 A typical direction measurement to a target.
Figure 7.3 A sketch of a traverse around a rectangular city block.
Chapter 8: Three-Dimensional Coordinating Systems
Figure 8.1 Representation of local geodetic (LG) coordinate system.
Figure 8.2 Three-dimensional intersection problem.
Figure 8.3 Relationship between a plane and a level surface.
Figure 8.4 Example of three-dimensional traverse survey.
Figure 8.5 Coordinate system of a terrestrial laser scanner.
Chapter 9: Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: Geodetic Techniques
Figure 9.1 Typical reference control pillar (showing extensometer anchor) for geodetic monitoring: (a) GPS unit setup, (b) top of survey pillar, and (c) whole length of survey pillar.
Figure 9.2 Typical dam monitoring instrument pillar design.
Figure 9.3 (a) Two monitoring pillars (Monitor 1 and Monitor 2) for stability test of another pillar (control pillar). (b) A monitoring pillar with a survey marker (e.g., Monitor 1).
Figure 9.4 A typical dam crest monument installation.
Figure 9.5 Typical leveling markers used in subsidence monitoring surveys.
Figure 9.6 Geodetic grade GPS unit setup to monitor subsidence-induced horizontal displacements in a mining area: GPS unit setup on a (a) tripod over a monitoring point and (b) high-precision pillar.
Figure 9.7 Simple total station subnetwork traverse controlled by GPS control points
C
1
,
C
2
, and
C
3
in three-baseline surveys.
Figure 9.8 Main features of a typical hydroelectric generating station.
Source:
Background image is reproduced by permission of NB Power.
Figure 9.9 Simulated deformation monitoring scheme.
Figure 9.10 External minimally constrained displacements with point
A
and azimuth
A-B
held fixed (error ellipses at 95% confidence level).
Figure 9.11 Displacement field after IWST (error ellipses at 95% confidence level).
Figure 9.12 Typical trilateration network for deformation monitoring of an hydroelectric dam (not to scale).
Source:
Background image is reproduced by permission of NB Power.
Figure 9.13 (a) GPS unit installed eccentrically from a geodetic pillar on the Intake structure of a generating station. (b) GPS unit installed on the crest of the gravity dam/diversion sluiceway structure of a generating station.
Figure 9.14 Three-baseline GPS survey method.
Figure 9.15 Tilted and inclined surfaces.
Figure 9.16 Subsidence bowl.
Figure 9.17 Integrated leveling surveys for tilt and vertical expansion determination.
Chapter 10: Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: High-Definition Survey and Remote Sensing Techniques
Figure 10.1 Propagation of laser beam.
Figure 10.2 Radar system operating from a satellite.
Figure 10.3 Basic geometry of SAR interferometry for topographic height determination.
Figure 10.4 Basic geometry of SAR interferometry for displacement determination.
Figure 10.5 Possible interferogram showing three fringes of modeled uplift.
Figure 10.6 Typical InSAR complex image of a scene.
Figure 10.7 Typical InSAR interferogram of a scene.
Figure 10.8 Typical artificial corner reflector.
Chapter 11: Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: Geotechnical and Structural Techniques
Figure 11.1 Two mechanical devices for reading rod extensometers.
Figure 11.2 Sketch of a single-point rod extensometer.
Figure 11.3 (a) Reference head for a six-point rod extensometer installation with depth micrometer in one of the reference points. (b) A six-point rod extensometer assembly with depth micrometer in one of the reference points for illustration. (c) A sketch of six-point rod extensometer installation.
Figure 11.4 (a) Borehole rod extensometer equipped with LVDT sensors for automatic monitoring of rod extensometers. (b) Centralized LVDT readout system for automatic measurements of LVDT installations at different locations.
Figure 11.5 (a) Arrangement of suspended pendulum and invar rod extensometer. (b) Micrometer measurement of relative vertical displacement between the extensometer anchor point and the bracket grouted to the wall in the Intake structure.
Figure 11.6 Invar rod extensometer installation with the measuring heads (with micrometer measurements usually taken between the two heads).
Figure 11.7 Measuring the change in the joint on an Intake structure of a hydroelectric generating station using invar rod micrometer gauge.
Figure 11.8 (a) Tape extensometer measurement between two wall anchor points. (b) Tape extensometer measurement between the upstream and downstream columns (anchor point on end side of one column is shown) in a Powerhouse.
Figure 11.9 Four-pin gauge for displacement measurement. (a) Four-pin monitoring points. (b) Four-pin vertical movement measurement. (c) Four-pin joint measurement across points
P
4
and
P
3
.
Figure 11.10 (a) Joint meter mounted over a joint with vertical reading taken with a micrometer gauge. (b) Joint meter mounted over a joint with the horizontal reading taken with a micrometer gauge.
Figure 11.11 A weighted plumbline system to measure the inclination of a column.
Figure 11.12 (a) Typical measurement location of stairwell plumbline in a Powerhouse. (b) Typical measurement location of hoist well plumbline in a Powerhouse.
Figure 11.13 (a) A schematic diagram of a weighted plumbline installation. (b) Horizontal displacement of point
P
with respect to point
Q
.
Figure 11.14 Reading the
x
- and
y
-displacement of a weighted plumbline.
