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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Rediscover the science and philosophy of behavior
In Science and Philosophy of Behavior: Selected Papers, distinguished researcher W. M. Baum delivers an expansive collection of incisive papers setting out a new paradigm of thinking about behavior. The book offers only articles that put forward a philosophical and theoretical framework for an effective natural science of behavior. Quantitative analysis is largely avoided (except for a paper on, of all things, avoidance).
Organized into three parts, the author explains the flow-like nature of behavior and its link to evolution, as well as descriptions of a pure form of behaviorism that correct some flaws in B.F. Skinner's seminal works. The book also links behaviorism to anthropology in its final section.
Readers will also find:
- Fulsome descriptions of the molar nature of behavior and why the molecular view is misguided
- Re-imaginations of the concept of reinforcement, including considerations of allocation, induction, and contingency
- Explorations of the links between behavior analysis and Darwinian evolutionary processes
An essential critique—and reorganization—of behavior theory and philosophy, Science and Philosophy of Behavior: Selected Papers is a controversial, fascinating, and eye-opening journey through a half-century of transformational work in the field.
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Seitenzahl: 978
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Preface
Acknowledgments
Part I: Multiscale Behavior Analysis
1 The Correlation‐Based Law of Effect
Introduction
Instrumental Behavior and Feedback
Correlation
versus
Contiguity
The Molar View
Conclusion
Note
2 Quantitative Prediction and Molar Description of the Environment
Molar
Versus
Molecular Explanation
The Behavior‐Environment Feedback System
Conclusion
3 The Trouble With Time
Schrödinger on Causal Thinking
Whorf on the Awkwardness of English
Whorf on Time
Rachlin's Discussion of Final Causes
Conclusion
Note
4 From Molecular to Molar: A Paradigm Shift in Behavior Analysis
The Molecular View
A Molar View
Strength Versus Allocation
Three Examples of Molar Explanation
Ideal Response Classes Versus Concrete Behavioral Patterns
Nesting of Activities
Conclusion
Note
5 The Molar View of Behavior and Its Usefulness in Behavior Analysis
6 Molar and Molecular Views of Choice
The Molecular View in Historical Perspective
Criticisms of the Molecular View
The Molar View as an Alternative
Avoiding Confusion
Two Simple Principles
Nesting of Activities
Molecular Explanations: Failings
Molar Explanations: Advantages
Conclusions
7 Rethinking Reinforcement: Allocation, Induction, and Contingency
The Law of Effect
Allocation of Time Among Activities
Induction
Induction and Stimulus Control
Phylogenetically Important Events
Analogy to Natural Selection
Contingency
Avoidance
Effects of Contingency
A Test
Constraint and Connection
Correlations and Feedback Functions
Explanatory Power
Omissions and Inadequacies
Conclusions
8 Driven by Consequences: The Multiscale Molar View of Choice
The Matching Law
The Behavior‐Environment Feedback System
Ratio schedules
Substitutability and partial preferences
Impulsivity, Self‐Control, and Time Allocation
Conclusion
9 Reinforcement
Reinforcers and Punishers
Contingencies
Phylogeny and Phylogenetically Important Events
Mixed Consequences, Impulsivity, and Self‐Control
Further Reading
10 Avoidance, Induction, and the Illusion of Reinforcement
Analyses
Discussion
Conclusions
Appendix
11 Multiscale Behavior Analysis and Molar Behaviorism: An Overview
Prolegomenon
Multiscale Behavior Analysis
Critique of the Molecular View of Behavior
Reinforcement and Induction
The Ontological Status of Activities
Molar Behaviorism
Conclusion
12 Behavior, Process, and Scale
Structure versus Function
Activities versus Discrete Responses
Process and Scale
Molar and Molecular Paradigms
Conclusion
Part II: Molar Behaviorism
13 Radical Behaviorism and the Concept of Agency
What's Radical about Radical Behaviorism?
Self‐less Behaviorism
Radical Behaviorism and Eastern Mysticism
Radical Behaviorism and the New Age
Conclusion
Note
14 Commentary on Foxall, “Intentional Behaviorism”
15 Behaviorism, Private Events, and the Molar View of Behavior
Dualism
Two Uses of “Private”
The Dilemma of Private Events
The Molar View of Behavior
Are Sensations Private?
