Resilient Power Electronic Systems E-Book

Shahriyar Kaboli

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 625

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022

Beschreibung

Resilient Power Electronic Systems Discover an advanced reference offering a powerful novel approach to the design and use of reliable and fault-tolerant power electronic systems In Resilient Power Electronic Systems, a team of accomplished researchers deliver an insightful treatment of the challenges faced by practitioners and researchers working with power electronic converters and attempting to analyze internal and external failure mechanisms. The authors expertly present advanced techniques for reducing noise effects on fault detection and prognosis. Comprised of thirteen chapters, the authors discuss the concepts of resilience and effective operative life in the context of power electronics. The differences between reliable and efficient systems are discussed, as well as the nature of these differences in complex systems. Finally, the book explores various methods to improve the resilience of power converters. Resilient Power Electronic Systems is packed with features, including illustrations, practice problems, and PowerPoint presentations. The book also includes: * A thorough introduction to the application of power electronics in various industries, as well as the concept of resilience in a power converter * Comprehensive explorations of resilience against fault tolerance, including fault-tolerant power converters and resilient power converters * Practical discussions of the state-of-the-art in resilient power converters, including examinations of mission-critical applications * In-depth examinations of internal and external fault in power converters with mission-critical applications Resilient Power Electronic Systems is an indispensable resource for researchers, professionals, and postgraduate students studying power electronics. It's also an ideal reference for research and development engineers working with the design and development of power electronic converters.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright Page

Preface

About the Companion Website

Part 1: Resilient Power Electronic Systems

1 Resilient Systems

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Definition of a System

1.3 Resilience Concept

1.4 Faulty Condition in a System

1.5 System Health Awareness

1.6 Methods for Resilience

1.7 Inherently Resilient Systems

1.8 Summary and Conclusions

References

2 Mission Critical Power Electronic Systems

2.1 Power Electronic Converters

2.2 Power Electronic Systems

2.3 Applications

2.4 Mission Critical Applications

2.5 Summary and Conclusions

References

3 Resilience in Power Electronics

3.1 Faulty Condition in Power Electronic Systems

3.2 Fault Types

3.3 Availability

3.4 Road to Resilience

3.5 Inherently Resilient Converters

3.6 Maintenance Scheduling

3.7 Two Case Studies

3.8 Summary and Conclusions

References

4 State of the Art Resilient Power Converters

4.1 Mission Critical

4.2 Resilient Systems

4.3 Resilient Power Electronic Converters

4.4 Summary and Conclusions

References

Part 2: Useful Life of the Power Electronic Systems

5 Useful Life Modeling

5.1 Failure Rate

5.2 Accelerated Aging Tests

5.3 End of Life Models

5.4 Thermomechanical Models

5.5 System Life Modeling

5.6 Summary and Conclusions

References

6 Internal Faults

6.1 Converter Level Faults

6.2 Electrical Considerations

6.3 Thermal Considerations

6.4 Mechanical Considerations

6.5 Environmental Considerations

6.6 Summary and Conclusions

References

7 Internal Faults

7.1 Element Level Faults

7.2 Inside the Elements

7.3 Faults in Active Devices

7.4 Thermal Cycling

7.5 Faults in Passive Devices

7.6 Summary and Conclusions

References

8 External Faults

8.1 Origins of the External Faults

8.2 Resilience During External Faults

8.3 Types of External Faults

8.4 Fault Clearance

8.5 Summary and Conclusions

References

9 Malfunctioning

9.1 Electromagnetic Pollution

9.2 Description of Electromagnetic Disturbances

9.3 EMI in Power Electronic Equipment

9.4 Conducted EMI Measurement

9.5 Noise Suppression

9.6 EMC Standards

9.7 Summary and Conclusions

References

Part 3: Health Estimation of the Power Electronic Systems

10 Condition Monitoring

10.1 Reasons for Condition Monitoring

10.2 Aims of Condition Monitoring

10.3 Methods of Condition Monitoring

10.4 Detection System

10.5 Summary and Conclusions

References

11 Fault Prognosis

11.1 Importance of the Fault Prognosis

11.2 Methods of Fault Prognosis

11.3 Element‐Level Internal Faults Prognosis

11.4 External Faults Prognosis

11.5 Summary and Conclusions

References

12 Fault Diagnosis

12.1 Tools and Considerations of Fault Diagnosis

12.2 Fault Isolation with Resilience Considerations

12.3 Post‐Fault Analysis

12.4 Summary and Conclusions

References

Part 4: Methods of Resilience in Power Electronic Systems

13 Resilience Against Internal Faults

13.1 Stress Reduction as a Tool of Resilience

13.2 Methods of Stress Reduction

13.3 Derating

13.4 System Derating

13.5 Component Derating

13.6 Summary and Conclusions

References

14 Resilience Against External Faults

14.1 Resilient Protection System

14.2 Electromagnetic Compatibility

14.3 Application of Artificial Intelligent Methods

14.4 Fault Alarm Management

14.5 Summary and Conclusions

References

15 Inherently Resilient Power Electronic Systems

15.1 Immune Converter Against the Faults

15.2 Elimination of Weak Elements

15.3 Reconfigurable Converters

15.4 Redundancy

15.5 Working Under the Fault Threshold

15.6 Inherently Resilient Elements

15.7 Summary and Conclusions

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 A comparison between the characteristics of two cars.

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Characteristics of the analyzed PDU.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Thermal and electrical equivalent pairs.

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 EOL criteria of various capacitors.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Simulation conditions and FD parameters.

Table 12.2 Converter specifications.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 A basic diagram about the resilience concept for a mission critic...

Figure 1.2 A system block diagram with some inputs and outputs.

Figure 1.3 A system consists of some subsystems.

Figure 1.4 Various subsystems in a laptop.

Figure 1.5 Two different cars at the same level.

Figure 1.6 Definition of the useful life concept base on the system performa...

Figure 1.7 The famous Bomber B‐17.

Figure 1.8 Two damaged B‐17 bombers that came back to the origin airport, (a...

Figure 1.9 The

All American

Flying Fortress bomber aircraft.

