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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
An up-to-date discussion about the mitigation of satellite communications vulnerabilities
In Safeguarding Satellite Communications: Issues, Challenges, and Solutions, a team of distinguished researchers deliver an expert discussion of the most relevant issues in contemporary satellite communications security. Over 13 chapters, the authors discuss key vulnerabilities in satellite communications, including potential security attacks and reliability risks. They also explain proposed solutions based on artificial intelligence technologies, blockchain, terahertz, and spaceborne laser communication.
The book describes several promising research directions – like integrated sensing and computer vision-aided communications – and highlights ISAC-aided secure transmission, CV-aided space communications, mega-constellation security problems, and commercialization issues.
Readers will also find:
- A thorough introduction to satellite communication vulnerabilities and how to mitigate them
- A comprehensive performance evaluation method of satellite communication systems in the presence of randomly distributed terminals
- Practical discussions of the relationship between satellite communication network performance and system factors
- Complete treatments of inter- and intra-system interference in satellite communication systems
Perfect for professionals working in satellite communications and engineers designing and developing satellite communication systems, Safeguarding Satellite Communications will also benefit researchers and students interested in areas like wireless communications, telecommunications engineering, and computer engineering.
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Seitenzahl: 470
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Foreword
Preface
About the Authors
Acknowledgments
Acronyms
Introduction
Part I: Fundamentals
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 A Brief History of Satellite Communications
1.2 Development of Satellite Communications
1.3 Applications of Satellite Communications
1.4 A Brief Description of Security Issues in Satellite Communications
1.5 Organization of This Book
References
Chapter 2: System Architecture of Satellite Communications
2.1 Space Part for Satellite Communication System
2.2 Ground Segment for Satellite Communication Systems
2.3 User Segment for Satellite Communication Systems
2.4 Coverage Area
References
Part II: Security Issues and Requirements
Chapter 3: Satellite Security Issues
3.1 Introduction to Security Issues of Satellite Communications
3.2 Satellite Security Attacks
3.3 Security-related Reliability Problems
References
Chapter 4: Security Requirements
4.1 Confidentiality Performance
4.2 Integrity Performance
4.3 Accountability Performance
4.4 Security-related Reliability Performance, Including Reliability, Latency, and Capacity/ Throughput
References
Part III: Security Enhancement Solutions
Chapter 5: Active Security Enhancement Schemes
5.1 Quantum Communication
5.2 Blockchain
5.3 THz/Laser-based Spaceborne Communications
5.4 AI-based Solutions
5.5 Space Situational Awareness
References
Chapter 6: Passive Security Enhancement Schemes
6.1 Advanced Security-oriented Antennas
6.2 Reconfigurable Intelligent Surface
6.3 Spread Spectrum Techniques
6.4 Non-SS Jamming Suppression Techniques
6.5 AI-based Solutions
References
Chapter 7: Security-related Reliability Enhancement Solutions
7.1 Secrecy Capacity/Throughput
7.2 Outage/BER/Packet Error Rate (PER)
7.3 AI-based Solutions to Collisions and Debris
7.4 Forward Error Control
7.5 Interference Coordination
References
Part IV: Design Criteria for Security SCSs
Chapter 8: Parameter Selections
8.1 Orbits
8.2 Frequencies and Waves
References
Chapter 9: Spaceborne Payload
9.1 On-board Processing
9.2 Transparent Forwarding
References
Chapter 10: Joint Security and Reliability Design
10.1 Spaceborne Security
10.2 Spaceborne Reliability
References
Part V: Future Directions
Chapter 11: Secure Space Transmission Techniques
11.1 ISAC-aided Secure Space Communication Techniques
11.2 CV-aided Secure Space Communication Techniques
11.3 Multi-satellite Secure Transmission Techniques
11.4 Security-oriented RF Techniques
References
Chapter 12: Secure-oriented Mega-constellation
12.1 Mega-constellation Design
12.2 Secure Cross-orbit Space Communication Methods
References
Chapter 13: Physical Layer Security for Satellite Communications
13.1 Physical Layer Key Generation
13.2 Physical Layer Authentication
13.3 Physical Layer Encryption
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 History of satellite communications.
Figure 1.2 Classification of satellite orbits.
Figure 1.3 Satellite communication application scenarios.
Figure 1.4 Satellite security communications model.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 The system architecture of SCSs.
Figure 2.2 Two transmission methods for satellites on the NTN network.
Figure 2.3 Development process of SCSs.
Figure 2.4 Satellite beam coverage modes.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Classification of security attacks in satellite communications.
Figure 3.2 Sources of power-based and spoofing jamming contaminating SCSs.
Figure 3.3 Illustration of transponder stealing.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 The analysis of DSSS and FHSS in multilayer satellites.
Figure 4.2 Accountability performance in multilayer satellites.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Frequency allocations of several commercial constellations between 1 and 60 GHz.
Figure 5.2 The entire process of the ML-based security solutions for satellite data.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 The beam patterns of PA, LFDA, and logarithmic FDA [10].
Figure 6.2 Control of beam direction with BF.
Figure 6.3 RIS in satellite passive security communication.
Figure 6.4 Application scenarios for RIS-enabled passive security enhancement solutions.
Figure 6.5 Principle of DSSS.
Figure 6.6 The trade-off between confidentiality and integrity in MC-DSSS systems [10].
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Eavesdropping scenario in space-terrestrial downlink communications.
Figure 7.2 ASC with respect to transmit power and propagation distance.
Figure 7.3 SOP with respect to transmit power and propagation distance.
Figure 7.4 BER with respect to transmit power and propagation distance.
Figure 7.5 PER with respect to transmit power and propagation distance.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Earth-orbiting satellite parameters.
Figure 8.2 Launch of satellites in different orbits during January 2012 and December 2022.
Figure 8.3 Deep space communications.
Figure 8.4 The basic architecture of OTFS.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 The space-based network architecture.
Figure 9.2 A secure communication scheme for OBP payload based on Payload IPSec.
Figure 9.3 A secure communication scheme for OBP payload based on Gateway IPSec.
Figure 9.4 The ground-based network architecture.
Figure 9.5 A secure communication scheme for transparent forwarding payload based on QKD.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 A schematic diagram of spaceborne security architecture.
Figure 10.2 A schematic diagram of spaceborne reliability architecture.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Application scenarios of ISAC in satellite communications.
