Research Papers For Dummies E-Book

Geraldine Woods

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Bildung
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Seitenzahl: 537

Beschreibung

From blank page to final draft, this is your straightforward guide to research papers You're sitting at your desk in a classroom or in an airless cubicle, wondering how many minutes are left in a seemingly endless day, when suddenly your teacher or supervisor lowers the boom: She wants a research paper, complete with footnotes and a list of sources. She wants accuracy, originality, and good grammar. And - gasp! - she wants ten pages! You may be 16 years old or 60 years old, but your reaction is the same: Help! Take heart. A research paper may seem daunting, but it's a far-from-impossible project to accomplish. Turning research into writing is actually quite easy, as long as you follow a few proven techniques. And that's where Research Papers For Dummies steps in to help. In this easy-to-understand guide, you find out how to search for information using both traditional printed sources and the electronic treasure troves of the Internet. You also discover how to take all those bits of information, discarding the irrelevant ones, and put them into a form that illustrates your point with clarity and originality. Here's just a sampling of the topics you'll find in Research Papers For Dummies: * Types of research papers, from business reports to dissertations * The basic ingredients of a paper: Introduction, body, conclusion, footnotes, and bibliography * Note-taking methods while doing research * Avoiding plagiarism and other research paper pitfalls * Defining your thesis statement and choosing a structure for your paper * Supporting your argument and drawing an insightful conclusion * Revising and polishing your prose * Top Ten lists on the best ways to begin your research online and in print Research Papers For Dummies also includes an appendix that's full of research paper ideas if you're stuck. If you're tasked with writing a research paper, chances are you already have a lot of demands on your time. You don't need another huge pile of papers to read. This book can actually save you time in the long run, because it gives you the easiest, fastest, and most successful methods for completing your paper.

Leseprobe

Research Papers For Dummies®

by Geraldine Woods

Research Papers For Dummies®

Published byWiley Publishing, Inc.111 River St.Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774www.wiley.com

Copyright © 2002 by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana

Published simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Control Number: 2002106035

ISBN: 978-0-7645-5426-1

Manufactured in the United States of America

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About the Author

Geraldine Woods directs the independent study program at a high school for gifted students. Each year she guides 20 seniors as they select and define a topic, research the material, and write a major paper. She also teaches English and has written 40 books, give or take a few, including English Grammar For Dummies. She loves bookstores and libraries, minor-league baseball, Chinese food, and the novels of Jane Austen. The mother of a grown son (Tom, a lawyer), she lives in New York City with Harry (her husband of 30 years) and parakeets Alice and Archie.

Dedication

For my great city, which I love now more than ever; and for the students in the independent study seminar, past and present, whose passion for learning inspires me daily.

Author’s Acknowledgments

I offer thanks to the faculty of Horace Mann School, whose love of teaching and passion for learning serve as a model of academic excellence. In particular, I am indebted to Caroline Bartels, Samuel Gellens, Christopher Jones, Janet Kraus, Rudy Reiblein, Deborah Stanford, Joseph Timko, Jeff Weitz, and Don Yates for their valuable suggestions. I also appreciate the careful scrutiny and encyclopedic knowledge of Tom LaFarge and Ginny Nordstrom, the technical editors. I am grateful to my project editor, Linda Brandon, who challenged me with good humor and tact and made this a better book, and to Roxane Cerda, who guided me through the outline and early stages of the project. I also thank my agents, Carolyn Krupp and Lisa Queen, for their support and encouragement.

Publisher’s Acknowledgments

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Special Help

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Contents

Title

Introduction

How to Use This Book

What You’re Not to Read

Foolish Assumptions

How This Book Is Organized

Bonus Web Chapter

Icons Used in This Book

Where to Go from Here

Part I : Figuring Out What You Are Writing and How to Write It

Chapter 1: Running a Marathon in Sandals, or Writing a Research Paper

Writing Research Papers Is for Your Own Good, Honest

Cooking Up a Research Paper: The Basic Ingredients

Meeting the Family: Characteristics of Each Type of Research Paper

Climbing the Steps to Successful Research Papers

Chapter 2: Getting on the Right Track: Tips for Saving Time and Effort

Making a Long Story Short

Timing Is Everything

Finding a Method That Suits Your Madness

Discovering a Method That Suits Your Authority Figure’s Madness

Chapter 3: What Am I Writing About?