Figure 1.10 Time diagram of a comparison between a resilient system and a fa...

Figure 1.11 Mission profile of a human during one day.

Figure 1.12 Mission profile of a solar plant during one day.

Figure 1.13 Some applications with mission critical. (a) surgery room, (b) a...

Figure 1.14 The Japanese men's gymnastics team in 1976 Montreal Olympics; Sh...

Figure 1.15 Internal fault in the engine of an aircraft.

Figure 1.16 Miracle on the Hudson.

Figure 1.17 Air France Flight 447.

Figure 1.18 The human nervous system.

Figure 1.19 Some examples of the condition monitoring systems. (a): in a pla...

Figure 1.20 The Cooper test.

Figure 1.21 Blood test as a prognosis of the human illness.

Figure 1.22 Inspection of a brake disc.

Figure 1.23 Chest as a protective part of the body.

Figure 1.24 Protective guard of a car.

Figure 1.25 Fire extinguisher of aircraft engines.

Figure 1.26 Aging as a derating process in a man.

Figure 1.27 Boeing 777: the largest twinjet aircraft that fly with one engin...

Figure 1.28 An electric soft starter used for reducing the stress on the ele...

Figure 1.29 Two inherently resilient aircrafts, (a) U‐2, (b) SR‐71.

Figure 1.30 Mongoose as an inherently resilient animal against external faul...

Figure 1.31 Most humans are born with two kidneys that they can operate redu...

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 A rectifier circuit diagram as a power electronic converter.

Figure 2.2 Application of power electronic converters for reducing the weigh...

Figure 2.3 Passive and active elements of a power electronic converter.

Figure 2.4 Some types of resistors used in power electronics: (a) a resistor...

Figure 2.5 Various applications of the capacitors in power electronics: (a) ...

Figure 2.6 Applications of magnetic elements in power electronics: (a) induc...

Figure 2.7 The diode as a switch in power electronics: (a) typical semicondu...

Figure 2.8 The thyristor and its application: (a): Typical thyristor semicon...

Figure 2.9 Typical semiconductor layers in a BJT and its symbol.

Figure 2.10 The MOSFET and its application: (a) typical semiconductor layers...

Figure 2.11 Three‐phase inverter based on IGBT: (a) circuit diagram, (b) int...

Figure 2.12 A linear solid‐state amplifier.

Figure 2.13 A high frequency switching power electronic converter.

Figure 2.14 Rectifiers and their applications: (a): single‐ and three‐phase ...

Figure 2.15 DC to DC converters and their applications: (a) circuit diagram ...

Figure 2.16 Single and three AC controller.

Figure 2.17 The Sirjan Iron refining factory in Iran: (a) high‐power blowers...

Figure 2.18 A single‐phase high‐frequency inverter and its output voltage wa...

Figure 2.19 A three‐phase inverter.

Figure 2.20 Output voltages of a three‐phase inverter.

Figure 2.21 A commercial motor drive.

Figure 2.22 Application of a power electronic in renewable energy

Figure 2.23 A single‐phase power electronic converter and its input and outp...

Figure 2.24 Two waveforms with poor THD: (a) low‐frequency harmonics, (b) hi...

Figure 2.25 A real DC voltage with ripple voltage.

Figure 2.26 An equipment with the defined duty cycle.

Figure 2.27 The reliability curve of a converter.

Figure 2.28 Modern power electronic based power system.

Figure 2.29 A small power electronic converter in an integrated circuit.

Figure 2.30 A high‐voltage low‐power DC to DC converter.

Figure 2.31 Applications of power electronics in the kilowatt range: (a) a 5...

Figure 2.32 A high‐voltage stacked switch with 6 MW nominal peak power and i...

Figure 2.33 A high‐voltage Marx generator with 1.2 GW nominal peak power and...

Figure 2.34 A water‐cooled high‐power motor drive with a switching frequency...

Figure 2.35 A high‐voltage ozone generator that operates at 6 kHz.

Figure 2.36 A low‐power high‐frequency DC to DC converter that operates at 8...

Figure 2.37 An electromagnet used for producing radioactive drugs.

Figure 2.38 Application of a high‐voltage power converter with a qualificati...

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 A power electronic system with single source‐single converter‐sin...

Figure 3.2 Operation diagram of a converter with non‐resilient behavior: (a)...

Figure 3.3 Operation diagram of a converter with resilient behavior: (a) nor...

Figure 3.4 A power electronic system with single source‐single converter–mul...

Figure 3.5 A power electronic system with a single‐source multi‐individual c...

Figure 3.6 A power electronic system with a multi‐individual source–multi‐in...

Figure 3.7 A power electronic system with a multi‐source–multi‐converter–mul...

Figure 3.8 A power electronic system with single‐source–multi‐converter–mult...

Figure 3.9 Some failed parts of the converters due to the temperature proble...

Figure 3.10 Two failed parts due to the electric breakdown: (a) capacitor, (...

Figure 3.11 Effect of mechanical forces on the components: (a): broken conne...

Figure 3.12 Effect of humidity on the transformer core.

Figure 3.13 Effect of the noise on the signal of converter: (a) without nois...

Figure 3.14 A temporary overcurrent fault versus the time.

Figure 3.15 Comparison between the operation of a resilient converter and th...

Figure 3.16 Resilience at the element level: (a): a non‐resilient resistor, ...

Figure 3.17 Derating curve of a diode.

Figure 3.18 Effect of maintenance scheduling on the system fault: (a) withou...

Figure 3.19 A basic structure for PDU with two output voltage levels.

Figure 3.20 Illustrative presentation of the drawback of conventional PDU an...

Figure 3.21 A regulator module.

Figure 3.22 A conventional PDU with M DC output voltage level and one standb...

Figure 3.23 A redundant adjustable module in the proposed structure.

Figure 3.24 Flow diagram of the proposed PDU.

Figure 3.25 The proposed PDU with M DC output voltage level and N adjustable...

Figure 3.26 The Markov model of the conventional PDU (a) and the proposed PD...

Figure 3.27 Reliability curves of the proposed structure and the conventiona...

Figure 3.28 Safe operating time for the proposed structure and the conventio...

