RF / Microwave Circuit Design for Wireless Applications E-Book

Ulrich L. Rohde

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 997

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

Provides researchers and engineers with a complete set of modeling, design, and implementation tools for tackling the newest IC technologies

Revised and completely updated, RF/Microwave Circuit Design for Wireless Applications, Second Edition is a unique, state-of-the-art guide to wireless integrated circuit design that provides researchers and engineers with a complete set of modeling, design, and implementation tools for tackling even the newest IC technologies. It emphasizes practical design solutions for high-performance devices and circuitry, incorporating ample examples of novel and clever circuits from high-profile companies.

Complete with excellent appendices containing working models and CAD-based applications, this powerful one-stop resource:

• Covers the entire area of circuit design for wireless applications
• Discusses the complete system for which circuits are designed as well as the device technologies on which the devices and circuits are based
• Presents theory as well as practical issues
• Introduces wireless systems and modulation types
• Takes a systematic approach that differentiates between designing for battery-operated devices and base-station design

RF/Microwave Circuit Design for Wireless Applications, Second Edition is an indispensable tool for circuit designers; engineers who design wireless communications systems; and researchers in semiconductor technologies, telecommunications, and wireless transmission systems.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

Foreword

Preface

Chapter 1: Introduction to Wireless Circuit Design

1.1 Introduction

1.2 System Functions

1.3 The Radio Channel and Modulation Requirements

1.4 About Bits, Symbols, and Waveforms

1.5 Analysis of Wireless Systems

1.6 Building Blocks

1.7 System Specifications and Their Relationship to Circuit Design

1.8 Testing

1.9 Converting C/N or SNR to EB/N0

References

Further Reading

Chapter 2: Models For Active Devices

2.1 Diodes

2.2 Bipolar Transistors

2.3 Field-Effect Transistors

2.4 Large-Signal Behavior of JFETs

2.5 Parameter Extraction of Active Devices

References

Further Reading

Chapter 3: Amplifier Design with BJTs and FETs

3.1 Properties of Amplifiers

3.2 Amplifier Gain, Stability, and Matching

3.3 Single-Stage Feedback Amplifiers

3.4 Two-Stage Amplifiers

3.5 Amplifiers with Three or More Stages

3.6 A Novel Approach to Voltage-Controlled Tuned Filters Including CAD Validation [42]

3.7 Differential Amplifiers

3.8 Frequency Doublers

3.9 Multistage Amplifiers with Automatic Gain Control (AGC)

3.10 Biasing

3.11 Push–Pull/Parallel Amplifiers

3.12 Power Amplifiers

References

Further Reading

Chapter 4: Mixer Design

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Properties of Mixers

4.3 Diode Mixers

4.4 Transistor Mixers

References

Further Reading

Chapter 5: RF/Wireless Oscillators

5.1 Introduction of Frequency Control

5.2 Background

5.3 Oscillator Design

5.4 Oscillator Circuits

5.5 Design of RF Oscillators

5.6 Noise in Oscillators

5.7 Oscillators in Practice

5.8 Phase-Noise Improvements of Integrated RF and Millimeterwave Oscillators

References

Interesting Patents

Further Reading

Chapter 6: Wireless Synthesizers

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Phase-Locked Loops

6.3 How to Do a Practical PLL Design Using CAD

6.4 Fractional-N-Division PLL Synthesis

6.5 Direct Digital Synthesis

References

Interesting Patents

Further Reading

Index

Copyright © 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Rohde, Ulrich L.

RF/microwave circuit design for wireless applications / Ulrich L. Rohde, Matthias Rudolph. –2nd ed.

p. cm.

ISBN 978-0-470-90181-6 (hardback)

1. Microwave integrated circuits–Computer-aided design. 2. Wireless communication systems–Equipment and supplies–Design and construction. 3. Semiconductors–Computer-aided design. 4. Microwave circuits–Design and construction. 5. Radio frequency integrated circuits–Design and construction. I. Rudolph, Matthias, 1969-II. Title.