Defining Terms: Subject, Topic, and Thesis

Selecting a Subject for Your Paper: The Subject of Your Affection

Attending to the Topic of Topics

Moving from a Topic to a Thesis

Surveying the Territory: When Your Paper Doesn’t Need a Thesis

Part II : Finding Everything about Anything: Research

Chapter 4: Casting a Wide Net: Choosing Sources for Your Paper

Sourcing Your Paper: How Many and What Kinds Do You Need?

Stalking the Wild Source: A Field Guide

Distrusting What You Find: A Guide to Evaluating Sources

Chapter 5: Surfing Safari: Researching Online

Creating an Effective Search

Taking You Where You Want to Go: Search Engines and Subject Catalogues

Traveling Express: Metasearch Engines

Searching Online Databases

Finding the Best of the Internet: Good Spots to Begin Your Research

Drowning in Information? How to Swim to Shore

Chapter 6: Working from Traditional Sources

Researching from Library Books

Finding Books in Bookstores

Locating Newspaper and Magazine Articles

Panning for Gold in the Pamphlet File

Finding Audio-Visual Sources: You Oughta Be in Pictures

Associating with Experts

Examining George Washington’s Letters: Researching from Special Collections

Chapter 7: Real Live People: Interviewing Techniques

Finding Interview Subjects: Where the People Are

Getting the Interview

Preparing for the Interview

Conducting the Interview

Cleaning Up: Changing Real Speech into Readable Quotations

Part III : Collecting Pearls of Wisdom: How to Take Notes

Chapter 8: One Size Does Not Fit All: Note-Taking Methods

Carding — the Old System

Note Taking on the Computer

Can’t We All Get Along? Combining Note Cards and Computers

Highlighting and Indexing

Indexing Audio-Visual Sources

Documenting Your Sources

Chapter 9: Note Taking: What to Write, What to Skip

Surveying the Field: Preliminary Notes

Note Taking with Focus

Avoiding Common Pitfalls: Too Many, Too Few, and Repetitive Notes

N Tkg W/ Abbr.

Taking Proper Notes: An Example

Chapter 10: Staying on the Right Side of the Law

Avoiding Plagiarism for Fun and Profit

Quote Unquote

Deciding When to Cite Sources

Seeing What You Don’t Have to Cite

Following the Golden Rule of Citations

Staying on the Right Side of the Copyright Law

Part IV : More Than Sharpening Pencils: Preparing to Write

Chapter 11: Forming a Thesis Statement

Laying a Firm Foundation for Your Paper

Forming a Thesis and Writing a Thesis Statement

Avoiding Potholes: Too Broad, Too Narrow, or Self-Evident Theses

Examining Quality Thesis Statements

Forming a Topic Sentence

Choosing a Title

Chapter 12: Choosing a Structure for Your Paper

Marrying Form and Content: The Right Structure with the Right Thesis

Considering the Options: Structures for Every Occasion

Organizing a Paper That Doesn’t Have a Thesis

Personalizing a Structural Framework

Chapter 13: Organizing the Information: Subtopics

Mining Research Notes for Subtopics

Matching Subtopics to Structure

Sorting Notes: Placing the Right Idea in the Right Basket

Chapter 14: The Battle Plan: Constructing an Outline

Drawing Up a Battle Plan: Why Outlines Are Necessary

Indenting by the Rules: How to Format an Outline

Turning Notes into an Outline: A Practical Guide

Checking the Logical Path

Part V : Turn on the Computer, Fill the Fountain Pen: It’s Time to Write

Chapter 15: Allow Me to Introduce Myself: Writing an Effective Introduction

Setting Your Reader on the Right Path: What an Introduction Accomplishes

Creating and Placing the Essential Elements of the Introduction

Steering Clear of Vague Introductions

Writing Introductions for Science and Business Research Papers

Chapter 16: The Body of Evidence

Putting Meat on the Bones: Writing the Body of the Paper

Defining Paragraphs and Writing Topic Sentences

Staying on Topic: The Tuna Fish Defense

Connecting the Dots: Moving from One Subtopic to Another

Presenting Evidence and Relating It to a Thesis

Inserting Quotations

One Picture Is Worth . . .

Answering Objections in Advance: Concession and Reply

Chapter 17: And in Conclusion . . .