Figure 3.29 Output voltage of regulators and their respective duty cycles in...

Figure 3.30 Long term operation of PDU during fault.

Figure 3.31 Transient performance of the proposed PDU during a fault that le...

Figure 3.32 Diagram of the high voltage DC power supply.

Figure 3.33 Conventional high voltage power supply with series‐connected thy...

Figure 3.34 Waveforms of voltages variation under a transient fault with the...

Figure 3.35 Waveforms of a voltage variation under a transient fault with th...

Figure 3.36 Waveforms of voltages variation under a fault with the thyristor...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Resilience characteristic of a mission critical system.

Figure 4.2 A lamp with two filaments.

Figure 4.3 Conveyor of the Sirjan iron mine, Iran.

Figure 4.4 Applications of power electronics in an electrical vehicle.

Figure 4.5 A typical IGBT package with die and its connections.

Figure 4.6 Magnetic beam former for radiopharmaceutical applications.

Figure 4.7 A multilevel high‐voltage pulser for medical applications.

Figure 4.8 Floating capacitors of a VSC.

Figure 4.9 Power distribution unit of a satellite with redundant modules for...

Figure 4.10 The output voltage and current of a HVPS during the crowbar oper...

Figure 4.11 Infrared photo of a converter shows over‐temperature in the swit...

Figure 4.12 Partial shadow on a solar plant.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Weibull distribution of the failure rate.

Figure 5.2 V‐I characteristics of an electric insulator.

Figure 5.3 Difference between NDT and DT in an electric withstand test.

Figure 5.4 A thermal cycling chamber.

Figure 5.5 A scenario for thermal cycling.

Figure 5.6 A scenario for thermal shock.

Figure 5.7 Different values of quality factor in MIL‐217.

Figure 5.8 A comparison between the temperature factor in MIL‐217 between di...

Figure 5.9 A comparison between the temperature factor in MIL‐217 among diod...

Figure 5.10 A comparison between the temperature factor in MIL‐217 between d...

Figure 5.11 Different values of environmental factor in MIL‐217.

Figure 5.12 Different values of voltage factor for diode in MIL‐217.

Figure 5.13 A comparison between values of voltage factor for diode (left) a...

Figure 5.14 Different values of factor for a capacitor in MIL‐217.

Figure 5.15 A simple heat transfer layout.

Figure 5.16 Thermal equivalent circuit of the simple heat transfer layout in...

Figure 5.17 Thermal equivalent circuit in the Foster model.

Figure 5.18 Thermal equivalent circuit in the Cauer model.

Figure 5.19 Thermal impedance of an IGBT.

Figure 5.20 The COMSOL software as a FEM analyzer.

Figure 5.21 The results of the thermal study.

Figure 5.22 The flowchart of the framework.

Figure 5.23 The elaborated diagram of the framework including both state gen...

Figure 5.24 A comparison between the results from Markov or Monte Carlo mode...

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Electric breakdown in the winding of an inductor.

Figure 6.2 Increasing the creepage distance on the outer side of a high volt...

Figure 6.3 Creepage phenomenon on a high voltage bushing.

Figure 6.4 Clearance and creepage distances on the terminals of a power modu...

Figure 6.5 PCB minimum spacing in different standards.

Figure 6.6 Voltage spikes in a power converter.

Figure 6.7 The PD current in the tested insulator, CH1: applied voltage, CH2...

Figure 6.8 The insulator tests result: (a) before voltage applying, (b) afte...

Figure 6.9 A damaged solid‐state switch due to the overtemperature.

Figure 6.10 SOA of two switches: (a) MOPSFET, (b) IGBT:

Source:

ON semicondu...

Figure 6.11 The diode I–V characteristic: (a) fast recovery diode, (b) SiC d...

Figure 6.12 The thyristor I–V characteristic: TDK (with permission).

Figure 6.13 MOSFET I‐V characteristic: (a) Si MOSFET, (b) SiC MOSFET.

Figure 6.14 SiC MOSFET switching losses.

Figure 6.15 The I–V characteristic of an IGBT: (a) 25 °C, (b) 175 °C.

Figure 6.16 The conduction and switching losses of an IGBT: (a) conduction l...

Figure 6.17 The effect of a temperature rise on the switching losses of an I...

Figure 6.18 A damaged resistor due to the overcurrent fault.

Figure 6.19 The capacitor loss characteristics: (a) frequency response of fi...

Figure 6.20 PCB trace width for different temperature rises.

Figure 6.21 Soldering profile for a power electronic switch.

Figure 6.22 Examples of poor mounting of the devices in power electronic sys...

Figure 6.23 Application of conformal coating for fixing the devices.

Figure 6.24 The standard method for providing a heatsink with thermally cond...

Figure 6.25 The effect of proper pressure during the mounting of a device on...

Figure 6.26 The mechanical equipment for applying the proper pressure on the...

Figure 6.27 Effect of humidity on the surface quality of a power electronic ...

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Weibull distribution of the failure rate – bathtub shape.

Figure 7.2 Inside view of a power module.

Figure 7.3 Vertical view of a MOSFET die.

Figure 7.4 Vertical view of a multi‐die power module.

Figure 7.5 Wire bonds in power modules: (a) MicroFET, (b) TO‐247 IGBT.

Figure 7.6 High current contacts in a three‐phase rectifier.

Figure 7.7 Wire bond contacts in a power module.

Figure 7.8 Press‐fit contacts of a power module.

Figure 7.9 Schematic view and simplified model of a capacitor.

Figure 7.10 Physical structure of a real electrolyte capacitor.

Figure 7.11 Physical structure of a real ceramic capacitor.

Figure 7.12 Structure of an inductor: (a) with ferrite core, (b) planar indu...

Figure 7.13 A damaged die of an IGBT module.

Figure 7.14 Effect of wire bond lift‐off on the temperature of the contact....

Figure 7.15 The heel point of a wire bond.

Figure 7.16 Effect of solder fatigue on a power module.

Figure 7.17 The thermal impedance of various devices: (a) diode, (b) IGBT, (...

Figure 7.18 The temperature profile of a die for 100 μs power cycling.