TK7876.R65 2013

621.381'32–dc23

2012013020

To Professor Vittorio Rizzoli

Foreword

Twelve years have passed since the publication of the first edition of RF/Microwave Circuit Design for Wireless Applications. Year 2000 was still the dawn of the wireless era; mobile telephony was about to change from highly expensive business equipment to a common ubiquitous consumer article. Chipsets for WiFi and GPS were available or under development but still to be deployed on the mass market. To remember those days, we kept the statement on the first page of the first chapter, saying that we concluded that 30% of the passengers waiting at an airport were on the air. Today, I would expect this number to be well beyond 100%, accounting for people being connected to the Internet by multiple devices while talking on their cell phone.

Other changes are also obvious requiring the book to be enhanced and partly rewritten. Semiconductor technology and device modeling have advanced rapidly. The first edition still discussed GaAs MESFET as an important device, and stated that CMOS is still too slow for wireless applications. Therefore, this edition had to account for these advances, and now discusses CMOS and CMOS circuits, BiCMOS, and HBTs on GaAs and SiGe, as well as GaN HEMTs.

It also happened in the last 15 years that the semiconductor branches of the major technology companies became independent companies. Just to name a few: chip-makers Siemens, Motorola, Philips, and Hewlett-Packard are now Infineon, Freescale, NXP, and Avago. On the other hand, most of the circuit design principles did not change much. We decided in many cases to rely on the same commercial circuit examples that were already discussed in the first edition. The majority of the example products are still on the market.

This book also discusses the GSM concept in detail. Important highlights in this new edition are power amplifiers with linearization. (This topic is discussed in great detail.) In addition to this, nonlinear noise in mixers and oscillators are new topics as is the treatment of nonlinear noise in cross-coupled oscillators that play an important role, and these have been covered as outlined above. The majority of the chapters have been updated, but the topics listed above are all new and fully covered.

Last but not the least, there was a change in the authors of this book. Author David P. Newkirk, whose valuable language skills as a technical writer ensured the high quality of the first edition, was unavailable for the second edition. However, I was fortunate to have Dr.-Ing. Matthias Rudolph join me in the revision of this book. He had a solid background in microwave engineering at Ferdinand Braun Institut in Berlin, Germany where he was in a management position responsible for device modeling and low-noise components. In the fall of 2009, he was appointed the Ulrich-L.-Rohde tenure-tracking Professor for RF and Microwave Techniques at Brandenburg University of Technology, Cottbus, Germany. His experience and dedication to this effort gives this new edition of the book an exceptionally wide base.

Finally, I would like to appreciate the support from the numerous companies and individuals that allowed us to use their images, datasheets, and technical papers as examples. Special thanks also to our publisher John Wiley & Sons, especially to George Telecki for his ongoing support and his patience.

Ulrich L. Rohde

Marco Island, Florida

Fall 2012

Preface

When I started 2 years ago to write a book on wireless technology—specifically, circuit design—I had hoped that the explosion of the technology had stabilized. To my surprise, however, the technology is far from settled, and I found myself in a constant chase to catch up with the latest developments. Such a chase requires a fast engine like the Concorde.

In the case of this somewhat older technology, speed still has not been surpassed by any other commercial approach. This tells us there is a lot of design technology that needs to be understood or modified to handle today's needs. Because of the very demanding calculation effort for the circuits, this book makes heavy use of the most modern CAD tools. Hewlett-Packard1 was kind enough to provide us with a copy of their advanced design system (ADS), which also comes with matching synthesis and a wideband CDMA library. Unfortunately, some of the mechanics of getting us started on the software collided with the already delayed schedule of this book, and we were only in a position to reference their advanced capability and not really demonstrate it. The use of this software, including the one from Eagleware, which was also provided to us, needed to be deferred to the next edition of this book. To meet time constraints and give a consistent presentation, we decided to stay with the Ansoft tools. One of the most time-consuming efforts was the actual modeling job, since we wanted to make sure all circuits would work properly. There are too many publications showing incomplete or nonworking designs.

On the positive side, trade journals give valuable insight in state-of-the-art designs, and I would recommend to all engineers to get a free subscription to them. Some of the major ones include Applied Microwave & Wireless, Electronic Design, Electronic Engineering Europe, Microwave Journal, Microwaves & RF, Microwave Product Digest (MPD), RF Design, and Wireless Systems Design.