Figure 11.2 An open-loop integrated spatial sensing and communication system model based on cv.
Figure 11.3 Multi-satellite collaborative communication scenario.
Figure 11.4 Satellite swarm connection management and protection based on blockchain.
Figure 11.5 Secure BF based on AN.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Schematic of the basic architecture of the mega-satellite constellation. (a) Si...
Figure 12.2 Schematic of the basic architecture of the mega-satellite constellation. (a) Bas...
Figure 12.3 Schematic diagram of the on-orbit communication link of the laser communication...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 PLS for satellite communications.
Figure 13.2 Principle of generating the physical layer key.
Figure 13.3 PLA in satellite communications.
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Satellite altitude and operational period.
Table 1.2 Configuration parameters of the VLEO satellite.
Table 1.3 Applications of different frequency bands of satellites.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Comparison of satellite features by orbit type.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Comparison of power-based jamming.
Table 3.2 The differences between the active and passive security attacks.
Table 3.3 Differences and connections between the two types of interferences.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Comparison of DSSS and FHSS: key characteristics and applications.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Major achievements in the implementation of QKD.
Table 5.2 The evolution of space-based laser communications.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Comparison of the open-loop CV-based JSC model with RF and radar-based object de...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 The evolution of space-based laser communications.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Comparison of PLA methods.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Foreword
Preface
About the Authors
Acknowledgments
Acronyms
Introduction
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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IEEE Press
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Hugo Enrique Hernandez Figueroa
Joydeep Mitra
Thomas Robertazzi
Albert Wang
Patrick Chik Yue
Safeguarding Satellite Communications
Issues, Challenges, and Solutions
Jianping An
Beijing Institute of Technology
Beijing, China
Shuai Wang
Beijing Institute of Technology
Beijing, China
Pingyue Yue
Beijing Institute of Technology
Beijing, China
Gaofeng Pan
Beijing Institute of Technology
Beijing, China
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To our families!
Foreword
In today’s digital age, satellite communication has become a critical infrastructure that supports global information exchange. Its applications are widespread across various crucial fields, including military defense, commercial operations, scientific research, and public welfare. From strategic communications and intelligence gathering in the military domain to broadcasting, television, and internet access in the commercial sector to data transmission in scientific exploration and emergency communication support during disaster relief, satellite communication is omnipresent, providing indispensable support for the efficient functioning of modern society.
However, as the applications of satellite communication systems continue to expand and deepen, security concerns have increasingly become a critical issue, limiting their further development. The openness and broadcast nature of satellite communication make it particularly vulnerable to various attacks, such as malicious interference, eavesdropping, and forgery. These attacks can not only lead to communication disruptions and information leaks but also trigger severe security incidents, posing potential threats to national sovereignty, economic development, and social stability. Therefore, in-depth research into satellite communication security technologies to enhance system security and reliability has become an urgent priority.
This book focuses on the important issue of satellite communication security, providing a comprehensive, in-depth, and systematic analysis of the security challenges faced by satellite communication systems. Beginning with the development history and system architecture of satellite communication, it gradually explores the nature, types, and corresponding countermeasures of security issues. The content covers key areas such as security risks, security requirements, security enhancement solutions, design standards, and future development directions. This comprehensive approach constructs a complete knowledge system for readers, helping them gain a deeper understanding of the core issues and cutting-edge technologies in the field of satellite communication security.
The book not only provides a detailed explanation of traditional security protection technologies but also delves into the application of emerging technologies, such as quantum communication, blockchain, terahertz communication, and artificial intelligence, in satellite communication security. These innovative technologies offer new ideas and solutions for addressing the security challenges of satellite communication, demonstrating the significant growth potential of this field. Additionally, the book offers a detailed analysis of the security performance of satellite communication systems in different orbital environments and proposes practical solutions to the unique challenges faced by low Earth orbit satellite communication systems, with strong relevance and practicality.
As a professional working in the field of satellite communication security, this book holds significant academic value and practical guidance. It not only provides researchers in related fields with a wealth of theoretical knowledge and research insights, laying a solid foundation for further academic exploration, but also offers valuable practical guidance for engineers and technicians involved in the design, operation, and management of satellite communication systems. This guidance will help them better address various security challenges in real-world applications and enhance the security and reliability of these systems.
It is believed that the publication of this book will play an active role in advancing the development of satellite communication security, promoting academic research and technological innovation in this field, and providing strong support for ensuring the safe and stable operation of satellite communication systems.
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Dusit (Tao) Niyato
March 20, 2025
Preface
In the contemporary context of global interconnectivity, satellite communication has emerged as an indispensable conduit linking every region of the planet. Its utility is profoundly integrated into diverse facets of society, encompassing routine communication and entertainment, while also bolstering essential infrastructure pivotal to national economies and livelihoods, in addition to facilitating advancements in scientific inquiry related to space exploration. The importance of satellite communication is becoming increasingly conspicuous. Nonetheless, as the magnitude of satellite communication systems continues to escalate and the contexts of their application become more intricate, security concerns have gradually surfaced as the principal obstacle hindering their progress. These security vulnerabilities not only possess the capacity to engender information breaches and communication interruptions but may also detrimentally affect national security, economic advancement, and societal stability. It is with a substantial comprehension of the prevailing circumstances that we have resolved to author this book with the objective of delivering a thorough and extensive examination within the discipline of satellite communication security, thereby facilitating the progression of this significant field.
Throughout the composition of this manuscript, we have endeavored to comprehensively address all pivotal dimensions of satellite communication security. Initiating with the fundamental architecture of satellite communication systems, we provide an exhaustive examination of the components and functionalities of the space segment, ground segment, and user segment, thereby affording readers a lucid comprehension of the holistic system. Subsequently, we investigate the security dilemmas confronting satellite communication, encompassing an array of attack methodologies, reliability vulnerabilities, and associated security mandates, which empowers readers to grasp the intricate and multifaceted nature of these security concerns. In response to these challenges, we proffer a spectrum of security enhancement strategies, integrating avant-garde technologies such as quantum communication and blockchain, alongside traditional methodologies such as interference coordination and spread spectrum technologies, thus presenting a wealth of concepts and techniques for addressing pragmatic security issues. Furthermore, we furnish a thorough analysis of the design standards pertinent to satellite communication systems, encompassing elements such as orbit selection, frequency allocation, and payload design, thereby offering both theoretical underpinnings and pragmatic counsel for assuring the security and dependability of system architecture. Finally, we investigate the prospective developmental trajectories of satellite communication security technologies and deliberate on the potential applications of emergent technologies within this domain, thereby prompting readers to contemplate future research avenues.