Summarizing versus Concluding: How to Tell the Difference

Packing the Essentials: What the Conclusion Must Contain

Getting It Together: How to Combine the Essential Elements of a Conclusion

Concluding a Survey Paper

Concluding Science Research Papers

Chapter 18: The Picky Stuff: Citing Sources

Giving Credit Where Credit Is Due: Documenting Sources

Meeting the Major Players in the Citation Game

Chapter 19: It’s a Breeze: The Final Draft

Polishing Is Not Just for Shoes

Styling Your Sentences

Fixing Grammar Gremlins

Putting It All Together

Chapter 20: Solving Special Problems

Adjusting Length: The Long and the Short of It

Overcoming Writer’s Block

Surviving Research Disasters

Part VI : The Part of Tens

Chapter 21: The Ten Best Ways to Start Electronic Research

Designing a Search

Revving Up a Search Engine

Taxing Government Resources

Hitting the Library

Hitting the Other Library

Checking Your FAQs

Getting Down to Business

Reading the Paper

Opening Up a Subject Catalogue

Finding People

Chapter 22: The Ten Best Ways to Start Traditional Research

Asking the Boss

Asking the Librarian

Opening the Catalogue

Referring to Reference Books

Checking the Children’s Section

Reading the Reader’s Guide

Noting the News

Perusing the Pamphlet File

Browsing Bowker’s

Going Shopping

Appendix

Arts

Arts Topics for Younger Writers

History

History Topics for Younger Writers

Literature and Language

Literature Topics for Younger Writers

Science, Mathematics, and Technology

Science, Mathematics, and Technology Topics for Younger Writers

Social Science and Psychology

Social Science and Psychology Topics for Younger Writers

Interdisciplinary Ideas

Interdisciplinary Ideas for Younger Writers

Introduction

You’re sitting at your desk in a classroom or in an airless cubicle, wondering how many minutes are left in the century it’s taking the day to be over. Suddenly Ms. Sharkface, your teacher or supervisor, lowers the boom: She wants a research paper. She wants footnotes and a list of sources. She wants originality, accuracy, and good grammar. And — gasp — she wants ten pages! You may be 12 years old or 60 years old, but your reaction is the same — Help! Ms. Sharkface may as well have said, “I want you to run a marathon blindfolded and in sandals!”

Take heart. A research paper may seem daunting, but the project is not impossible. Turning research into writing is actually quite easy as long as you follow a few proven techniques. In this book I show you how to search for information using both traditional printed sources and the electronic treasure troves of the World Wide Web. I explain how to collect the valuable bits and dump the rest, how to make sense of the information you retrieve, and how to write an outline. I give you a step-by-step guide to creating a thesis statement, the idea that you argue or prove in the paper, or a hypothesis, the “educated guess” that your lab work tests. I show you the easiest writing methods and demystify all the picky stuff, like citations and format.

Much of this book concerns papers written with the help of material that other people have gathered or created — your sources. However, those of you who are writing science research papers based on your own lab work will also find useful information in Research Papers For Dummies. I don’t tell you how to light a Bunsen burner or culture slimy green things, but I do show you how to find studies that relate to your current research, how to incorporate those studies into your paper, and how to cite them. I also explain the conventions of scientific writing. Likewise, I don’t ignore those of you who have left your schoolbooks behind and entered the business world. Research Papers For Dummies has explanations of business writing style, report format, business-oriented research, and so forth.

How to Use This Book

If you’re writing a research paper, chances are you already have a lot of demands on your time. You don’t need another huge pile of paper to read. But this book can actually save you time in the long run because it gives you the easiest, fastest, most successful methods for completing your paper.

The best use of this book is to read the sections you need when you actually need them, not all at once. You can’t learn to ride a bicycle in the abstract; you have to put the rubber on the road. Likewise, you won’t remember the information in Research Papers For Dummies unless you put it to use. Let this book be a practical part of the paper-writing process, not a theoretical consideration of the task.

Finally, keep a sharp eye out for these three types of examples scattered throughout the text:

Source material: To show you how to take notes and how to deal with sources efficiently (and legally), I provide several excerpts from books and articles that never existed except in my imagination. The source examples are labeled as figures.

Sample citations: When you write a research paper, you have to ensure that the reader knows where you found all the information. The rules for documenting sources are annoyingly complex. To make matters worse, several sets of rules exist, each thicker than the phone book of a medium-sized urban area. I explain these rules, and I also throw in some examples from each set, so that you can see how the finished documentation is supposed to look.

Sample sections from research papers: You can think about writing for hours, but until you actually see a passage — with an explanation of what’s correct and what isn’t — the theory of good writing remains, well, a theory. Sample sections of research papers, not from real students or employees but from me, show you what to aim for and what to avoid in your writing. I let my imagination roam when I wrote these examples, so be prepared for some really loopy topics, and don’t trust any of the information. I made up all the “facts,” but the techniques of writing are totally sound.