There are also several conferences that have excellent proceedings, which can be obtained either in book or CD form: GaAs IC Symposium (annual; sponsored by IEEE-EDS, IEEE-MTT), IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (annual), and IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium (annual).

There may be other useful conferences along these lines that are being announced in the trade journals mentioned above, such as in England, Holland, and Germany, and workshops associated with conferences, such as the recent “Designing RF Receivers for Wireless Systems” associated with the IEEE MTT-S.

Other useful tools include courses such as Introduction to RF/MW Design, a four-day short course offered by Besser Associates.

Wireless design can be split into the digital part, which has to do with the various modulation and demodulation capabilities, advantages and disadvantages, and many analog technologies, of which most of this book is composed.

The analog part is complicated by the fact that we have three competing technologies. Given the fact that cost, space, and power consumption are issues for hand-held and battery-operated applications, CMOS has been a strong contestant in the area of cordless telephones because of the relaxed signal-to-noise-ratio specifications compared with cellular telephones. CMOS is much noisier than bipolar and GaAs technologies. One of the problems then is the input/output stage at UHF/SHF frequencies. Here, we find a fierce battle between silicon-germanium (SiGe) transistors and GaAs technology. Most prescalers are bipolar and most power amplifiers are based on GaAs FETs or LDMOS transistors for base stations. The most competitive technologies are the SiGe transistors and, of course, GaAs, the latter being the most expensive of the three mentioned. In the silicon-germanium area, IBM and Maxim seem to be the leaders, with many trying to catch up.

Another important issue is how to differentiate between hand-held or battery-operated applications and base stations. Most designers, who are tasked to look into battery-operated devices, ultimately resort to using available integrated circuits, which seem to change every 6–9 months, and new offerings occur. Given the multiple choices, we have not yet seen a systematic approach of how to select the proper IC families and their members. We have therefore decided to show some guidelines for the design applications of the ICs, mainly focusing on high-performance applications. In the case of high-performance applications, low power consumption is not that big an issue; dynamic range in its various forms tends to be more important. Most of these circuits are designed in discrete portions or use discrete parts. Anyone who has a reasonable antenna and has a line of sight to New York City, with the antenna connected to a spectrum analyzer, will immediately understand this. Between telephones, both cordless and cellular, high-powered pagers, and other services, the spectrum analyzer will be overwhelmed by these signals. IC applications for handsets and other applications already value their parts as “good.” Their third-order intercept points are better than –10 dBm, while the real professional having to design a fixed station is looking for at least +10 dBm, if not more. This applies not only to amplifiers but also to mixer and oscillator performances. We, therefore, decided to give examples of this dynamic range. The following brief survey of current ICs has been assembled for the purpose of showing typical specifications that have been assembled to show the practical needs. It is useful that large companies make both the cellular telephones and integrated circuits or their discrete implementation for base stations. We strongly believe that the circuits selected by us will be useful for all applications.

Chapter 1, as mentioned, is an introduction to the digital modulations that form the foundation of wireless radiocommunication and its performance evaluation. We decided to leave the information regarding actual implementation to more qualified individuals. Since the standards for these modulations are still in a state of flux, we felt that it would not be possible to attack all angles. Chapter 1 contains some very nice material from various sources including tutorial material from my German company, Rohde & Schwarz, in Munich—specifically, from the digital modulation portion of their 1998 Introductory Training for Sales Engineers CD. Note: On a few rare equations, we have used either a picture or an equation more than once so that the reader need not refer to a previous chapter for full understanding of a discussion.

Chapter 2 is a comprehensive introduction into the various semiconductor technologies that enables the designer to make an educated decision. Relevant material such as PIN diodes has also been covered. In many applications, the transistors are being used close to their electrical limits, such as a combination of low voltage and low current. The fT dependency, noise figure, and large-signal performance have to be evaluated. Another important application for diodes is their use as switches, as well as variable capacitances frequently referred to as tuning diodes. In order to better understand what the various parameters of semiconductors mean, we have included a variety of datasheets and some small applications showing which technology is best for what application. In linear applications, noise figure is extremely important; in nonlinear applications, the distortion products need to be known. Therefore, this chapter also includes not only the linear performance of semiconductors but also their nonlinear behavior, including even some details on parameter extraction. Given the number of choices the designer has today and the frequent lack of complete data from manufacturers, these are also important issues.