We aspire for this volume to emerge as a pivotal reference within the domain of satellite communication security, providing a thorough theoretical framework alongside an extensive array of research propositions for scholars engaged in pertinent investigations, thereby facilitating their attainment of novel advancements in their scholarly pursuits. Concurrently, it will function as a pragmatic technical manual for engineers and technicians involved in the design, implementation, and operation of satellite communication systems, empowering them to more effectively confront security challenges and enhance the security and reliability of satellite communication infrastructures.
Despite the substantial effort invested in the composition of this text, the field of satellite communication security is undergoing rapid evolution, characterized by the incessant emergence of new technologies and challenges. We recognize that this book may possess certain constraints, and we eagerly anticipate receiving constructive feedback and recommendations from readers, which will assist us in perpetually enhancing and refining our research endeavors in the future. We aspire for this book to actively contribute to the advancement of satellite communication security and collectively aid in the establishment of a more secure and dependable satellite communication network.
In conclusion, we wish to convey our sincere appreciation to Ziyi Yang for vital contributions to chapter structure; Xuyang Zhang and Zhen Liu for their invaluable contributions to Chapters 1, 2, and 4; to Hang Deng, Yanci Si, Jia Ye, and Zihan Ni for their significant input in Chapters 3, 5, 6, 7, and 8; and to Yanxin Wu, Zhen Liu, Yanci Si, Yi Tao, and Haoxing Zhang for their essential contributions to Chapters 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13. Furthermore, we extend our gratitude to Yi Tao and Xiaorui Zhang for the exceptional illustrations they crafted for this volume.
Jianping An, Shuai Wang, Pingyue Yue, and Gaofeng Pan
Beijing, China
August 8, 2025
About the Authors
Jianping An received the PhD degree from the Beijing Institute of Technology, China, in 1996. He joined the School of Information and Electronics at the same institution in 1995 and is currently a full professor there. He is currently Dean of the School of Cyberspace Science and Technology at the Beijing Institute of Technology. His research interests include digital signal processing, wireless communications and satellite networks. He has received two national awards for technological inventions and scientific and technological progress.
Shuai Wang received the PhD degree in communications systems from the Beijing Institute of Technology (BIT), China, in 2012. Upon graduating, he joined the faculty of the School of Information and Electronics at BIT. In 2021, he transferred to the newly founded School of Cyberspace Science and Technology, where he was appointed Chair Professor of the Department of Information Security and Countermeasures. He has published over 40 peer-reviewed articles in leading IEEE journals and conference proceedings and holds over 60 patents. His research interests include satellite communications, anti-interference communications, and datalink technologies for space platforms. In 2019, he was a co-recipient of the Second Class National Technical Invention Award of China. He has served as an editor for IEEE Communications Letters and IEEE Wireless Communications Letters. He currently serves as an editor for China Communications.
Pingyue Yue received the BSc degree from Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China, in 2016 and the PhD degree from the Beijing Institute of Technology in 2024. He is currently a postdoc at the School of Cyberspace Science and Technology at the Beijing Institute of Technology in China. His research interests include satellite communication, physical-layer security, and interference suppression.
Gaofeng Pan received the BSc degree in Communication Engineering from Zhengzhou University in Zhengzhou, China, in 2005, and the PhD degree in Communication and Information Systems from Southwest Jiaotong University in Chengdu, China, in 2011. He is currently a Professor at the School of Cyberspace Science and Technology at the Beijing Institute of Technology in China. His research interests include special topics in communications theory, signal processing, and protocol design. He also serves as an editor for several journals, including IEEE Transactions on Communications and IEEE Transactions on Green Communications and Networking.
Acknowledgments
First, we would like to thank the reviewers and editors at Wiley—Sandra Grayson, Becky Cowan, Kavipriya Ramachandran, and Veena Rajendran—whose careful reviews and valuable feedback have helped to improve this book.
We are also grateful to the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) for providing us with several research grants. In particular, the grant for investigating various types of satellite and secure communications resulted in high-quality journal papers that were shared with researchers. Encouraged by their enthusiastic response to our work, we published the tutorial paper “Low Earth Orbit Satellite Security and Reliability: Issues, Solutions, and the Road Ahead” in IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials (Third Quarter, 2023). Furthermore, encouraged by the positive response to the tutorial paper—namely that it was selected as an ESI highly cited paper in March/April 2025—this hardens our idea of writing this book detailing the security challenges faced by satellite communication systems.
We would like to thank our collaborators on satellite and secure communications in recent years: Mohamed-Slim Alouni at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Saudi Arabia; Lajos Hanzo at the School of Electronics and Computer Science, University of Southampton, UK; John Thompson at the University of Edinburgh, UK; Halim Yanikomeroglu at Carleton University, Canada; Pei Xiao at the Institute for Communication Systems, the University of Surrey, UK; Jia Ye at the School of Electrical Engineering, Chongqing University, China; and Jiankang Zhang at the Department of Computing and Informatics, Bournemouth University, UK.
We are very grateful for the support we received from Dusit (Tao) Niyato at Nanyang Technological University in Singapore.
We would also like to thank our graduate students for their support and suggestions over the past few years.
Finally, we would also like to express our deep gratitude to our families for their support and help with the book.
Jianping An, Shuai Wang, Pingyue Yue, and Gaofeng Pan.