The Mistake of Private Events
Conclusion
Afterword
16 Ontology for Behavior Analysis: Not Realism, Classes, or Objects, but Individuals and Processes
Realism and Its Alternatives
The Trouble with Realism
A Workable Ontology for Scientific Study of Behavior
Class versus individual
Objects versus processes
Ontology for Behavior Analysis
Conclusion
17 Berkeley, Realism, and Dualism
18 What is Suicide?
19 Relativity in Hearing and Stimulus Discrimination
Conclusion
Part III: Culture and Evolution
20 Rules, Culture, and Fitness
Why Tie Behavior Analysis to Evolutionary Theory?
Behavior Analysis and Evolutionary Theory
Rules and Fitness
Rules in a Cultural Context
Verbal Behavior
Rules and Rule‐Governed Behavior
Conclusion
21 Being Concrete about Culture and Cultural Evolution
Introduction
Cultural Units
Transmission
Selection
Conclusion
22 Behavior Analysis, Darwinian Evolutionary Processes, and the Diversity of Human Behavior
Population Thinking
Darwinian Evolutionary Process
Evolutionary Explanations of Behavior
Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Phrases and verbs that induce various likelihoods of talking abou...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Schematic view of the organism‐environment system, showing the E‐...
Figure 1.2 Variable‐interval feedback functions (broken curves) and performa...
Figure 1.3 Contingency as correlation.
Figure 1.4 Cumulative records of performances of two pigeons, 41GP and 42GP,...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 The behavior‐environment feedback system.
Figure 2.2 Cumulative‐record representations (left) and feedback functions (...
Figure 2.3 Compound schedules: cumulative‐record representations (left) and ...
Figure 2.4 Adjusting ratio schedules as models of depleting resources or “pa...
Figure 2.5 Interval schedules as depleting.
Figure 2.6 Feedback function for a depleting patch.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 A curve representating a pattern of variation transcending moment...
Figure 3.2 Feedback functions illustrating how the pattern actual performanc...
Figure 3.3 The hierarchical nature of patterns and final causes.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Apparent deviations from matching explained by the fix‐and‐sample...
Figure 4.2 One person's hypothetical activity patterns
Figure 4.3 A study of concurrent schedules that illustrates the concept of n...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 The hypothetical nesting of a pigeon's activities in an experimen...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Behavior induced by periodic food
Figure 7.2 A hypothetical illustration of the concept of allocation
Figure 7.3 A hypothetical example illustrating change of behavior due to ind...
Figure 7.4 A hypothetical example illustrating change of allocation due to c...
Figure 7.5 Diagram illustrating that Phylogenetically Important Events (PIEs...
Figure 7.6 Results of an experiment in which food itself served as a discrim...
Figure 7.7 Cartoon of Reid's (1958) results with reinstatement of responding...
Figure 7.8 Cumulative record that Skinner (1948) presented as evidence of “r...
Figure 7.9 Why a contingency or correlation is not simply a temporal relatio...
Figure 7.10 Different Correlations or Contingencies induce either the target...
Figure 7.11 Cumulative record of a squirrel monkey pressing a lever that pro...
Figure 7.12 How contingency completes a loop in which an operant activity (B...
Figure 7.13 Results from an experiment showing discrimination of correlation...
Figure 7.14 Results from an experiment in which lever pressing undergoing ex...
Figure 7.15 Effects of contingency
Figure 7.16 Example of a feedback function for a variable‐interval schedule...
Figure 7.17 Example of an empirical feedback function for a variable‐interva...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Hypothetical time allocation among 4 activities: Gaining Resource...
Figure 8.2 The generalized matching law
Figure 8.3 The behavior‐environment feedback system
Figure 8.4 Typical feedback functions
Figure 8.5 Effects and challenges of a bad habit
Figure 8.6 Effects and challenges of a good habit
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Feedback functions for avoidance
Figure 10.2 Sidman's (1953) raw data
Figure 10.3 Press rate as a function of shock‐rate reduction in Sidman's (19...
Figure 10.4 Press rate as a function of received shock rate in Sidman's (195...
Figure 10.5 The same 3 feedback functions as in Figure 10.1 with induction a...
Figure 10.6 Representing avoidance equilibrium as a feedback system
Figure 10.7 Press rate as a function of R‐S interval in two studies in which...
Figure 10.8 Press rate as a function of received shock rate in Hineline's (1...
Figure 10.9 Press rate as a function of received shock rate in the study by ...
Figure 10.10 Press rate as a function of received shock rate in de Villiers'...
Figure 10.11 Press ratios in concurrent pairs of VI avoidance schedules as p...
Figure 10.12 Feedback functions in the study by Logue and de Villiers (1978)...
Figure 10.13 Press ratios derived from feedback functions in Figure 10.12 fo...
Figure 10.A1 A frequency distribution of interresponse times (IRTs) in Sidma...