What You’re Not to Read

“Subject-Area Example” icons are scattered throughout the book. These icons indicate that the material is pegged to a particular discipline — literature and language, math and science, history and social science, and the like. Ignore the subject-area examples that are irrelevant to your paper because the format and conventions for one field may differ from those of another. Concentrate on the subject area that your research paper covers. Business-oriented readers should ignore all the subject-area examples and head directly for the material marked with the “Business Alert” icon. Anything not labeled “Subject-Area Example” or “Business Alert” is for everyone.

Foolish Assumptions

In this book, I make a number of assumptions about you, the reader. The wise decision to buy this book tells me (modesty being my best quality) that you’re pretty smart. I’m assuming that you purchased Research Papers For Dummies because you approach your work seriously. I also assume that you see writing a research paper as a tough job and you want it to go more smoothly. If you’re in school, you probably get decent grades. If you’re in the working world, you handle your job well. In either case, I assume that you want to do even better.

I am not assuming that every reader has a personal computer and Internet connection at home, although I wouldn’t be surprised if most do. I am assuming that most readers have an on-ramp to the information superhighway somewhere — at school, at the public library, or at work. Anyone who can’t access the Internet will still find plenty of help in Research Papers For Dummies because I show you how to research from traditional, nonelectronic sources.

How This Book Is Organized

Research Papers For Dummies is loosely patterned after the process you can use to write your paper. Part I provides an overview of the task, explaining the characteristics of each type of research paper, so you know what you’re trying to write. Part II tackles the research process, describing how to find everything about anything. Part III covers note taking, so you know what to do with all that information. Getting ready to write is the subject of Part IV, while Part V describes the best way to create and revise a final draft. The legendary “Part of Tens” of the For Dummies series is in Part VI — that’s where I tell you the best places to start a search for the process of writing a research paper. The appendix provides a list of proven ideas for the topically challenged reader. Now for more detail.

Part I: Figuring Out What You Are Writing and How to Write It

What’s the assignment, anyway? A term paper, a library paper, or a marketing report? A science research paper? A business plan? Maybe a dissertation? Chapter 1 explains the defining characteristics of each type of research paper, so you know what form your project should take. This chapter also describes the basic ingredients of every paper and outlines the process to follow as you create your masterpiece. (I like to think positive.) Chapter 2 gets you off on the right foot (no offense intended to the lefties out there) by explaining how to keep track of your work. This chapter also shows you how to budget your time and how to adapt to the demands of the particular Authority Figure — the teacher, professor, supervisor, parole officer, extraterrestrial life form, or boss you report to. Chapter 3 reveals how to move from a vague subject to a topic to a thesis. For the lab-coat crowd, Chapter 3 also explains how to state a hypothesis.

Part II: Finding Everything about Anything: Research

In this part, I explain how to find the information you need for your research paper. Chapter 4 takes you on a swift tour of all the research bases, from traditional to electronic to audio-visual. Chapter 4 defines all those terms that Authority Figures love to throw around, such as primary and secondary sources. This chapter also explains how to evaluate sources. Chapter 5 takes you surfing on the Internet, and Chapter 6 helps you locate and research from more-traditional sources. In Chapter 7 you find out how to get information from actual, breathing human beings, with tips on arranging interviews and getting help from organizations and interest groups.

Part III: Collecting Pearls of Wisdom: How to Take Notes

If you love shoeboxes full of index cards, this part is for you. If you hate shoeboxes full of index cards, this part is for you, too! In Chapters 8 and 9, I describe the easiest, most efficient way to plow through piles of information and the best method of keeping track of what you learn in the process. Tips for the computer-phobic, as well as for the computer-addicted, are also in these chapters. Chapter 10 explains how to avoid plagiarism — the crime against intellectual honesty that can get you booted out of school or fired from your job.

Part IV: More Than Sharpening Pencils: Preparing to Write

You’ve got a binder, a shoebox, a carton, or a tractor-trailer full of facts. Now what do you do? This part takes you through some prewriting steps that make the whole project a breeze. Chapter 11 shows you how to write a thesis statement, the cornerstone of your paper. Chapter 12 helps you choose a structure for the paper that suits your thesis statement. Chapters 13 and 14 reveal how to organize your material and create an outline — the recipe for your paper.