Acronyms
3GPP
3rd generation partnership project
5G
5th generation mobile networks
6G
6th generation mobile networks
ACM
Adaptive coding and modulation
ACS
Attitude control systems
ADC
Analog-to-digital converter
AES
Advanced encryption standard
AFMS
Autonomous fault management system
AI
Artificial intelligence
AMC
Adaptive modulation and coding
AN
Artificial noise
APC
Adaptive power control
ARIMA
Autoregressive integrated moving average
ASC
Average secrecy capacity
ASIC
Application-specific integrated circuit
AWGN
Additive white Gaussian noise
BEC
Binary error channel
BER
Bit error rate
BF
Beamforming
BLER
Blocklength error rate
BP
Belief propagation
BPSK
Binary phase shift keying
CCI
Co-channel interference
CCSDS
Consultative committee for space data systems
CDF
Cumulative distribution function
CDMA
Code division multiple access
CIR
Channel impulse response
CNN
Convolutional neural networks
COTS
Commercial off-the-shelf
CPU
Central processing unit
CRC
Cyclic redundancy check
CSI
Channel state information
CV
Computer vision
DDoS
Distributed denial of service
DL
Deep learning
DoS
Denial of service
DSP
Digital signal processing
DSSS
Direct-sequence spread spectrum
DTH
Direct-to-home
DVB
Digital video broadcasting
DVB-RCS
Digital video broadcasting-return channel via satellite
E2EE
End-to-end encryption
ECC
Error correction code
ECSS
European Cooperation for Space Standardization
ELM
Extreme learning machine
ESA
European Space Agency
ETSI
European Telecommunications Standards Institute
FBL
Finite blocklength
FBMC
Filter-bank multi-carrier
FDA
Frequency diverse array
FDM
Frequency division multiplexing
FDMA
Frequency division multiple access
FEC
Forward error correction
FFHSS
Fast frequency hopping spread spectrum
FH
Frequency hopping
FHSS
Frequency hopping spread spectrum
FMECA
Failure modes, effects, and criticality analysis
FPGA
Field programmable gate array
FSO
Free space optical communication
FTA
Fault tree analysis
GEO
Geostationary Earth orbit
GPS
Global positioning system
GPU
Graphic processing unit
GRU
Gated recurrent unit
GTO
Geostationary transfer orbit
HAP
High altitude platform
HARQ
Hybrid automatic repeat request
HEO
Highly elliptical orbit
HTS
High-throughput satellite
ICI
Inter-carrier interference
IDS
Intrusion detection system
INTELSAT
International Telecommunications Satellite Organization
IoT
Internet of Things
IoRT
Internet of remote things
ISAC
Integrated sensing and communication
ISAR
Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar
ISFFT
Inverse symplectic finite Fourier transform
ISL
Inter-satellite link
ISR
Interference-to-signal ratio
ITU
International Telecommunication Union
LDPC
Low-density parity-check
LEO
Low Earth orbit
LFDA
Linear frequency diverse array
LMS
Least mean square
LoS
Line of sight
LSTM
Long short term memory
MAI
Multiple access interference
MBSE
Model-based system engineering
MEO
Medium Earth orbit
MFA
Multi-factor authentication
MIMO
Multiple-input multiple-output
MITM
Man-in-the-middle
ML
Machine learning
MLI
Multilayer insulation
mMTC
massive machine type communication
mmWave
Millimeter wave
MSL
Mars Science Laboratory
NASA
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NCC
Network control center
NFV
Network function virtualization
NR
New radio
NTN
Non-terrestrial network
OBP
On-board processing
OFDM
Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
OFDMA
Orthogonal frequency division multiple access
OGS
Optical ground station
OISL
Optical inter-satellite link
OP
Outage probability
OTFS
Orthogonal time frequency space
PA
Phased array
PAPR
Peak-to-average power ratio
Probability density function
PER
Packet error rate
PG
Processing gain
PIC
Photonic integrated circuit
PLA
Physical layer authentication
PLE
Physical layer encryption
PLKG
Physical layer key generation
PLL
Phase-locked loop
PLS
Physical layer security
PO
Polar orbit
PPC
Pay-per-click
PQC
Post-quantum cryptography
PR
Pseudo-random
PRN
Pseudo-random noise
PSD
Power spectral density
PU
Primary user
QAM
Quadrature amplitude modulation
QKD
Quantum key distribution
QoS
Quality of service
QPSK
Quadrature phase shift keying
QSDC
Quantum secure direct communication
RAID
Redundant arrays of inexpensive disks
RAM
Random access memory
RAN
Radio access network
RBAC
Role-based access control
R-CNN
Region-based CNN
RF
Radio frequency
RFID
Radio frequency identification
RIS
Reconfigurable intelligent surface
RL
Reinforcement learning
RM
Reed–muller
RNN
Recurrent neural network
RS
Reed–solomon
RSO
Resident space object
SA
Service aspects
SBR
Spaceborne radar
SBC
Spaceborne camera
SC
Successive cancellation
SCC
Sensing, communication and computation
SC-FDMA
Single carrier frequency division multiple access
SCMA
Sparse code multiple access
SCPS
Space communication protocol specification
SCS
Satellite communication system
SDN
Software defined networking
SDR
Software-defined radio
SEE
Single event effect
SEU
Single event upset
SFFT
Symplectic finite Fourier transform
SINR
Signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio
SNR
Signal-to-noise ratio
SOI
Silicon-on-insulator
SOP
Secrecy outage probability
SRAM
Static random-access memories
SS
Spread spectrum
SSA
Space situational awareness
SSO
Sun-Synchronous orbit
SSPA
Solid-state power amplifier
STI
Shallow trench isolation
SU
Secondary user
TDM
Time division multiplexing
TDMA
Time division multiple access
THz
Terahertz
TID
Total ionizing dose
TMR
Triple module redundancy
TOA
Time-of-arrival
TPC
Transmit precoding
TT&C
Telemetry, tracking and control
TWTA
Traveling wave tube amplifier
UAV
Unmanned aerial vehicle
UE
User equipment
UNOOSA
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs
URLLC
Ultra-reliable low-latency communication
V2X
Vehicle-to-everything
ViT
Vision transformer
VLEO
Very low earth orbit
WLAN
Wireless local Area network
YOLO
You only look once
Introduction
This volume serves as a scholarly monograph concerning the security and efficiency technologies pertinent to satellite communication systems. In the contemporary digital landscape, satellite communication plays an indispensable role in facilitating global information dissemination; however, the associated security dilemmas are increasingly profound. The current book seeks to elucidate these challenges.
The text initiates with a comprehensive overview of the historical development of satellite communication, emphasizing pivotal milestones from its genesis to its technological evolution. Subsequently, it delves into the system architecture, encompassing the space, ground, and user segments while also addressing the myriad challenges encountered by each segment. Regarding security, the book delineates various types of attacks, elucidating their foundational principles and inherent risks in conjunction with the requisite security requirements.