Figure 11.15 An inverted plumbline installation in a Powerhouse of a dam.
Figure 11.16 A plumbline tank containing a float and liquid.
Figure 11.17 (a) A schematic diagram of inverted plumbline installation. (b) Displacement of point
Q
with respect to point
P
.
Figure 11.18 Inverted plumbline installations in one of the galleries of the Intake structure of a generating station (with brackets bolted to concrete wall).
Figure 11.19 Roctest RxTx telependulum device interfaced with a computer for reading relative position of an inverted pendulum wire.
Figure 11.20 A shuttle probe being lowered into a borehole guiding tube.
Figure 11.22 Typical shuttle probes in borehole casings.
Figure 11.23 Typical MEMS Tilt Meters by RST Instruments Ltd.
Figure 11.24 Operational principle of fiber Bragg grating (FBG).
Figure 11.25 Anatomy of an SAA, showing the placement of X-mark, label, and eyelet on the SAA tubing.
Figure 11.26 SAA placed on a reel for storage.
Figure 11.27 Simulation of tunnel deformations with an SAA, and the corresponding real-time display of the deformations (in white outline) on a laptop computer.
Figure 11.28 Schematic representation of a typical SAA string installation.
Figure 11.29 Determination of azimuth and dip at the collar of a borehole.
Figure 11.30 (a) Invar rod micrometers and the typical vertical and horizontal calibration benches installed in a Powerhouse of a hydroelectric generating station. (b) Horizontal calibration bench for tape extensometer calibration.
Figure 11.31 Sample display of 1989–2013 displacements from six-point borehole extensometer installed in a single borehole.
Figure 11.32 Sample display of 1985–2013 tape extensometer measurements between two pairs of columns in a Powerhouse.
Figure 11.33 Sample display of 1984–2014 Joint meter measurements for three units of a Powerhouse.
Figure 11.34 Sample display of inverted pendulum
X
-movements profiles from 2011 to 2013 based on shuttle probe measurements with July 2011 measurements as baseline.
Figure 11.35 Sample display of inverted pendulum Y-movements profiles from 2011 to 2013 based on shuttle probe measurements with July 2011 measurements as baseline.
Chapter 12: Mining Surveying
Figure 12.1 A cross section of a mine illustrating some mining terms.
Figure 12.2 Different mining orientation techniques.
Figure 12.3 Transferring surface alignment underground (cross-sectional view).
Figure 12.4 Weisbach triangle (plan view).
Figure 12.5 Plan view of Weisbach triangle (surface part).
Figure 12.6 Plan view of Weisbach triangle (underground part).
Figure 12.7 Quadrilateral method (plan view).
Figure 12.8 Example on quadrilateral method (plan view).
Figure 12.9 GP-1 gyro unit mounted on Set3X total station.
Figure 12.10 Gyro station eyepiece showing the gyro mark in the V shape.
Figure 12.11 Time method of gyro azimuth determination.
Figure 12.12 Setup procedure of the GP3X Gyro station.
Figure 12.13 Sample display for the follow-up and Time methods of gyro measurements.
Figure 12.14 Sample gyro data by Time method.
Figure 12.15 EDM approach for transferring heights underground (cross-sectional view).
Figure 12.16 Transferring heights underground using measuring tape (cross-sectional view).
Figure 12.17 Single cross-section profile of an underground excavation.
Figure 12.18 Different cross sections of mining excavations for volume determination.
Chapter 13: Tunneling Surveys
Figure 13.1 Typical setup of a laser device for alignment of a boring machine.
Figure 13.2 Refraction of traverse lines in a tunnel when angles are measured (assuming temperature is higher around the tunnel wall).
Figure 13.3 Refraction of traverse lines in a tunnel when gyro azimuths are measured (assuming temperature is higher around the tunnel wall).
Figure 13.4 Tunneling with two opposing headings.
Figure 13.5 Horizontal control network for a tunnel construction.
Figure 13.6 Representation of combined breakthrough error.
Figure 13.7 Relative confidence-error ellipse for point
P
.
Figure 13.8 Simulated simple tunneling project with two opposing headings.
Figure 13.9 Layout of a surface network.
Figure 13.10 Layout of an underground network.
Figure 13.11 Open traverse.
Figure 13.12 Design of an underground tunnel.
Figure 13.13 Gyro orientation procedure in a tunnel.
Chapter 14: Precision Alignment Surveys
Figure 14.1 Alignment of points
B
and
C
.
Figure 14.2 Single-station small angle method of alignment of points
B
and
C
.
Figure 14.3 Closed traverse method.
Figure 14.4 Separate point included angle method of alignment of points
B
and
C
.
Figure 14.5 Concentric circle wall target designs.
Figure 14.6 Special (a) Instrument stand and (b) Precision lateral adjuster mounted on the instrument stand.
Figure 14.7 Paragon alignment telescope with the accessories to mount it.
Figure 14.8 Spherical cup being supported on a large-diameter screw thread in the base of the mount and the alignment telescope showing the auto-reflection target in the objective lens.
Figure 14.9 K&E Paragon alignment telescope set in an alignment bracket.
Figure 14.10 Side and front views of mounted alignment telescope.