Figure 7.19 The power cycling setup.

Figure 7.20 Two damaged resistors.

Figure 7.21 The open‐circuit contact fault in a capacitor.

Figure 7.22 A damaged capacitor due to the high‐temperature failure.

Figure 7.23 Effect of temperature rise on the lifetime of the capacitors....

Figure 7.24 Hotspot of a capacitor in power cycling studies.

Figure 7.25 Damaging of the capacitor contacts due to mechanical vibration....

Figure 7.26 Cracks appearing in the capacitor due to the mechanical shocks....

Figure 7.27 Two crack photos at the ceramic capacitor contacts.

Figure 7.28 The simplified model of an insulator in the presence of voids.

Figure 7.29 Two damaged insulators due to the PD power loss in the long term...

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 The paths of external faults in a power electronic converter.

Figure 8.2 Lightning waveforms: (a) standard waveform used in the tests, (b)...

Figure 8.3 A voltage sag in the DC power system.

Figure 8.4 Problems associated with distributed power

Figure 8.5 The output voltage and current of a high voltage power supply in ...

Figure 8.6 Rotor of an induction motor with top: end ring, right: bearing, l...

Figure 8.7 Problems in the motors that lead to external faults for the conve...

Figure 8.8 The trajectories of subatomic particles in the cloud chamber.

Figure 8.9 Relation between vapor density and relative humidity and temperat...

Figure 8.10 A high‐power inverter mounted under a train.

Figure 8.11 The accumulated dust on a power supply board.

Figure 8.12 Corrosion on the iron packet of a converter cooling fan.

Figure 8.13 Protecting devices against lightning at the input of the power c...

Figure 8.14 Crack propagation in a ceramic layer of a power module due to me...

Figure 8.15 Crack on a power IC package due to the pressure of the absorbed ...

Figure 8.16 Corrosion signs on the various electronic elements.

Figure 8.17 Increasing the die area of various IGBTs versus their nominal po...

Figure 8.18 A conventional high‐voltage power supply with the series‐connect...

Figure 8.19 Waveforms of voltage variations under a transient fault with the...

Figure 8.20 Single‐event property of the cosmic ray.

Figure 8.21 The dc volt‐ampere characteristics of vacuum arcs.

Figure 8.22 The average lifetime of the vacuum arc fault for different elect...

Figure 8.23 The transformer inrush current versus the time.

Figure 8.24 Overvoltage fault at the output of a buck converter due to the l...

Figure 8.25 A power electronic system with a single source–single converter–...

Figure 8.26 A power electronic system with a single source–single converter–...

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Areas of electromagnetic compatibility.

Figure 9.2 Frequency range of electromagnetic disturbances.

Figure 9.3 Some types of the noise and ripple: (a) the ground noise, (b) vol...

Figure 9.4 Some types of impulse and single events: (a) a high‐voltage impul...

Figure 9.5 Three samples of transients occurred in the startup of the transf...

Figure 9.6 The rectifier switch‐on waveforms.

Figure 9.7 Schematic diagram of a PWM‐current mode control ac/dc converter....

Figure 9.8 The effect of EMI on the measured voltage signal: (a) without EMI...

Figure 9.9 Structure of the HVPS with the protection and the FD system.

Figure 9.10 Conventional FD system.

Figure 9.11 Conventional FD system for the HVPS.

Figure 9.12 Effect of noise on the protection command of the converter.

Figure 9.13 Differential‐mode and common‐mode EMI voltage and current compon...

Figure 9.14 A simplified LISN.

Figure 9.15 Noise equivalent circuit.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 The system health diagram versus the time for normal and faulty ...

Figure 10.2 Flowchart of condition monitoring areas.

Figure 10.3 Variation of an IGBT collector–emitter voltage in the long term....

Figure 10.4 The detected current of a high‐voltage power supply and the reac...

Figure 10.5 Effect of timely maintenance on the system health.

Figure 10.6 Effect of derating on the system health.

Figure 10.7 Application of temperature sensor for condition monitoring, (a) ...

Figure 10.8 A data logger board including input analog inputs, high‐impedanc...

Figure 10.9 User manual of a data logger software: history record (1), start...

Figure 10.10 Variation of resistance of an NTC versus temperature.

Figure 10.11 Application of CT for current sensing in a switching power supp...

Figure 10.12 Application of high‐frequency CT for current sensing in a pulse...

Figure 10.13 A sample of IGBT current measured by a Rogowski coil.

Figure 10.14 A Hall‐effect current sensor, which is used for current measuri...

Figure 10.15 A high‐voltage divider.

Figure 10.16 A humidity sensor (a), and its characteristic (b).

Figure 10.17 Application of a fiber optic for isolated condition monitoring....

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Fault prognosis and diagnosis intervals in a faulty system.

Figure 11.2 Various fault prognosis methods.

Figure 11.3 Block diagram of the model‐based fault diagnosis.

Figure 11.4 Flow diagram of the model‐based fault diagnosis.

Figure 11.5 Fault prognosis by a temperature sensor on the heat sink of a co...

Figure 11.6 Effect of mechanical stability on the thermal resistance of a po...

Figure 11.7 Equivalent circuit of a real capacitor (a) and an impedance diag...

Figure 11.8 Flow diagram of fault prognosis in capacitors.

Figure 11.9 Variation of ESR in the capacitors: (a) ceramic capacitors, (b) ...

Figure 11.10 Effect of ESR increasing on the voltage ripple of the capacitor...

Figure 11.11 Power loss method for ESR calculation.

Figure 11.12 PD current in an insulator.

Figure 11.13 Effect of applied voltage on the lifetime of a Nomex insulator....

Figure 11.14 Power loss of an insulator considering PD.

Figure 11.15 Wire bond lift off: (a) normal state, (b) cracked wire.

Figure 11.16 Effect of wire bond lift‐off on the collector‐emitter voltage o...

Figure 11.17 Proposed circuit for detecting the long‐term variation of the c...

Figure 11.18 Thermal equivalent circuit in steady state used for thermal res...

Figure 11.19 Position of the temperature sensor inside a power module.