In response to these adversities, the text proffers solutions, such as quantum communication and blockchain technology, for proactive security measures alongside advanced antennas and interference coordination techniques for passive security enhancements. Additionally, it examines satellite orbits, frequency selection, payload configuration, and the principles of physical layer security.
A salient feature of this book is its adept integration of theoretical frameworks with pragmatic applications. It renders significant insights for both researchers and engineers, thereby fostering the progression of security technologies within the realm of satellite communication.
Part IFundamentals
Chapter 1Introduction
As an exceptional amalgamation of scientific principles and technological advancements, satellite communication represents a complex system that facilitates interactions between the terrestrial and celestial spheres. This system is meticulously engineered to traverse extensive distances, thereby allowing for seamless real-time communication across nations, seas, and isolated regions. The basic principle is the transmission of data through electromagnetic waves, which are dispatched from a ground station, transmitted via a satellite positioned in orbit, and subsequently received by another terrestrial station. The synchronized interaction between ground-based infrastructure and space-based technology forms the essential paradigm of worldwide communication [1].
The fundamental tenet of satellite communication encompasses the propagation of electromagnetic waves, thereby enabling extensive geographical connectivity. A ground station transmits signals toward orbiting satellites utilizing high-frequency carriers, wherein the uplink procedure necessitates precise calibration of signal intensity and directional alignment to effectively reach the satellite’s communication payload [2]. Upon receipt, the satellite’s transponder amplifies and reconfigures the received signal via modulation, frequently employing frequency conversion techniques to mitigate interference from concurrent transmissions. The processed signal is subsequently prepared for downlink transmission to guarantee an undistorted return of information to the terrestrial domain. Following this procedure, the satellite dispatches the modified signal toward specified terrestrial receivers. These signals are subsequently decoded by ground stations or terminal devices into their original informational formats, which may include voice communications, video transmissions, or Internet data packets. The downlink mechanism underscores the importance of transmission reliability, notwithstanding the inherent challenges posed by planetary-scale propagation phenomena.
Typically, satellite communications have revolutionized television broadcasting by facilitating the global distribution of signals, particularly benefiting regions that lack robust terrestrial communication infrastructures. This technological advancement guarantees that remote locales receive high-quality programming and additionally functions as an essential component of infrastructure during natural disasters and humanitarian emergencies. In scenarios where terrestrial systems become nonoperational, the utilization of satellites ensures the persistence of dependable communication channels, thereby enabling a multitude of critical operations. These operations encompass emergency response coordination, the swift deployment of relief services, and the dissemination of essential information crucial for survival [3].
1.1 A Brief History of Satellite Communications
In the era characterized by an unprecedented proliferation of information, the radio waves traveling over the satellites silently announce the story of human wisdom. Communication satellites function as “messengers” in the sky, facilitating the transmission of information across vast distances on the terrestrial globe. The inception of satellite communication stands as one of the extraordinary accomplishments of contemporary science and technology. From the nascent idea to the advanced technological iterations, satellite communication has not only transformed the modalities of human interaction but has also exerted a substantial influence on socioeconomic progress. Figure 1.1 delineates a chronological depiction of the evolution of satellite communication, highlighting the motivations for its inception, the contextual background, and significant milestones [4].
Figure 1.1 History of satellite communications.
The Conceptualization: Arthur C. Clarke and the idea of Geostationary Satellites in 1945. During World War II, advancements in global communication technologies encountered formidable obstacles. Conventional radio wave communication was constrained by the Earth’s curvature, thereby limiting the transmission range of signals. Long-distance communication, particularly over oceanic expanses, necessitated intricate relay stations or the deployment of undersea cables. The exigencies of military operations during the conflict motivated scientists to investigate innovative solutions aimed at surmounting the limitations associated with long-distance communication. The British scientist and author Arthur C. Clarke articulated a groundbreaking concept in his 1945 paper published in Wireless World, titled “Extra-Terrestrial Relays,” wherein he proposed the implementation of geostationary satellites to facilitate global telecommunications. His transformative proposition delineated an orbital altitude of 35,786 km, at which satellites would exhibit synchronous rotation with Earth, thereby enabling continuous signal coverage over specified terrestrial areas through fixed orbital trajectories. Clarke’s foresight established the theoretical groundwork for the development of contemporary communication satellites. Despite the visionary nature of Clarke’s proposal, the technological infrastructure of the era was inadequate to actualize the concept of geostationary satellites. The domain of rocket technology was nascent, and the precise electronic apparatus requisite for satellite operations had yet to be developed. Consequently, Clarke’s concept remained within the realm of theory, as the necessary technological capabilities to actualize it were unavailable.
The inaugural artificial satellite, Soviet Sputnik 1, was successfully launched in 1957. During the Cold War, the domain of space exploration emerged as a pivotal battleground for the United States and the Soviet Union to assert their supremacy on a global scale. The Soviet Union sought to exhibit its scientific prowess through the launch of the inaugural artificial satellite, which concurrently served to evaluate the reliability of rocket technology crucial for subsequent advancements. On 4 October 1957, the Soviet Union ushered in the space age by achieving a significant historical milestone: the deployment of Sputnik 1, recognized as humanity’s first artificial satellite orbiting Earth. With a mass of 83.6 kg, it functioned within low Earth orbit (LEO) and transmitted fundamental radio signals. Although it was not specifically engineered for communication purposes, it validated the concept that terrestrial objects could be successfully placed in space, thereby igniting a worldwide fascination with space exploration. Notwithstanding its achievements, Sputnik 1 exhibited several significant limitations. It facilitated only rudimentary scientific experiments, experienced constrained coverage attributable to its low orbital altitude, and endured for merely a few weeks before disintegrating upon reentry. These constraints underscored the imperative for subsequent technological advancements.
Geostationary satellites, heralding the advent of the Communication Era, commenced their deployment in 1963. Following the Soviet Union’s successful launch of Sputnik 1, the United States expedited its space exploration initiatives to attain technological supremacy. Geostationary satellites, which are proficient in providing fixed coverage over designated regions, emerged as the optimal solution for facilitating global communication. The United States successfully launched Syncom 1, marking the inception of geostationary satellites. Despite its experimental nature, this satellite demonstrated the viability of geostationary orbits, establishing a foundation for subsequent communication satellites. The ensuing launches facilitated the transition of satellite communication from abstract theory to tangible application. Initial geostationary satellites encountered several challenges, including limited signal capacity, significant latency attributable to orbital distance, and elevated costs. These constraints underscored the imperative for continued technological advancement.