Figure 14.11 Side and front views of the Jig transit showing an autocollimation unit with a light unit mounted on the viewing end.
Figure 14.12 Typical K+E Paragon Jig transit. (a) Jig transit with autocollimation and autoreflection side mirror. (b) Jig transit with see-through side telescope.
Figure 14.13 Optical micrometer attachment (graduated to 0.05 mm) for Kern GK23 tilting level.
Figure 14.14 K+E Wyteface optical alignment scales in inches and centimeters.
Figure 14.15 Kern invar staff (1 m, 5 mm division, 2×).
Figure 14.16 Kern GK23 tilting level without and with optical micrometer.
Figure 14.17 Leveling with optical-tooling scale.
Figure 14.18 Ideal target design.
Figure 14.19 Spherical target and Kern concentric target (for sights of over 4–40 m) set in Kern trivets.
Figure 14.20 Two Jig transits set for collimation (setting the focuses of both instruments on infinity).
Figure 14.21 Autocollimation or auto-reflection leveling mirror.
Figure 14.22 Alignment telescope set for autocollimation/auto-reflection.
Figure 14.23 Setting out 90° angle by autocollimation or auto-reflection using side mirror.
Figure 14.24 Array of pillars to be aligned.
Figure 14.25 Alignment Option 1.
Figure 14.26 Alignment Option 2.
Figure 14.27 Schematic diagram of Michelson interferometric procedures.
Figure 14.28 Schematic illustration of angle measurement with interferometer.
Figure 14.29 Illustration of angle determination with interferometer.
Figure 14.30 A standard 1.5"diameter SMR reference sitting on a drift nest.
Figure 14.31 Error of alignment due to atmospheric refraction.
List of Tables
Chapter 2: Observables, Measuring Instruments, and Theory of Observation Errors
Table 2.1 Geomatics Measurement Techniques and the Typical Survey Observables
Table 2.2 Field Notes for Angle Measurement by Repetition Method.
Table 2.3 Field Notes for Angle Measurement by Directional Method.
Table 2.4 Examples of Precision Leveling Instruments
Table 2.5 Main Properties of the Two Main Types of EDM
Table 2.6 Examples of Distance Measuring Instruments
Table 2.7 Formulated Hypotheses
Table 2.8 Decisions on a Single Population Mean
Table 2.9 Decisions on the Difference Between Two Population Means
Table 2.10 Decisions on a Population Variance
Chapter 3: Standards and Specifications For Precision Surveys
Table 3.1 Accuracy Specifications for Vertical Control in Canada and the United States
Table 3.2 Sample Field Notes for Three-Wire Leveling Method (Forward Run)
Table 3.3 Accuracy Standards for Vertical Control in the United States (Accuracy of Height Difference)
Table 3.4 Accuracy Standards for Horizontal Control Surveys in Canada
Table 3.5 Horizontal Accuracy Standards in the United States
Table 3.6 Minimum Closure Accuracy Standards for Traverse Surveys
Table 3.7 Specifications for GPS Field Survey Procedures
Table 3.8 Accuracy Classification Standards (Horizontal, Ellipsoid Height, and Orthometric Height).
Table 3.9 Main Features of NMAS, ASPRS Accuracy Standard, and NSSDA – Part I
Table 3.10 The Main Features of NMAS, ASPRS Accuracy Standard, and NSSDA – Part II
Table 3.11 Some of the Elements of QA/QC (Part I)
Table 3.12 Some of the Elements of QA/QC (Part II)
Table 3.13 Some of the Elements of QA/QC (Part III)
Chapter 4: Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Angle Measurement System
Table 4.1 Circle Readings to Targets
A
and
B
.
Table 4.2 Summary of Systematic Error Elimination
Table 4.3 Field Measurements.
Chapter 5: Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Distance Measurement System
Table 5.1 Simple Approach for Resolving EDM Ambiguities – Example 5.1
Table 5.2 Simple Approach for Resolving EDM Ambiguities – Example 5.2
Chapter 7: Survey Design and Analysis
Table 7.1 Problem of Network Design
Table 7.2 Guidelines for GNSS Network Design, Geometry and Connections
Table 7.3 Approximate Coordinates, Heights of Instrument and Pillar Plate Elevations
Table 7.4 Summary of Traverse Design.
Chapter 8: Three-Dimensional Coordinating Systems
Table 8.1 Properties of the Three Common 3D Coordinate Systems
Chapter 9: Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: Geodetic Techniques
Table 9.1 Summary of the Traditional Geodetic Technologies Used in Deformation Monitoring
Table 9.2 Geodetic Observables and Their Specifications for Dam Monitoring
Table 9.3 Approximate Coordinates of Points
Table 9.4 Simulated Field Measurements for Both Epoch 1 and Epoch 2
Table 9.5 Horizontal Displacements Based on External Minimal Constraints
Table 9.6 Horizontal Displacements Based on IWST
Chapter 10: Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: High-Definition Survey and Remote Sensing Techniques
Table 10.1 Short-Range Laser Scanners
Table 10.3 Long-Range Laser Scanners
Table 10.4 Different Radar Frequency Bands
Table 10.5 Approximate Parameters of Some Representative InSAR Platforms
Table 10.6 Summary of the Differences Between GB-InSAR and Space-Borne InSAR
Table 10.7 Summary of Differences Between Synthetic Aperture Radar and Real-Beam Aperture Radar
Table 10.8 IBIS-L Main Features
Table 10.9 Comparison of LiDAR Systems with InSAR Systems
Chapter 11: Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: Geotechnical and Structural Techniques
Table 11.1 Some of the Geotechnical Structural Instrumentation and Their Applications with Achievable Accuracies at 95% Confidence Level
Chapter 12: Mining Surveying
Table 12.1 Field Notes for Orientation Transfer through a Single Shaft.