Chapter 3, the longest chapter, has the most detailed analysis and guidelines for discrete and integrated amplifiers providing deep insight into the semiconductor performance and circuitry necessary to get the best results from the devices. We deal with the properties of the amplifiers, gain stability, and matching, evaluated one-, two-, and three-stage amplifiers with internal dc coupling and feedback as are frequently found in integrated circuits. In doing so, we also provide examples of ICs currently in the market, knowing that every six months more sophisticated devices will appear. Another important topic in this chapter is the choice of bias point and matching for digital signal handling, and we provide insight into such complex issues as the adjacent channel power ratio, which is related to a form of distortion caused by the amplifier in its particular operating mode. To connect these amplifiers, impedance matching is a big issue, and we evaluate some useful couplers and broadband matching circuits useful to these high frequencies. Finally, we provide a tracking filter as preselector, using tuning diodes.

Chapter 4 is a detailed analysis of the available mixer circuits that are applicable to the wireless frequency range. The design also is supplied with the necessary mathematics to calculate the difference between insertion loss and noise figure, and receives insight into the differences between passive and active mixers, additive and multiplicative mixers, and other useful hints. We have also added some very clever circuits from companies such as Motorola and Siemens, as they are available as ICs.

Chapter 5, the oscillator section, is a logical next step to be considered, as many amplifiers turn out to oscillate. After a brief introduction explaining why voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs) are needed, we cover the necessary conditions for oscillation and its resulting phase noise for various configurations, including microwave oscillators and the very important ceramic-resonator-based oscillator. This chapter walks the reader through the various noise-contributing factors and the performance differences between discrete and integrated oscillators and their performance. Here too, a large number of novel circuits are covered.

Chapter 6 deals with the frequency synthesizer, which depends heavily on the oscillators as shown in Chapter 5, and different system configurations to obtain the best performance. All components of a synthesizer, such as loop filters and phase frequency discriminators, and their actual performance are evaluated. Included are further applications for commercial synthesizer chips, and, of course, the direct digital frequency synthesizer as well as the fractional-N-division synthesizer principles are covered. The fractional-N-division synthesizer is probably one of the most exciting implementations of synthesizers, and we added interesting patents for those interested in coming up with their own design.

I would like to thank my co-author, David Newkirk, for the enormous effort he put into making this project possible. Not only does he have a wealth of information as to practical applications, but he has also worked as a Professional Editor for many years and was really the key factor in putting this book together. Finally, I would like to thank the many engineers from Ansoft, Alpha Industries, Motorola, National Semiconductor, Philips, Rohde & Schwarz, and Siemens (now Infineon) for providing current information and being able to get permission to reproduce some of the excellent material.

In the area of permissions, National Semiconductor has specifically asked us to include the following passage, which applies to all their permissions.

LIFE SUPPORT POLICY

NATIONAL'S PRODUCTS ARE NOT AUTHORIZED FOR USE AS CRITICAL COM-PONENTS IN LIFE SUPPORT DEVICES OR SYSTEMS WITHOUT THE EXPRESS WRITTEN APPROVAL OF THE PRESIDENT OF NATIONAL SEMICONDUCTOR CORPORATION.

As used herein:

1. Life support devices or systems are devices or systems which, (a) are intended for surgical implant into the body, or (b) support or sustain life, and whose failure to perform, when properly used in accordance with instructions for use provided in the labeling, can be reasonably expected to result in a significant injury to the user.

2. A critical component is any component of a life support device or system whose failure to perform can be reasonably expected to cause the failure of the life support device or system, or to affect its safety or effectiveness.

I am also grateful to John Wiley & Sons, specifically, George Telecki, for tolerating the several slips in schedule, which were the result of the complexity of this effort.

Finally, I would like to dedicate this book to Professor Vittorio Rizzoli, who has been instrumental in the development of the powerful harmonic-balance analysis tool, specifically Microwave Harmonica, which is part of Ansoft's Serenade Design Environment. Most of the success had by Compact Software, now part of Ansoft, continues to be based on his far-reaching contributions.

Ulrich L. Rohde

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey

March 2000

Note

1. Now Agilent Technologies.