Syncom 3 and the live transmission of the Tokyo Olympics in 1964. The 1964 Tokyo Olympics offered Japan a platform to exhibit its economic resurgence and technological sophistication to a global audience. In order to facilitate a worldwide live transmission of the event, Japan opted to employ satellite communication technology, thereby surmounting the constraints associated with conventional television signal transmission. Japan adeptly launched the Syncom 3 communication satellite. For the inaugural instance, a worldwide live transmission of the Tokyo Olympics was accomplished via satellite technology. This event signified the initial application of satellite communication within the context of a significant international occasion. It not only illustrated the operational utility of satellite communication but also expedited the commercialization of satellite technology. Nonetheless, Syncom 3 possessed certain deficiencies. Its coverage area was limited, and the quality of the broadcast was constrained by the technological capabilities prevalent at the time. Furthermore, the transmission of live content still depended on terrestrial infrastructure, and the overall expenditure remained substantial.
The inaugural commercial communication satellite, known as the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT), was successfully launched in the year 1965. The escalating necessity for international communication, particularly in terms of transoceanic linkages, underscored the inadequacies of conventional submarine cables, which were incapable of facilitating real-time voice and video interactions. In response to this predicament, the INTELSAT organization was founded in 1964. The primary objective of this initiative was to orchestrate global resources for the advancement of communication satellites. INTELSAT achieved a significant milestone by launching the world’s first commercial communication satellite, INTELSAT-1, colloquially referred to as “Early Bird.” This pioneering satellite enabled the transmission of telephone, telegraph, and television signals, thereby signifying the initial achievement of real-time intercontinental communication. INTELSAT-1 established the groundwork for the commercialization of satellite communication and considerably enhanced global information dissemination. Notwithstanding its revolutionary contributions, INTELSAT-1 exhibited significant limitations. Its capacity was confined to approximately 240 telephone circuits or a singular television channel. Furthermore, the quality of communication was susceptible to atmospheric disruptions and contingent upon the efficacy of ground stations. These constraints emphasized the necessity for continued advancements in satellite technology.
The Proliferation of Satellite Communication:
The pinnacle era of television and broadcasting in the 1970s. The extensive integration of television and radio on a global scale engendered an escalating demand for large-scale signal transmission. Due to its expansive coverage and instantaneous capabilities, satellite communication emerged as the fundamental technology for disseminating television and radio signals. Numerous nations have initiated the deployment of communication satellites explicitly designated for broadcasting and television relay functions. Satellites during this epoch were predominantly employed to convey international news, sporting events, and entertainment programs, thus signifying a golden age for satellite communication within the media landscape. Furthermore, the exorbitant costs associated with satellite construction and launch constituted considerable financial impediments, thereby limiting the involvement of smaller nations and developing countries. This situation underscored the inequitable accessibility of satellite technology during this time.
Motorola’s Iridium System:
An endeavor in global mobile communication initiated in the 1980s [
5
]. The elevated latency and restricted coverage associated with geostationary satellites were inadequate to satisfy the escalating requirements of mobile communication. To mitigate these obstacles, Motorola proposed the development of an LEO satellite constellation to enable comprehensive global coverage. The Motorola Iridium system comprised 66 LEO satellites, specifically engineered to deliver global voice and data communication services. Its low-orbit architecture substantially diminished communication latency while guaranteeing worldwide coverage, encompassing both remote regions and maritime areas. This pioneering methodology rendered it one of the most ambitious satellite communication initiatives of its era. However, the Iridium system encountered exorbitantly high construction and maintenance expenditures, coupled with market demand that fell short of projections, ultimately culminating in its commercial demise. This case underscored the critical necessity of aligning technological advancements with pragmatic market requisites.
Technological Advancements:
Innovations in the digital era, during the 1990s. The escalating demand for enhanced bandwidth and improved efficiency in communication illuminated the constraints inherent in traditional satellite systems. Progress in digital signal processing (DSP) presents new opportunities for addressing these obstacles. In that era, satellite communication integrated technologies such as digital modulation, data compression, and multi-beam antennas. These advancements significantly improved both efficiency and capacity. For example, multi-beam antennas enabled satellites to serve multiple regions, thereby meeting varied market demands simultaneously. Although these developments represented considerable advancements, satellite communication continued to fall short of terrestrial fiber-optic systems in terms of cost-effectiveness and overall efficiency. This disparity underscored the ongoing necessity for innovation to maintain a competitive edge.
The Internet Epoch:
High-throughput satellites (HTS) in the 21st century. The unprecedented expansion of the Internet has substantially elevated the global demand for broadband services. This necessity was particularly pronounced in remote locales, aboard maritime vessels, and within aerial frameworks, where conventional satellites encountered significant challenges in providing the requisite data transmission speeds. The HTS emerged as a viable solution, utilizing multi-beam technologies and frequency reuse methodologies to enhance capacity markedly. For instance, ViaSat’s HTS systems accomplished data transmission velocities reaching hundreds of gigabits per second, thereby facilitating applications such as in-flight broadband connectivity and distance learning initiatives. Despite the considerable advancements offered by HTS, the exorbitant costs associated with deployment and protracted implementation timelines persist as formidable obstacles. Moreover, the advent of LEO constellations, exemplified by Starlink, has introduced formidable competition, thereby undermining the preeminence of traditional HTS systems.
1.2 Development of Satellite Communications
1.2.1 Classification of Satellite Orbits
In the majority of instances, satellites are deployed into a predefined orbital path surrounding Earth subsequent to their launch. Nonetheless, in certain exceptional scenarios, a satellite may undergo a process of orbital realignment, resulting in its traversal along a modified orbital trajectory. Satellites are typically categorized based on their orbital altitude (i.e., the distance from the Earth’s surface), which significantly influences their coverage area and velocity as they orbit Earth. When selecting the appropriate type of orbit, developers must take into account their intended purposes, the data to be collected, the services to be rendered, as well as the associated costs, coverage regions, and the practicality of various orbital configurations. According to their respective orbits, satellites are classified into five principal types: LEO, medium Earth orbit (MEO), geostationary orbit (GEO), sun-synchronous orbit (SSO), and geostationary transfer orbit (GTO), as illustrated in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2 Classification of satellite orbits.