Table 12.2 Given Coordinates.
Table 12.3 Field Measurements.
Table 12.4 Traverse Computation.
Table 12.5 Gyrotheodolite Field Sheet I (Turning Point or Follow-Up Method).
Table 12.6 Gyrotheodolite Field Sheet II (Azimuth Determination).
Chapter 13: Tunneling Surveys
Table 13.1 Estimated Coordinates of Network Points
Table 13.2 Proposed Angle and Bearing Measurements
Table 13.3 Proposed Distance Measurements
Appendix I: Extracts From Baarda'S Nomogram
Table I.1 For the Values
λ
0
=
λ
(
α
0
,
β
0
= 0.20, 1) =
λ
(
α
,
β
0
= 0.20, df)
Table I.2 For the Values of 100
α
0
= 0.1,
β
0
= 0.20,
λ
0
= 17.0
Table I.3 For the Values of 100
α
0
= 0.9,
β
0
= 0.20,
λ
0
= 12.0
Table I.4 For the Values of 100
α
0
= 1.0,
β
0
= 0.20,
λ
0
= 11.7
Appendix II: Commonly Used Statistical Tables
Table II.1 Standard Normal Distribution
Table II.2 Table for Student
t
-Distribution
Table II.3 Distribution Table for Chi-Square
Table II.4 Table for
F
-Distribution
PRECISION SURVEYING
The Principles and Geomatics Practice
JOHN OLUSEGUN OGUNDARE, PH.D.
Instructor of Geomatics EngineeringDepartment of Geomatics Engineering TechnologySchool of Construction and the EnvironmentBritish Columbia Institute of Technology (BCIT)'Burnaby
Copyright © 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Ogundare, John Olusegun.
Precision surveying : the principles and geomatics practice / John Olusegun Ogundare, Ph.D., Instructor of Geomatics Engineering, Department of Geomatics Engineering Technology, School of Construction and the Environment, British Columbia Institute of Technology (BCIT)-Burmaby.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-119-10251-9 (hardback)
1. Surveying. I. Title.
TA545.O364 2015
526.9–dc23
2015021577
About The Author
John Olusegun Ogundare received his B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in surveying engineering from the University of Lagos, Nigeria, and M.Sc.E. and a Ph.D. in high precision and deformation analysis from the University of New Brunswick (UNB) in Canada. He has been in the field of geomatics for over 30 years, as a surveyor in various survey engineering establishments in Africa and Canada and also as a surveying instructor or teaching assistant in universities and polytechnic institutions in Africa and Canada.
For over 8 years, he has been serving as a special examiner for the Canadian Board of Examiners for Professional Surveyors (CBEPS) with the responsibility that includes setting and marking exams on the subject “Map Projections and Cartography” and then on the subject “Coordinate Systems and Map Projections.” As a subject-matter expert in those subjects, he has also had the opportunity to serve as a consultant to the Canadian Council of Land Surveyors (CCLS) in 2007 and 2009 in reviewing and making recommendations to a Joint Syllabus Development Task Force on the subject description, prerequisites, texts, and references and in developing learning outcomes and study guides for the two subjects. The material that he has developed on these subjects is currently being used in accrediting university programs and in granting equivalencies to technical schools for related courses and also in assisting the professional associations in evaluating the credentials of candidates for professional membership in surveying. He is also a representative on the CBEPS Board of Directors and the CBEPS Exemptions and Accreditation Committee. The CBEPS Board establishes, assesses, and certifies the academic qualifications of individuals who apply to become land surveyors or geomatics professionals or both, in Canada, while the CBEPS Exemptions and Accreditation Committee is responsible for evaluating courses offered by post-secondary institutions in terms of their equivalence to individual CBEPS Syllabus items.
Dr. John Olusegun Ogundare has been working as an instructor of geomatics technology (in the diploma and degree programs) for about 20 years at the British Columbia Institute of Technology (BCIT), Canada, where he teaches subjects such as Advanced Topics in Precision surveys, Geodetic Positioning, Least Squares Adjustments, Mathematical Cartography. He also mentors the Bachelor of Technology students in their technical projects and reports. Some of his BCIT-funded works included providing manuals for CBEPS-accredited courses, which he developed and teaches to full-time and distance-learning students. Some of those funded courses are the Advanced Topics in Precision Surveys, Geodetic Positioning, Special Topics in Least Squares Adjustment, and Mathematical Cartography. Apart from being an instructor, Dr. John Olusegun Ogundare has also served for over 10 years as a member of the quality committee of the BCIT School of Construction and the Environment and for over 5 years as a member of the School Research committee. His current main professional interest and expertise include monitoring and analysis of deformations in engineering and geoscience projects; precision engineering surveys; geodetic control surveys, analysis and optimization; spatial data analysis and adjustments; coordinate systems and map projections; rock mechanics instrumentation, ground subsidence in mining areas and GPS applications.