Figure 11.20 Direct measurement of the IGBT junction temperature by fiber op...

Figure 11.21 Schematic diagram of the bearing position in an electric motor....

Figure 11.22 High‐frequency harmonic current path through the bearing.

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 The goals of fault diagnosis.

Figure 12.2 A buck converter with the output voltage sensor.

Figure 12.3 Effect of failure in the capacitor of a power supply on the ripp...

Figure 12.4 Temperature rise of three different transformers in a power supp...

Figure 12.5 Structure of the HVPS with the protection and the FD system.

Figure 12.6 Conventional FD system.

Figure 12.7 Proposed FD system.

Figure 12.8 Conventional FD system for the HVPS.

Figure 12.9 Weighted decision fusion algorithm.

Figure 12.10 First (a) and second (b) FD subsystems.

Figure 12.11 Equivalent circuit of the HVPS in the SCF condition.

Figure 12.12 Third FD subsystem.

Figure 12.13 Decision fusion center.

Figure 12.14 Time diagram of false alarms announcement.

Figure 12.15 Block diagram of FD system: (a) Conventional FD system, (b) pro...

Figure 12.16 FD test results: (a) conventional FD, (b) proposed FD.

Figure 12.17 Measured waveforms under SCF: (a) first FD system, (b) second F...

Figure 12.18 D

1

, D

2

, D

3

, and D

g

in the presence of noise: (a) with no fals...

Figure 12.19 A broken ceramic of the power module.

Figure 12.20 Twinning in the broken ceramic: (a) three regions with twinning...

Figure 12.21 The required stress for twin propagation versus increasing the ...

Figure 12.22 Twin growth on the surface of a power module.

Figure 12.23 Multilayer formation of the melted region.

Figure 12.24 Original microstructure of the annealed Kovar 4J34.

Figure 12.25 Three zones, BM, HAZ, and FZ, in the cross‐section.

Figure 12.26 The interface between BM‐HAZ and HAZ‐FZ.

Figure 12.27 Semi‐melted grains in section C.

Figure 12.28 Martensitic transformation in section F.

Figure 12.29 Coarse twining in HAZ in section D.

Figure 12.30 Straight columnar formation in section E.

Figure 12.31 Columnar formation inside FZ in section G.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Stress‐strength diagram of the systems under low and high stress...

Figure 13.2 A comparison between temperature factor in MIL‐217 between diode...

Figure 13.3 Temperature swing of the junction (up) of an IGBT while the case...

Figure 13.4 Temperature swing of the junction (up) of an IGBT and the case t...

Figure 13.5 Thermal equivalent circuit in the Cauer model.

Figure 13.6 Thermal impedance of an IGBT.

Figure 13.7 A high‐voltage series‐connected diode stack.

Figure 13.8 I–V curve of a varistor.

Figure 13.9 Application of varistors in a high‐voltage rectifier.

Figure 13.10 Application of conformal coating to protect the power converter...

Figure 13.11 Application of RTV adhesive for mechanical stability of electro...

Figure 13.12 A dust filter with EMI cover.

Figure 13.13 A loading curve for derating a generator.

Figure 13.14 Some derating curves for various switches: (a) permissible drai...

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Diagram of the high‐voltage dc power supply and its protection s...

Figure 14.2 Timing diagram of protection against a SCF in a HVDCPS.

Figure 14.3 The schematic of the HVFCL based on series‐connected IGBTs.

Figure 14.4 The brief operation principle of the active clamp method.

Figure 14.5 The brief operation principle of the CMRCD snubbers.

Figure 14.6 Increment of the MPSCT interval by balancing the voltage of the ...

Figure 14.7 The improved results achieved by the proposed structure.

Figure 14.8 MPSCT achieved by different approaches.

Figure 14.9 The block diagram of the high‐voltage dc power supply.

Figure 14.10 Structure of the IGBT‐based crowbar including series connected ...

Figure 14.11 The comparison simulation results of FCIT and AE of both crowba...

Figure 14.12 The waveforms of the variation of variables of HVPS with thyris...

Figure 14.13 The waveforms of the variation of variables of HVPS with IGBT‐b...

Figure 14.14 Noise voltage between different grounds.

Figure 14.15 Single‐point ground connection.

Figure 14.16 Multi‐point ground connection.

Figure 14.17 Grounding the system parts according to their noise behavior.

Figure 14.18 A comparison between two grounding designs: (a) poor design, (b...

Figure 14.19 Operation principle of shielding.

Figure 14.20 A shielded circuit.

Figure 14.21 Neural network‐based FDS.

Figure 14.22 Structure of a neural network: (a) different kinds of layers, (...

Figure 14.23 Neural network‐based FDS training scheme.

Figure 14.24 Experimental results of the conventional FDS and proposed FDS o...

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Schematic configuration of a Z‐source inverter.

Figure 15.2 Equivalent circuits of ZSI: (a) shoot‐through mode, (b) non‐shoo...

Figure 15.3 Schematic diagram of a buck converter.

Figure 15.4 N‐phase interleaved buck converter circuit.

Figure 15.5 Variation of total inductor current ripple versus duty cycle in ...

Figure 15.6 The inductor current of phase 1.

Figure 15.7 Schematic diagram of two‐phase buck converter.

Figure 15.8 Output voltage of two‐phase buck converter.

Figure 15.9 Output voltage ripple of two‐phase buck converter.

Figure 15.10 Current waveforms of inductors in two‐phase buck converter.

Figure 15.11 Schematic diagram of a single‐phase buck converter.

Figure 15.12 Output voltage of a single‐phase buck converter.

Figure 15.13 Output voltage ripple of a single‐phase buck converter.

Figure 15.14 Inductor current of a single‐phase buck converter.

Figure 15.15 A reconfigurable converter with up: original scheme, middle: st...

Figure 15.16 A converter and its redundant module with isolating switches.

Figure 15.17 Two possible states for a converter with active redundancy: (le...

Figure 15.18 Two possible states for a converter with standby redundancy: (l...

Figure 15.19 Non‐resilient operation of a power supply (a) and resilient ope...

Figure 15.20 The schematic of an HVDC link and its key waveforms.