Part V: Turn on the Computer, Fill the Fountain Pen: It’s Time to Write

In this part, the big moment arrives, and you actually write the paper. Chapter 15 introduces introductions, showing you where to place your thesis statement and explaining how to avoid sending your reader into a yawning fit. Chapter 16 tackles the body, and Chapter 17 provides the lowdown on conclusions. In Chapter 18, you find out how to cite sources and create a bibliography. I also guide you through the wonderful world of punctuation. Chapter 19 brings you to the finish line, discussing those last, little steps — margins, title pages, and the like — that put your paper over the top. Chapter 20 is a first-aid kit for ailing research papers, just in case you encounter any last-minute difficulties.

Part VI: The Part of Tens

Here I take you to the 20 best places (ten virtual, ten not) to begin your research.

Appendix

If you’re having trouble with one of the fundamentals of research-paper writing — choosing a topic — check out the appendix, which provides a list of possible paper topics, plus the “big questions” of each field. The big questions, such as What are the immediate and background causes of a historical event? and Compare early and late works by the same author, are frameworks for zillions of papers. Choose one of the big questions and plug in the ideas most interesting to you, or use one of the topics I supply for each category.

Bonus Web Chapter

For your added reading pleasure, there is a bonus chapter located on the Web. This extra chapter offers great information for writing papers on a variety of different subject areas. “Subject Area Do’s and Don’ts” can be found at www.dummies.com/extras.

Icons Used in This Book

Icons are the signposts that flag your attention to certain areas of distinction. Five different ones are used in this book. Here’s what each represents:

This icon alerts you to helpful hints, the sort of thing that insiders know and outsiders would love to find out. When you see this icon, just imagine that a seasoned commuter is taking you on a shortcut around five miles of bumper-to-bumper traffic.

This icon alerts you to the potholes on the path to research-paper perfection. When you see this icon, imagine a red flag indicating danger ahead.

This icon marks strategies for the easiest and best way to accomplish a task. Think of it as a playbook for a championship team. (Go Yankees!)

This icon is a signal that the accompanying information targets only one of the following areas: Arts; History and Social Science; Literature and Language; or Science, Mathematics, and Technology.

When you see this icon, you know the information is for those of us who are glued to our desks for far too many hours every day. This icon alerts you to sources for business information, tips on writing in a professional setting, and other stuff that they teach in really expensive business schools.

Where to Go from Here

Before you go any further, take stock of the situation. Look at the assignment. What is the teacher (or boss or coach or drill sergeant) asking for? When is it due? Now look at yourself. What are your strengths and weaknesses? I’m not talking about how you look in a pair of stretch pants or your ability to carry a tune. I’m talking about the way you handle writing tasks and the way you go about gathering information. Figure out, honestly now, which aspect of the process is hardest for you.

Now look at your life. How much time are you willing or able to devote to this project? Be realistic and specific here. “Twenty-six hours a day” is not an acceptable answer. Neither is “Whatever will get me an A” or “Whatever will get me a promotion.”

All done? Okay, you’re ready to turn to Part I for a bird’s-eye view of the whole project. Then get out your calendar and make a plan. Chart the steps you need to take, and choose the chapters in this book that help you with each phase of the work. Now you’re set to write the best-ever research paper. Go!

Part I

Figuring Out What You Are Writing and How to Write It

In this part . . .

If you’ve ever made 15 consecutive wrong turns while driving in an unfamiliar city, you’ve probably wished that you could soar into the air for a glimpse of the route to your destination. (Nice to leave the traffic behind, too.) I can’t do much about your car troubles, but in this part, I do give you a bird’s-eye view of the process of writing a research paper. Chapter 1 explains what you’re writing and why. Chapter 2 outlines the best approaches to a long-term project and explains how to budget your time. In Chapter 2, I also give you some tips on pleasing that all-important Authority Figure, the one who will read and judge your work. Chapter 3 tackles the subject of your paper and shows you how to decide exactly what you’re writing about.

Chapter 1

Running a Marathon in Sandals, or Writing a Research Paper

In This Chapter

Clarifying the goals of a research project

Knowing the basic parts of a research paper

Distinguishing between different types of research papers

Understanding the steps involved in writing a research paper

Okay, you have a research paper to write and you think your Authority Figure (the one who will ultimately read the research paper that you write) is an Attila-the-Hun-wannabe, intent on ruining your life. Well, I’m here to tell you that the Authority Figure isn’t trying to torture you. Forcing you to run a marathon in sandals would be more efficient and cause less pain for your teacher or boss, if cruelty were the intent. Instead, the person assigning the paper may actually want you to learn something. Or, he or she may truly need the information that you dig up. In this chapter, I tell you what you’re supposed to gain from the process of writing a research paper. I define the various types of research papers, so you know exactly what you’re supposed to be creating. Finally, I give you an overview of the steps involved in all research projects.