Foreword
“Precision Surveying comes as a very needed textbook in North America. It fills the gap between existing textbooks dealing with basic principles of surveying and textbooks dealing with the theory of geodetic science. Theory of advanced surveying techniques, their proper use in engineering and geoscience projects and thorough accuracy analysis have been missing in the contemporary technical literature in geomatics. Dr. John Olusegun Ogundare, the author of the book, was one of my best graduate students at University of New Brunswick about 20 years ago. He was a hard working, young scientist, eager to learn, and very thorough in his work. This is reflected in this textbook, which brings enormous amount of information on modern surveying techniques of high precision, their proper use, and very detailed analysis and evaluation of surveying projects. Setting out and high-precision alignment of engineering structures, advanced techniques in mining and tunneling surveys, and structural and ground deformation monitoring and analysis are covered in this book with several case studies and practical examples. Readers at all levels of their knowledge in geomatics will certainly benefit from this textbook. My congratulations go to the author.
Adam Chrzanowski, Ph.D., Drh.c., P.Eng.
Director of Canadian Centre for Geodetic Engineering
University of New Brunswick
Preface
Precision surveying is not a specific area of discipline such as geodesy, hydrography, remote sensing, and photogrammetry. It is a geomatics engineering practice that applies any appropriate field of geomatics to projects in order to achieve a desired accuracy or precision; it deals with important aspects of real-world problems, such as designing and monitoring human-made infrastructures for millimeter-level movements, alignment of large machines in industrial environment, and so on. Some of the concepts and techniques involved have been developed over several decades, and some have just been accomplished recently. Although the basic concepts and techniques have not changed significantly and are not likely to change in the next several years, they are still not popular and are mainly understood by researchers or academic experts. This is partially due to the complex theoretical background involved, which are usually difficult for students and practicing surveyors/geomatics engineers to grasp.
My primary motivation to write this book came from my over 15 years of experience in teaching related courses to the Bachelor of Geomatics engineering technology students at the British Columbia Institute of Technology (BCIT) Canada, and my 8 years of being a special examiner for the Canadian Board of Examiners for Professional Surveyors (CBEPS) on Coordinate Systems, Map Projections, and Cartography subjects. My involvement in 2007 and 2009 as a consultant to the Canadian Council of Land Surveyors (CCLS)/CBEPS to develop learning outcomes, study guides, and reference materials for one of the subjects they use as entrance requirements toward becoming a Canadian professional surveyor also gave me an invaluable insight into a definite need for a comprehensive textbook on precision surveying. One of the most difficult tasks I have had is finding appropriate books on Precision (Advanced) Surveying to recommend to students; to the best of my knowledge, no comprehensive and dedicated books are available for this subject. I also wrote this book as a framework for learning underlying principles and procedures of precision surveying with examples that are simple enough for the geomatics students and the practicing surveyors/engineers to understand and to help them develop their interest in precision surveying and the interdisciplinary aspects.
I had two main goals in writing this text: to satisfy the need for a comprehensive textbook on precision surveying that would deal with the totality of precision surveying principles and practice, including the recent developments in geodetic surveying and the interdisciplinary collaborations with other fields; and to demystify various aspects of precision surveying so that practicing surveyors/geomatics engineers can apply them to real-world problems. My initial effort toward realizing a comprehensive precision book was in developing a manual titled “Precision Surveying: The Principles and Practice,” funded by BCIT, which I have been using in delivering my precision surveying courses to students at BCIT. This manual has evolved over a number of years with many updates based on suggestions and corrections from students, academic colleagues, and those from the industry. Recently, during my 1 year professional development leave to the Canadian Centre for Geodetic Engineering (CCGE) at the University of New Brunswick (UNB) in Canada, I updated the manual to include more undergraduate and graduate courses, such as Survey Design and Analysis (or Geomatics Network Design and Analysis), Precision Surveying, Engineering Surveying, Mining and Tunneling Surveying, and Industrial Metrology.
In comparison with other geomatics books, this book is considered unique because of its in-depth treatment of many specialized topics and modern trends in geomatics that have only been discussed, up till now, in articles, journals, and conference papers. Although the book places more emphasis on concepts and principles to prevent its contents from aging too quickly, some theoretical discussions and complex derivations of formulae are avoided when they are not relevant to the understanding of the concepts being presented. Moreover, this book does not include descriptions of measuring techniques and some basic instrumentation, which can be found in elementary surveying books.
This book consists of 14 chapters and 4 appendixes. Chapter 1 explains the main properties of precision surveys with regard to basic survey procedures and different traditional measurement techniques; it distinguishes the properties of the main classes of precision surveys, examines general terms in the precision geodetic survey techniques, and presents some safety issues and their management in relation to precision survey projects.
Chapter 2 discusses survey observables, measuring instruments, and the theory of observation errors, including the application of the concepts of confidence regions, the importance of equipment testing and calibration and the statistical analysis tools for survey measurements and parameters. In Chapter 3, an in-depth discussion is given on various standards and specifications available for geomatics projects, including their representations, interpretations, relationships with quality assurance/quality control measures, and their use in geomatics projects.