Figure 15.21 Two various connections of the HVHFT secondary windings: (a) th...

Figure 15.22 Operation of HVHFT with single‐winding secondary: CH1: output v...

Figure 15.23 Operation of HVHFT with multiwinding secondary: CH1: output vol...

Figure 15.24 The crack growth in conventional ceramic capacitors.

Figure 15.25 Soft terminals in ceramic capacitors.

Figure 15.26 Comparison between the standard and modified designs of the cer...

Figure 15.27 Prevention of crack in the soft terminals of ceramic capacitors...

Guide

Cover Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

Preface

About the Companion Website

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

Index

Wiley End User License Agreement

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Resilient Power Electronic Systems

Shahriyar Kaboli

Department of Electrical Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

Saeed Peyghami

Department of AAU Energy, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark

Frede Blaabjerg

Department of AAU Energy, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Kaboli, Shahriyar, 1975– author. | Peyghami, Saeed, author. | Blaabjerg, Frede, author.Title: Resilient power electronic systems / Shahriyar Kaboli, Saeed Peyghami, Frede Blaabjerg.Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2022. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2021062788 (print) | LCCN 2021062789 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119772187 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119772194 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119772200 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Power electronics. | Electric current converters.Classification: LCC TK7881.15 .K335 2022 (print) | LCC TK7881.15 (ebook) | DDC 621.31/7–dc23/eng/20220124LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021062788LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021062789

Cover Design: WileyCover Images: © IM_photo/Shutterstock; Sean McAuliffe/Unsplash; Graph drawn by the authors

Preface

The application of power electronics in industries has grown considerably in recent years due to a global paradigm shift to carbon‐free energy technologies such as renewable energy resources, micro‐ and smart‐grids, and e‐transportation, which strongly depend on power electronics. Therefore, modern electronic‐based power systems are almost young in comparison with conventional power systems. Regarding the wide usage of the above‐mentioned systems in industries, an estimation of their effective operative life and reliability is considered to be crucial. Furthermore, penetration of power electronics converters is increasing in power systems and the classical reliability assessment tools and concepts in power systems need to be modified taking into account the reliability of power converters. One of these concepts is resilience. Resilience is the property that enables a system to continue operating properly in the event of the failure of some of its components. As the application of power electronic converters becomes more and more crucial in the coming years, the necessity of having non‐stop operation in converters is undergoing rapid growth. In some industries, any stop in operation of power converters leads to a great penalty. On the other hand, a power electronic converter is faced with many internal and external faults. These faults can interrupt the continuous operation of the power converter. Therefore, implementing smart techniques for non‐stop operation of power converters are high in importance. In other words, power electronic systems must be resilient in mission critical applications.

This book deals with resilience and effective operative life concepts in the field of power electronics. Resilience is almost the only method for achieving a desired reliability in a converter that operates with non‐zero fault possibility. However, resilience is a bit different from fault tolerance. In some applications, resilience means achieving “zero” probability of failure with regards to the mission profile. In this book, advanced methods for resilient power electronic converters are presented. Furthermore, the fault mechanism is explained to determine the reason for failure in power converters. Finally, various methods are presented to improve the resilience of the power converters. The following aspects are covered and discussed in this book:

Analysis of failure mechanisms in power electronic converters including internal and external faults are described.

Fault prognosis and diagnosis concepts are described and the certain methods for fault detection in power electronics are presented.

Advanced techniques for reducing the noise effect on the fault detection and prognosis are explained.

Classic methods of resilience are reviewed and a comprehensive perspective is provided.

Advanced methods of resilience are presented regarding the mission of the power electronic converter.

Reconfiguring of a power electronic converter as a design consideration is presented.

The book will have the following specific objectives:

Enhancement of the knowledge on the subject of resilience in power electronics converters.

Explore the challenges and concerns of resilience and fault tolerance in power electronics.

Introduce some new concepts such as the tradeoff between the resilience and efficiency in power electronics.

Show the basic principles and provide guidelines for design of a resilient power converter.

The book will lead to the advancement of the current state‐of‐the‐art advantages of resilient power converters. Moreover, the book will generate relative practical case studies and experimental results for most of the chapters.