As illustrated in Table 1.1, LEO satellites operate at altitudes ranging from approximately 500–2,000 km above the terrestrial surface. These satellites exhibit brief orbital periods, typically between 90 and 120 minutes, enabling them to complete up to 16 orbits of Earth within a single day. LEO satellites are particularly advantageous for a diverse array of applications, including remote sensing, high-resolution Earth observation, and scientific inquiry, attributable to their capability for rapid data acquisition and transmission. All classifications of LEO satellites possess the ability to adjust their orientation in relation to the plane of the Earth’s surface. Due to the relatively proximate distance of LEO satellites to Earth, their coverage area is comparatively smaller when juxtaposed with other satellite classifications. Typically, a collective of LEO satellites, referred to as a constellation, is deployed concurrently. Collectively, LEO satellites possess the capacity to cover extensive geographical regions simultaneously [6].
Table 1.1 Satellite altitude and operational period.
Satellite type
LEO
SSO
MEO
GTO
GEO
Altitude (km)
500–2,000
600–800
2,000–20,000
up to 35,786
35,786
Period (minutes)
up to 129
96–100
720
630
1,436
MEO satellites are situated between LEO and GEO, generally at altitudes ranging from approximately 2,000 to 20,000 km. Positioning and navigation systems, such as the global positioning system (GPS), significantly rely on MEO satellites for their operational functionality. Recently, the HTS MEO constellation has been implemented to facilitate low-latency data communication services. MEO satellites exhibit an extended orbital period, varying between 2 and 12 hours, which establishes a balance between the coverage area and the data transmission rate. MEO satellites necessitate a reduced amount of infrastructure to achieve global coverage compared to LEO satellites; however, they experience longer latency and exhibit weaker signal strength.
When viewed from terrestrial vantage points, objects situated in GEO manifest an apparent state of permanence. The orbital period of GEO aligns precisely with the rotational period of Earth—specifically, 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds—thereby enabling ground-based antennas to maintain continuous alignment with the same spaceborne apparatus. Furthermore, GEO satellites serve critical functions in the realm of meteorology, facilitating the continuous surveillance of atmospheric conditions within specific geographic locales and the meticulous observation of the evolution of localized meteorological phenomena. Nevertheless, a significant drawback of utilizing GEO satellites for instantaneous communication arises from their considerable distance from Earth, which results in substantial latency in signal transmission.
SSO satellites operate at altitudes ranging from approximately 600 to 800 km above the Earth’s surface as they navigate the polar regions from north to south; the orbital inclination and altitude of these satellites are meticulously calibrated to guarantee that they consistently pass over any specific location at precisely the same local solar time. Consequently, the illumination conditions during imaging remain uniform, rendering this category of satellite exceptionally well-suited for missions related to Earth observation and environmental monitoring. Both contemporary and historical satellite imagery obtained from SSO are particularly effective for change detection. Researchers utilize these sequences of images to comprehend the progression of meteorological phenomena, forecast cyclones, oversee and mitigate wildfires and flooding events, as well as to collect data on persistent issues such as deforestation and alterations in shorelines. Nevertheless, due to their relatively low orbital altitude, SSO satellites are capable of covering only a limited geographic area at any given moment, thus necessitating the deployment of additional equipment to accomplish continuous coverage.
The most prevalent transfer orbit utilized for satellite deployment is the GTO, which facilitates the transition of satellites from a transitional orbit to GEO. When a launch vehicle propels a spacecraft into the cosmos, the spacecraft does not invariably proceed directly to its ultimate orbital position. Initially, the rocket will position the spacecraft into a transfer orbit, serving as an intermediary station on its trajectory toward the final destination. Subsequently, the satellite’s propulsion system is activated to enable the satellite to attain its designated orbital position and modify its orbital inclination. This expedited approach permits the satellite to attain a geostationary orbit while expending minimal resources.
Moreover, there exist a variety of specialized satellites in orbit, which are delineated as follows.
The GEO satellite is situated within a highly elliptical orbit (HEO) characterized by significant orbital eccentricity, resulting in a pronounced disparity in distance between the segment of the orbit nearest to Earth and that which is more distally located. The operational altitude of an HEO satellite generally spans from approximately 2,000 to several hundred thousand kilometers. The inclination of HEO satellites is predominantly substantial, catering to specific mission exigencies. Due to their capacity to encompass the polar regions of Earth and higher latitudinal zones, HEO satellites are frequently utilized for military reconnaissance and surveillance purposes, particularly in operations that complement other orbital frameworks.
Polar orbit (PO) satellites are defined as satellites that traverse the atmospheric region above the polar extremities of Earth. Satellites positioned within such orbits intersect the Earth’s northern and southern poles at a specific angular inclination. With each passage over the terrestrial surface, the satellite’s trajectory establishes a particular angle relative to the Earth’s rotational vector, thereby enabling a progressive coverage of diverse geographical areas. Owing to the Earth’s axial rotation, the satellite experiences a minor deviation during each successive transit over the identical location, ultimately facilitating comprehensive surveillance of the entire polar region. Typically, PO satellites operate within an altitude spectrum ranging from approximately 160 to 2,000 km, exhibiting an orbital inclination approaching 90°. These satellites function at relatively elevated velocities, generally between 7.6 and 8 km per second, with an orbital period of approximately 90–100 minutes to complete one revolution around Earth. The operational characteristics of PO satellites render them particularly advantageous for military reconnaissance, surveillance, and espionage activities, attributed to their capacity to survey all global territories. They are generally equipped with advanced high-resolution imaging capabilities and can maintain prolonged observational periods, exemplified by the KH-11 series of reconnaissance satellites deployed by the United States. Furthermore, PO satellites hold substantial significance for scientific inquiry, particularly in the realm of long-term observations pertaining to geology, climate, and ecology on a planetary scale [7].
Very low Earth orbit (VLEO) satellites utilize high-frequency bands (Ka/V-band, 40–75 GHz) to attain terabit-level data throughput; however, this incurs an additional atmospheric attenuation of 15–20 dB in comparison to LEO, as illustrated in Table 1.2. In order to alleviate this issue, adaptive coding and modulation (ACM) algorithms are employed to dynamically modify transmission parameters, a strategy exemplified within the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA’s) Space Communications and Navigation program. Multi-beam phased array (PA) antennas, such as those integrated into Airbus’s VLEO-COM prototype, facilitate precise beamforming (BF) with a pointing accuracy of less than 0.1, thereby compensating for signal degradation while achieving a capacity of 1 Tbps per satellite [8].