Accuracy analyses and evaluations of survey measurements and their measurement systems, including error sources and their treatment are presented in detail in Chapters 4–6. Chapter 4 deals with angle measurement and the measurement systems; Chapter 5 describes electronic distance measurements and the measurement systems; and Chapter 6 analyses elevation difference and coordinate difference measurements and the relevant equipment, such as geodetic leveling and Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) equipment.
Chapter 7 discusses survey design and analysis, including the main purpose, the steps involved, the elements and problems of network design, and the issues related to deformation monitoring schemes. The description of commonly used three-dimensional coordinate reference systems, their needs, and the common models for three-dimensional coordinating systems are presented in Chapter 8. Also presented in this chapter are detailed explanation on the concepts, features, and accuracy limitations of some coordinating systems, such as electronic theodolite coordinating system, GNSS, airborne laser, and terrestrial laser scanning systems.
Comprehensive discussions on deformation monitoring techniques and analysis with regard to operating principles of relevant instruments, design elements of deformation monitoring schemes, data gathering, data processing, and data analyses, including comparisons of different techniques and their main advantages and limitations are given in Chapters 9–11. Chapter 9 discusses the traditional geodetic techniques; Chapter 10 covers modern high-definition surveying (HDS) and remote sensing techniques while Chapter 11 carefully evaluates geotechnical and structural techniques. Some of the discussions in Chapter 10 include the essential properties and features of HDS techniques, such as laser scanning, ground-based interferometric synthetic aperture radar (GBInSAR) and Light Detection And Ranging (LiDAR) systems; and the satellite-based InSAR. Chapter 11 identifies the differences between geotechnical and geodetic deformation monitoring schemes, analyses geotechnical deformation measurements, and explains the accuracy specifications for various geotechnical instrumentations with regard to deformation monitoring and how the geotechnical monitoring techniques complement geodetic monitoring techniques. This chapter is presented from the geomatics point of view so as to inform and acquaint the geomatics specialists with the relevance of geotechnical monitoring techniques to their practice.
Chapters 12 and 13 describe the main elements of mining and tunneling surveys. Chapter 12 starts with the definitions of some mining terminology, discusses the problems and various techniques of orientation transfer in mining and tunneling surveys, and evaluates the sources of systematic and random errors in alignment and underground surveys, including how the errors are minimized. In Chapter 13, the basic elements and methods of tunneling surveys are described. This includes a discussion on approximate effects of lateral atmospheric refraction on alignment surveys, horizontal and vertical design and simulation of tunneling surveys, error analysis of underground traverse surveys, and the determination of grid azimuth from gyro azimuth measurement for underground traverse surveys.
Chapter 14 gives a comprehensive description of the main techniques of precision alignment, such as direct laser alignment, conventional surveying techniques, optical tooling, laser interferometric techniques, and polar measurement techniques; the chapter also explains the main sources of error and the advantages and limitations of the different techniques. The book ends with four appendices: Appendices I–III containing sample tables for use in statistical analyses of data, and Appendix IV presents some commonly used units.
Since this book is based on the manual that has already been used for several courses taught by the author at the undergraduate level, it can be considered to have been tested through teaching on the bachelor degree level. Certain features of the book are designed to aid in the learning and teaching activities: the chapter objectives, which provide an overview of the material contained in that chapter; and a number of example problems with suggested solutions, which are to assist readers in understanding the principles discussed. The use of this book, however, is recommended for third and fourth year technological and university undergraduate courses as well as for graduate courses. Some aspects of the book, however, can be adapted for use in second year courses if the topics of the courses are well organized with the method of least squares adjustment course taken concurrently. In general, a good understanding of elementary surveying, geodesy, and the method of least squares adjustment are recommended prerequisites to understanding some of the concepts discussed in this book.
Apart from being appropriate for use as textbook in college and university classes, this book is also a valuable tool for readers from a variety of surveying backgrounds, including practicing surveyors/engineers who are interested in precision surveys, geomatics researchers, software developers for geomatics, and so on.
John Olusegun Ogundare
Burnaby, B.C., Canada
9 July 2015
Acknowledgments
The author would like to acknowledge and thank all of those bodies and individuals who have contributed in any way to the formation and updating of this book. The author is particularly indebted to British Columbia Institute of Technology (BCIT), Canada, for providing the funding for the development of the manual on which this book is based; without this funding, this book would not have been possible.
Special thanks are due to Dr. Adam Chrzanowski (Professor Emeritus, University of New Brunswick in Fredericton), the author's graduate study mentor and teacher, who provided the author with a vast material resource on various aspects of the studies resulting in this book, and for his constructive and valuable criticism. Dr. Chrzanowski is particularly acknowledged for his help in facilitating the author's professional development leave to the Canadian Centre for Geodetic Engineering (CCGE) at the University of New Brunswick in Canada, where the author wrote a substantial part of this book. In addition, a thank you to Dr. Anna Chrzanowski and Maciej Bazanowski of the CCGE for their invaluable support, friendship, and encouragement. The author also gratefully acknowledges the help received from the many papers, books, seminars, lecture notes, and reports, which were written by many other specialists in the area of precision surveys.