The book has been prepared in four parts. This division helps the readers to follow the contents easily. The first part, Resilient Power Electronic Systems, presents a general view of the resilience concept in power electronic systems and is contained in four chapters. Chapter 1 provides an introduction for entering the concept of resilience in power electronics. In this chapter, the resilience concept is described in its general form and mission critical systems are introduced. In this chapter, the reader is also introduced to the techniques that are used in industries and nature for reaching a resilient performance. The contents of this chapter are used in the following chapters, with a focus on the appearance of these concepts in the field of power electronics. In Chapter 2, we introduce the concept of resilience in power electronic converters with an introduction to these devices and a recognition of their main functions as well as their importance. Some typical industrial examples are presented and the elements of power electronics are introduced. We used this introduction to describe the reasons for faulty conditions in power electronic converters, described in the next part of the book. Finally, mission critical power electronic converters are introduced. In Chapter 3, the resilience concept is described in power electronic systems. The possible faulty conditions are explained in a power electronic system and the conditions for supporting the load during the fault are presented. Internal and external faults are explained and their effects on the converter resilience are presented. The requirements for resilience of a power electronic system are described. The main part of this chapter deals with the difference between fault tolerance and resilience. In Chapter 4, a survey is presented about the state of the resilience in power electronic converters. In the second part of the book, Useful Life of the Power Electronic Systems, the failure mechanisms of the power electronic systems are presented. In Chapter 5, the concept of useful life and the methods for useful life modeling are described. These definitions are used to group the faults. This chapter provides a quantitative view to the reader about evaluation of the system useful life and can be used in the next chapters for achieving the resilient characteristics. In Chapter 6, internal faults of the power electronic systems are reviewed at the converter level, where the main important issues at the design and montage stages of the converters are presented. In Chapter 7, the random faults and wear‐out failures of the power electronic systems are discussed. Various types and reasons for wear‐out failures are presented and packaging of the power electronic modules is explained. Thermal and mechanical shocks, which are two important factors of wear‐out failures, are described. In Chapter 8, the external faults that lead to unavailability of the power electronic converters are described. It is shown that these faults act as stressors and affect the lifetime of the converter components. On the other hand, the external faults interact with the protection system of the converter and lead the converter to be out of service. The right decision in the external fault period is explained. In Chapter 9, the availability of electric power converters is described. One of the most important factors for this undesired state is the influence of noise. In this chapter, electromagnetic interference and certain methods for reducing its undesired effects on electric power converters are presented. Implementation of the methods for resilience achievement needs to have enough information about the condition of the converter. The third part of the book, Health Estimation of the Power Electronic Systems, presents the methods for system health monitoring. In Chapter 10, commonly used methods for condition monitoring the converters are presented. In Chapter 11, the methods of fault prognosis in power electronic systems are described. It is important to have an expectation about the useful life of a system before its construction or even its remaining useful life during its operation. The fault prognosis in the power electronic systems are presented in both converter‐level and element‐level categories. In Chapter 12, fault diagnosis in the power electronic converters is described. Two goals of the fault diagnosis, fault isolation and fault root cause analysis, are explained. Some of the methods for fault diagnosis in power electronic systems are presented. In the last part of the book, Methods of Resilience in Power Electronic Systems, guidelines for achieving resilience are presented. These methods are used in both design and operation processes of the converter. In Chapter 13, methods for reducing the stresses on the power electronic systems are described at both system and component levels. Algorithms for derating a faulty power supply are described. In Chapter 14, resilient operation of power electronic converters against external faults such as a load short circuit is studied. The subject of this chapter is the converters that are not damaged but cannot operate normally. In this chapter, the availability of electric power converters as a most important parameter in the topic of resilience is described. In Chapter 15, some of the methods and techniques for inherently resilient operation of the power electronic converters are reviewed. In these cases, the failure factor is applied to the converter but its effect is not sensed by the converter. The main requirement of resilient operation is a short recovery time and a small drop in the system performance index. One of these methods is the application of fault‐tolerant structures for the power converters. Applications of active replacement methods and usage of highly reliable elements are described.

This book is a good guide for the researchers, senior undergraduate and graduate students, and professional engineers related to this field to investigate these topics. The book shows them what challenges they will face when they tend to operate resiliently, and provide some suggestions on how to solve the related problems. Although the fundamentals of resilience in power electronics will be discussed, this book focuses on the advanced methods of resilience enhancement and will provide the analysis and test results of nearly every technique described in the book. The book is useful for researchers, scientists, professional engineers, and graduate students studying power electronics and renewable energy as their major in postgraduate levels, and is especially useful for researchers and engineers majoring in power electronics. The prerequisite is basic courses in power electronics and control theory. In previously published books, an in‐depth and comprehensive presentation of resilience in power electronics has not yet been provided. It is clear that this book will be distinct from existing ones and an excellent and important addition to an existing library. The book references are mainly previously published papers by the authors, who are specialists in the book's subject and benefit from experiences of many years working in the field of power electronics. All of the references are the most cited papers in this field. We hope to provide the readers with an exciting and knowledgeable book in the field of resilient power electronic systems.

About the Companion Website

This book is accompanied by a companion website.

www.wiley.com/go/kaboli/resilientpower 

This website includes:

Presentation Slides (PPTs)

Part 1Resilient Power Electronic Systems

1Resilient Systems

1.1 Introduction

One of the most tragic accidents is that of a commercial passenger aircraft crash. Picturing the death of tens of children, women, and men is extremely horrifying and dreadful. Even though commercial passenger aircrafts are constructed with the utmost reliability with very low accident statistics, the occurrence of even one accident is not acceptable. A survey of aircraft crashes shows that most accidents occur near origin or destination airports. This fact leads to the necessity for a very important capability of the aircrafts: resilience. If the airplane is resilient it can withstand faults until a safe landing point is found. This safe point is usually the nearest airport. Figure 1.1 shows a conceptual diagram about this situation. The good path is for the aircraft with a resilient capability as this aircraft is able to protect its passengers. However, a non‐resilient aircraft flies through the bad path and can lead to a tragedy.

In this example, three concepts are seen:

A system with a critical mission

A faulty condition

Resilient operation of the system

The aircraft here is a mission critical system (with the safety of hundreds of lives) and the resilience capability helps to pass the mission after a faulty condition. It is the key phrase of this book: Passing the faulty condition without failing in the mission. This means that the topic of this book is not about reliable systems! The topic is about the reliable systems that have the capability to survive a faulty situation. The above‐mentioned aircraft may be very reliable, which means that it has very rare faults, but this does not mean that it is necessarily resilient. A reliable and non‐resilient system may not necessarily finish its mission in a faulty condition as even its faults have a low probability of occurrence.

As this chapter deals with resilience in its general form, we continue with an explanation about the definition of systems and their characteristics. To enter the subject of resilience, these concepts are now described.

1.2 Definition of a System

Our world consists of systems. A system is an integrated collection of various parts to meet a goal. The goal of the system usually appears in the output(s) of the system. The systems also accept one or more inputs that provide the required information and energy for the system [1]. The system inputs and outputs determine the system boundaries, as shown in Figure 1.2. In this figure, the shown system has n inputs, i.e. x1(t) to xn(t), and m outputs, i.e. y1(t) to ym(t). The inputs and outputs may be constant or time variant.

Figure 1.1 A basic diagram about the resilience concept for a mission critical system.

Figure 1.2 A system block diagram with some inputs and outputs.

1.2.1 Elements of the System

The systems may be very simple and consist of a few parts. For example, a heater is a simple system consisting of a resistor. The input voltage is dissipated in the resistor and generates an amount of heat as the system output. On the other hand, there are more complex systems with many parts. A complex system may consist of some smaller systems where each acts as a part of the complex system [1]. Figure 1.3 shows a complex system consisting of some smaller systems. Each of these smaller systems may include other smaller systems. For example, a computer is a complex system consisting of several smaller systems: the mother board, memories, hard disk, graphic peripherals, monitor, and power supply. Figure 1.4 shows a Laptop as a system that consists of some smaller systems, such as memory, power supply, etc. Decomposition of a system into the smaller sections (systems) leads to the elements. An element is defined as a part that is not decomposable to smaller sections [1]. For example, in the power supply of a computer, transistors of the voltage regulators are considered as elements. It is obvious that the system decomposition can be continued to much lower layers of the system. A transistor can be considered as a system consisting of layers of semiconductors. Each semiconductor layer can be decomposed to atoms if it is considered as a system. Therefore, an important question is: what is the stop point of this system? The answer comes from another question: what is the required system study level? We can stop this process if the defined elements satisfy the accuracy of the study [1].