Table 1.2 Configuration parameters of the VLEO satellite.
Parameters
VLEO satellite
LEO satellite
Altitude (km)
1,500–450
500–2,000
End-to-end delay (ms)
<5
20–40
Satellite lifetime (year)
1–3
5–10
Transmission costs
< 100 kg, 500,000–1,000,000
500–1,000 kg, 500,000, or more
Atmospheric drag effects
Orbital decay of 0.5–1 km per day
None
Ultra-low latency represents a crucial advantage, characterized by round-trip delays falling below 5 ms at an altitude of 300 km—imperative for financial trading activities and autonomous systems. In order to mitigate spectrum congestion, cognitive radio systems, propelled by artificial intelligence (AI) and exemplified by DARPA’s prototypes from the Spectrum Collaboration Challenge, facilitate real-time interference mitigation within shared frequency bands [9]. Dual-circular polarization antennas, utilized in China’s Galaxy space VLEO test satellites, enhance spectral efficiency threefold through the polarization multiplexing technique. The implementation of onboard AI autonomy is poised to transform operational methodologies. Machine learning (ML) algorithms, such as the European Space Agency’s (ESA’s) CyberSeed, empower autonomous collision avoidance mechanisms and network self-healing capabilities, allowing for the reconfiguration of routing paths within a mere 10 seconds following the occurrence of satellite failure.
Quantum key distribution (QKD) can support a speed of 10 kbps over a distance of 1,000 km. Moreover, as reported by Nature on 19 March 2025, researchers have made a groundbreaking advancement in quantum communication by achieving QKD over an impressive distance of 13,000 km, from China to South Africa, using the lightweight, cost-effective microsatellite, Jinan-1 [10]. This satellite transmitted laser pulses in quantum states, generating a secure quantum key that ensures confidentiality even in the presence of future quantum computing threats. Compared to its predecessor, Micius, Jinan-1 is significantly smaller, more affordable, and more efficient, with a greatly reduced ground-station receiver. This breakthrough represents a major step toward establishing a global QKD network, making transmissions virtually impervious to quantum computing threats. Although Jinan-1 does not yet support advanced features such as entangled photon generation, future miniaturization developments could enable these capabilities, further advancing the creation of a global quantum Internet. In-orbit manufacturing technologies, exemplified by Airbus’s CIMON 3D-printing initiative, are designed to fabricate satellite structures directly in the extraterrestrial environment, circumventing launch mass limitations and extending operational lifespans to a duration of 5 years.
Numerous pioneering projects demonstrate the commercial feasibility of VLEO:
SpaceX’s VLEO Starlink Layer: Functioning at an altitude of 340 km and utilizing laser inter-satellite links (ISL), it achieves a latency of less than 4 ms, thereby facilitating high-frequency trading as well as autonomous vehicle networks.
Lockheed Martin’s Pony Express: A constellation positioned at 450 km that incorporates QKD-enabled military communications, which exhibit a high degree of resistance to eavesdropping attempts.
NorthStar’s Skylark: A network composed of 60 satellites operating at 320 km, delivering 20 Mbps broadband services to Arctic shipping routes at a cost of 50 dollars/GB, utilizing ice-resistant 28 GHz antenna technology.
1.2.2 Developments and Future Evolution of Satellite Communication
Satellite communication is currently experiencing a significant transformation, propelled by advancements in technology, evolving market requirements, and the imperative for worldwide connectivity. Prospective advancements will prioritize enhanced throughput, diminished latency, comprehensive global coverage, sustainability, and seamless integration with terrestrial communication networks. The swift implementation of LEO mega-constellations, as illustrated by initiatives such as SpaceX’s Starlink, OneWeb, and China’s GuoWang, signifies a fundamental shift in the domain of global satellite communication. These constellations employ cutting-edge technologies—including PA antennas for agile beam steering, optical ISLs (OISLs) for expedited data transmission, and non-terrestrial network (NTN) integration compliant with the 3rd generation partnership project (3GPP)—to provide unparalleled low-latency (sub-50 ms) and high-throughput connectivity. SpaceX’s Starlink stands as the preeminent satellite Internet provider globally, having launched over 6,000 satellites by July 2024, with aspirations to increase this number to 42,000 in its Generation 2 constellation. Its services encompass the majority of the globe, although polar regions remain under regulatory constraints. OneWeb is set to finalize its constellation deployment of 648 satellites in 2024 and has merged with Eutelsat in 2023, thereby integrating GEO and LEO capabilities. This initiative is predominantly targeted toward enterprise and government sectors (for instance, maritime, aerospace, and defense), with collaborators that include Airbus, Hughes, and Airtel. The technology employed is Ku-band, and the terminals are specifically engineered for high-mobility applications. Amazon’s Project Kuiper is poised to launch 3,236 satellites by 2029 and has already initiated its first test satellites in 2023. Its innovations encompass cost-effective terminals (with an anticipated 400–500 consumer terminals utilizing PA antennas). Telesat envisions the deployment of 298 satellites, primarily focusing on the enterprise and government sectors, placing particular emphasis on low latency (30–50 ms), which is especially advantageous for financial transactions and telecommunications backhaul. The technology utilized incorporates advanced PA antennas and optical interplanetary links. China’s GuoWang Constellation intends to deploy over 13,000 satellites to compete with Starlink. This initiative is supported by state-owned enterprises, such as the China Satellite Network Group, and aims to facilitate domestic and Belt and Road Initiative connectivity, with a pronounced focus on military-civil fusion applications [11].
The HTS systems utilizing elevated frequency bands such as Q/V (40–50 GHz) and Ka/Ku facilitate terabit-level data throughput [12], thereby substantially augmenting data capacity. Software-defined satellites equipped with reconfigurable payloads proficiently allocate bandwidth and power in real-time, thereby optimizing operational performance in accordance with demand fluctuations. OISLs further mitigate latency by facilitating laser-based communication between satellites, thus circumventing the necessity for ground station involvement. These technological advancements yield significant advantages for both enterprise and governmental sectors by delivering ultra-secure, high-capacity communication links for industries including mining, energy, and defense, while concurrently addressing the digital divide in underserved and rural locales.