The author wishes to recognize the assistance of Mr. John Fletcher of the New Brunswick Power (NB Power) Generation, Mactaquac Generating Station, N.B., Canada, who devoted several hours of his time to taking the author round the Mactaquac dam monitoring systems and for providing source material on geotechnical instrumentations at the dam. The author is grateful to him and to the other NB Power staff for willingly responding to his various requests for information and for tirelessly answering the author's endless questions.
Other individuals/corporations who contributed to this book in one way or another are Dr. James Secord of the University of New Brunswick, who provided the author with valuable comments, suggestions, and reference materials; Mr. Brian Roulston and other staff members of the Potash Corporation, Sussex mine, N.B., who helped the author in understanding the workings of the underground mine; Dr. Tomas Beran and other staff members of Measurand Inc., Fredericton, N.B., Canada, who helped in clarifying the workings of a particular MEMS system and for reviewing the related section of this book; the staff of RST Instruments Ltd, Coquitlam, B.C., Canada, for providing the author with useful information on their geotechnical instrumentations; the Canadian Board of Examiners for Professional Surveyors (CBEPS) for giving the author the permission to reproduce some of their past Exam questions on Advanced Surveying subject in this book; and Alistair Boakes of BCIT Learning and Teaching Centre, who helped in the design of the cover page for this book. The author is grateful to all of them and also to the reviewers, who pointed out problems and identified some areas of improvement to this book.
Finally, the author is grateful to his wife, Eunice, and his children, Joy and Isaac, for their patience, understanding, and encouragement.
Chapter 1Precision Survey Properties and Techniques
Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to
1.
Explain the main properties of precision survey procedure with respect to basic survey procedure
2.
Discuss the properties of the main classes of precision surveys
3.
Explain different traditional measurement techniques used in precision surveys
4.
Discuss the uses of different coordinate systems for precision surveys
5.
Discuss the geodetic challenges of some precision survey projects
6.
Evaluate some safety issues relating to precision survey projects
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Precision surveying is not a specific area of discipline like geodesy, photogrammetry and remote sensing. It is about applying appropriate field(s) of surveying to projects in order to achieve a desired accuracy (or precision). Ordinary measurements to a few millimetres are sufficiently precise in some projects such as construction of buildings and bridges; but greater precision may be required for alignment of prefabricated steel structure or members, and for deformation monitoring. For example, an alignment of magnets of accelerator facilities may be required to a tolerance of up to 0.1 mm or better; in monitoring and deformation surveys, strict requirements on observations and data handling methods are imposed in order to achieve desired accuracy; and in long tunnel surveys, the critical factor is usually to minimize lateral breakthrough error which requires special methods of network design that are different from those applied to ordinary geodetic networks. Precision surveys are done by educated specialists who are able to determine the appropriate instrumentation, evaluate sources of error and prescribe suitable error-mitigating procedures, for a given project.
The most significant properties distinguishing precision surveys from ordinary surveys can be summarized as follows:
1.
Precision surveys require the use of precise and expensive instrumentations.
2.
Precision surveys require stricter observations and data handling methods, which require directly proportionate increase in time and effort of the surveyor and also increase in cost of the surveys.
3.
Precision surveys involve collecting a larger number of observations. In order to obtain accuracies in the millimetre range, a high degree of redundancy is required in the survey network which, in practice, translates into a large number of observations. Redundant observations are needed in order to be able to assess the accuracy and reliability of the results.
4.
Precision surveys require more rigorous mathematical treatment for error evaluation. Errors in data handling, from observation stage to final processing can often contribute significant errors in final results. Reducing the magnitudes of these errors in data handling as well as in processing the data can significantly improve the accuracy of the survey.
It is the duty of the surveyor to maintain a degree of precision as high as can be justified by the purpose of the survey, but not higher. For the surveyor to achieve an appropriate degree of precision for a survey, the surveyor must have possessed a thorough understanding of the following:
a.
The intended use of the survey measurements.
b.
Sources of errors and types of errors in survey measurements.
c.
Design of appropriate survey scheme to aid in choosing appropriate survey instruments.
d.
Field survey procedures (including the amount, type, and survey data acquisition techniques) for keeping the magnitude of errors within allowable limits. The procedures should also include performing instrument setup or calibration or both.
e.
Methods of adjustment and analysis of the acquired measurements which will include providing an indication of the quality and reliability of the results.
1.2 BASIC CLASSIFICATION OF PRECISION SURVEYS
It should be mentioned that the classification being attempted in this section is subjective and may not be generally accepted; it is made to facilitate the understanding of various aspects of precision surveys. For the purpose of this book, the high precision survey will be classified to include the following:
1.
Geodetic control network surveys
2.
Monitoring and deformation surveys
3.
Geodetic engineering surveys
4.
Industrial metrology
5.
Surveys for research and education
1.2.1 Geodetic Control Network Surveys
Geodetic control network survey is a survey process which takes into account the true shape and size of the earth; it employs the principles of geodesy and is generally conducted over large areas with precise instruments and precise surveying methods. The survey is conducted in order to establish horizontal and vertical positions of points as well as three-dimensional positions of points. A geodetic control network is a series of widely-spaced, permanent and interconnected monuments whose positions (or coordinates) and elevations are accurately known. The agencies of governments, such as the Geodetic Survey Division (GSD) of Canada, are primarily responsible for conducting geodetic surveys. Relatively few engineers and surveyors are involved in geodetic control surveys but the resulting data are usually of great importance since they provide precise points of reference to which a multitude of surveys of lower precision may be tied.