1.2.2 System Performance Criteria

The systems are designed based on the required mission profile(s). A high‐quality system tries to close its output(s) to the planned mission target as much as possible [2]. System performance criteria are quantitative indices used to characterize the performance of the system relative to its alternatives [2]. The difference between the pre‐defined value of a system performance index and its respective actual value is the system error. A high‐quality system keeps its errors close to zero. There are three different categories of system performance indices, as listed in the following:

Figure 1.3 A system consists of some subsystems.

Figure 1.4 Various subsystems in a laptop.

The indices about the system output(s)

The indices about the system input(s)

The indices about the relation between the system input(s) and output(s)

Figure 1.5 shows two different cars at the same level. Table 1.1 summarizes the performance indices of these cars in order to compare them [3]. The power is the performance index of the cars. The mileage is the index about the relation between the cars' input, the fuel volume, and the cars' output, the passed distance.

Figure 1.5 Two different cars at the same level.

Sources: Jan Kliment/Adobe Stock; Gabriel/Adobe Stock.

Table 1.1 A comparison between the characteristics of two cars.

Audi A4

BMW 3 Series

Power (bhp)

188

255

Mileage (km l

−1

)

17.84

16.13

Engine (cc)

1984

1998

1.2.3 System Useful Life and Reliability

The system useful life is an estimate of the time it is likely to remain in service. It is important to have an expectation about the useful life of a system before its construction or even its remaining useful life during its operation [4]. The useful life prediction is a tool for this goal. The useful life can be defined based on the performance degradation of the system. In this definition, the useful life is defined as the time interval to the point where the system performance falls below a threshold, as shown in Figure 1.6. In many cases, the useful life is defined as a probability. The useful life is the probability of performing adequately to achieve the desired aim of the system. There are useful life prediction techniques that depend on the knowledge about design. As more details of the design are known, more accurate methods become available. These methods use part failure rate models, which predict the failure rates of parts based on various part parameters, such as technology, complexity, package type, quality level, and stress levels. Predictive methods attempt to predict the useful life of a part based on some model typically developed through empirical studies and/or testing [5, 6]. An attempt is made to identify critical variables such as materials, application environmental and mechanical stresses, application performance requirements, duty cycles, and manufacturing techniques. Typically, a base failure rate for the component is assigned, which is then multiplied by factors for each critical variable identified. Some predictive models assume a constant failure rate over the lifetime of a product. This ignores higher failure rates typically seen at the beginning and end of the component life, infant mortality, and wear‐out, respectively [6]. Predictive methods can provide a relatively accurate reliability estimate in cases where good studies have been done to analyze field failures. Reliability is the probability of performing adequately to achieve the desired aim of the system. This can be mentioned as a time‐dependent equation. The reliability concept has more importance in specific applications, such as in space and military equipment, where on a mission equipment can hardly be replaced or be performed by another system instead of the failed part. In order to improve the system reliability, different research has been carried out and several methods have been introduced. Fault occurrence is a relatively random phenomenom. Randomness means a lack of pattern or predictability in events. Therefore, essential methods of reliability prediction are based on probability analysis. In statistics, a random variable is an assignment that has a numerical value for each possible outcome of an event space. This association facilitates the identification and the calculation of probabilities of the events. Random variables can appear in random sequences. A random process is a sequence of random variables describing a process whose outcomes do not follow a deterministic pattern, but follow an evolution described by probability distributions [7]. These and other constructs are extremely useful in probability theory and the various applications of randomness. It is usual for some kinds of merits such as efficiency to be widely accepted by many users. However, reliability is less applicable than these labels.

Figure 1.6 Definition of the useful life concept base on the system performance degradation.

In order to improve system reliability, different research projects have been done and several methods have been introduced. Many of these methods need information about the failure rate of the system. Each system contains a number of components. One method to enhance reliability is improvement of component reliability. This goal may be achieved by component‐specific derating or by improvement of component specifications. At this level, the failure rate of the components should be modeled properly. The other method is to use a redundant or fault‐tolerant system in which, after a partial fault, the rest of the system can work adequately to achieve the goal of the whole system. At this level, a systematic analysis of reliability is necessary. For example, a systematic analysis indicates that one problem of using a redundant system is load balancing. The other method that may be useful is a comparison of various possible topologies or different operating conditions to choose a proper state to achieve the goal of design. Because some systems are not available to be repaired or maintained, maintenance can rarely be used in these systems. Also, this method is not meaningful for each system element. For example, only a fan can be maintained to work properly and do its duty for cooling a car engine while for an injector, maintenance does not have a practical meaning. Rather than a theoretical reliability evaluation with standards, there are some accelerated or aging tests that manufacturers use to evaluate the reliability of their products. In this method, at each test, one or some parameters of environmental conditions are stressed more than a typical state in order to reduce the test time less than the real state. There are some determined relations between these accelerated test results and typical condition results that are used for finding failure rates and reliability evaluations.

1.3 Resilience Concept

In a system, resilience is defined as the capability to recover from an abnormal state to another state where this new state guarantees the continuance of the operation of the system. According to this definition, there are some key points in the resilience concept:

Normal state

Abnormal state

New state

In an ideal condition, the new state is the previous state of the system before failure. However, as shown in Figure 1.1, the new state is defined based on the mission profile of the system. It may be just a safe point in a damaged aircraft. The bomber B‐17 shown in Figure 1.7 is a very famous example of this situation. The B‐17 Flying Fortress became symbolic in the United States of America's air power and many of them came back to the origin points in a huge damaged state, as shown in Figure 1.8. The All American