Geodetic control survey is typically carried out in order to provide:
1.
Basic framework (e.g., the Canadian reference framework and the Canadian Spatial Reference Systems (CSRS), the American National Spatial Reference System (NSRS), the European Spatial Reference System (ESRS)) for detailed site plan topographic mapping, boundary demarcation (international, and inter-state or inter-provincial), mapping natural resources, and so on. Generally, it provides control for large geopolitical areas where there is a need to accurately connect with adjacent political areas, and also for the purpose of controlling inter-state transportation corridors, such as highways, pipelines, railroads, and so on.
2.
Primary reference for subsequent engineering and construction projects (e.g., building of bridges, dams, tunnels, highways, pipelines, etc.).
3.
Reference for positioning marine construction vessels (continuous positioning of dredges and survey boats).
4.
Reference for effectively and efficiently monitoring and evaluating deformations of large extent, which may include tectonic plate, land slide, dams, and so on.
1.2.2 Monitoring and Deformation Surveys
Monitoring and deformation surveys are essentially for the purpose of modeling and analysing natural phenomena (earthquakes, landslides, crustal movement) and man-made structures (bridges, buildings, tunnels, dams, and mines). The accuracy requirements of the surveys can differ significantly from those of control or legal surveys. In monitoring and deformation surveys, stricter requirements on observation and data handling methods are usually imposed in determining the relative positions of the monitored or observed stations.
Geodetic control surveys are different from geodetic deformation surveys. In geodetic controlsurveys, the determination of absolute positions (coordinates) of points is of interest while in the geodetic deformation surveys, one is interested only in the determination of changes of positions (displacements). Some specific monitoring and deformation surveys projects are as follows:
Deformation measurements of Flaming Gorge concrete dam on the Green River in Utah (Roehm, L.H., 1968).
Monitoring Earth filled dams in Southern California (Duffy et al., 2001).
Monitoring exposed pit walls at the Highland Valley Copper mine in British Columbia, Canada (Wilkins et al., 2003).
Other projects requiring deformation monitoring surveys are as follows:
Measurement of deformation on buildings exposed to some particular mechanical or thermal strain. Accuracy requirements may be in the order of millimetres for object dimensions of more than 100 m (e.g. cooling towers, chimneys, dams, sluices, cranes, historical buildings, etc.).
Deformation of concrete tanks used for galvanizing and electroplating may need to be measured under working conditions. The tanks are constructed from special concrete and in operation, are slowly filled with liquid of several tons. The tank walls are subject to critical deformations which may need to be observed at regular intervals.
Deformation analysis of rotary cement kiln. A rotary kiln is a cylindrical vessel made of steel plate and lined with firebrick. The vessel slowly rotates about its axis between 0.5 and 5 revolutions per minute and continues to run 24 hours a day and only stop a few days once or twice a year for essential maintenance. The kiln must be monitored for safety reason. By measuring the surface of the vessel, critical areas of the kiln can be detected and deformation monitored.
Tunnel profile measurement requires measuring tunnel interiors for shape and deformation analysis.
1.2.3 Geodetic Engineering Surveys
Geodetic (or precision) engineering surveys apply rigorous geodetic methods to control and support construction and building projects which include construction and maintenance of tunnels, bridges, hydroelectric power stations, railways, and so on. Unlike in geodetic positioning, geodetic engineering surveys are based on local coordinate systems and relative positioning of objects are of more importance than absolute positioning. Many of today's engineering surveys require relative positional accuracies in the order of 1:100,000 or better. Most first order national geodetic networks, however, may not be suitable for controlling engineering projects where high precision is required because of possible distortions in the national geodetic networks. What is usually appropriate is to adopt appropriate geodetic model and local coordinate system.
Engineering Surveys deals with special survey techniques and precision measurement techniques developed for three purposes:
1.
Positioning the construction elements of large engineering works such as dams, tunnels, pipelines, deep mine shafts, high-rise office buildings, and bridges;
2.
Deformation monitoring of these works and their surrounding (ground subsidence and slope stability) and their analysis;
3.
Positioning and alignment of machinery and scientific apparatus.
“Mining surveying is an important branch of engineering surveying dealing with rock stability control and protection of underground and surface structures that may be influenced by ground subsidence” (Chrzanowski, 1999). Actual mining surveying consists of undermining and controlling caving of the ore; it is also necessary that the position of the workings at one level be known precisely at the next level above. Mine surveying are done in cramped areas, with irregular routes, no reference objects such as sun or star to provide azimuth.
Land surveying is a highly specialized branch of geodetic engineering surveying that focuses on establishing boundary lines of real property ownerships, which include establishing new boundaries as may be required in re-establishing the original boundaries or in land partitioning; it also deals with the determination of areas of land tracts. With regard to construction projects, the land surveying problem usually arises when costly land acquisition is involved, such as in pipeline surveys.