Figure 10.A2 Feedback functions for Sidman avoidance
Figure 10.A3 Feedback function for Sidman avoidance with equal R‐S and S‐S i...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Behavior and environment as a feedback system
Figure 11.2 Contingency closes a loop
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 The implication of taking all private events to be public in‐pri...
Figure 15.2 The Lubinski‐Thompson (1993) experiment compared to a conditiona...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Average time allocation in hours of Americans 15 years and older...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 The difference between Adam's hearing and Eve's deafness
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 The two contingencies of rule‐governed behavior
Figure 20.2 Diagrams of experience with two contingencies
Figure 20.3 Diagram of an interaction in which a speaker's verbal behavior (...
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 The effects of delay on the value of consequences
Figure 21.2 A typical problem in self‐control offset by the rule an instruct...
Figure 21.3 An example of a behavior‐consequence relation that may act as a ...
Figure 21.4 How rule‐making leads to rule‐giving
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 Population, frequency, and recurrence
Figure 22.2 The general evolutionary process
Figure 22.3 Illustration of the transformations of Figure 22.2
Figure 22.4 The cultural evolutionary process as an example of the general p...
Figure 22.5 The operant (behavioral) evolutionary process as an example of t...
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Preface
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
References
Index
Wiley End User License Agreement
Acknowledgments
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Science and Philosophy of Behavior
Selected Papers
William M. Baum
This edition first published 2022
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Name: Baum, William M., author. | John Wiley & Sons, publisher.
Title: Science and philosophy of behavior : selected papers / William M. Baum.
Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2022. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022017517 (print) | LCCN 2022017518 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119880868 (paperback) | ISBN 9781119880882 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119880875 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Behaviorism (Psychology). | Psychology—Methodology. | Social sciences—Methodology.
Classification: LCC BF199 .B32 2022 (print) | LCC BF199 (ebook) | DDC 150.19/43—dc23/eng/20220603
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022017517
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022017518
Cover Design: Wiley Cover Image: Courtesy of Tom Smith
To my mentor, Dick Herrnstein, and my friend and fellow traveler, Howie Rachlin.
Preface
This book records almost 50 years' worth of developing and explaining a new way of thinking about behavior. It represents a journey more than a goal. I came to see that the science of behavior needed a new paradigm, and two sorts of changes were required. First, the old molecular view inherited from the nineteenth century, based on discrete responses and contiguity, had to be replaced by a view based on the dynamics of behavior. Behavior is manifestly process and cannot be contained in little momentary packets. Behavior is flow and requires measures and theories that acknowledge its temporal extendedness. Such a new (“molar”) view offers plausible and elegant explanations both of laboratory results and of phenomena in the everyday world. The molecular view falls short on both counts.
The molar view derives from two innovations introduced by Skinner: (a) measuring behavior as rate and (b) stimulus control. Thinking in terms of rate of activity allowed theory and explanation to adopt a dynamic approach to behavior. Stimulus control replaced S─R bonds and elicitation as precepts, by substituting “modulation” of activity rate. Although intended to replace simple connectionism, though, stimulus control was described in vague terms. Skinner (1938, 1953) and others said that it “set the occasion” for activity to produce consequences. One might have inferred some hidden connection between context (SD) and activity, but rarely, if ever, was this made explicit. Some sort of mechanism remained to be specified, and, to my way of thinking, induction filled that lacuna.
Before induction became paramount, Herrnstein (1961, 1970) took another major step: measuring outcomes as rates. I will never forget the first time Herrnstein drew on the blackboard a schematic of the dependence of outcome (reinforcer) rate on activity (response) rate—a curvilinear relation approaching an asymptote. I took this to be a feedback function and the organism and environment to constitute a feedback system.
The second change required for behavior analysis to stand on a sound scientific footing is integration with evolutionary theory. The biological sciences and increasingly the social sciences take evolutionary theory as the conceptual framework for thinking about life and society. Shockingly few behavior analysts think in evolutionary terms or even evince any knowledge of evolutionary theory.
The link to evolution became clear to me when I found I could abandon the notions of reinforcement and strength and instead rely on the concept of induction put forward by Eve Segal (1972). She had already laid the groundwork, and all I had to do to build on her work was to make explicit the idea of induction of operant behavior by so‐called “reinforcers,” “punishers,” and “unconditional stimuli.” Stimulus control was already implicitly covered by induction; I only needed to make the connection explicit. I was then able to see that these effective events were really inducers, inducing activities that enhanced or mitigated their effects. All inducers have one feature in common: they all directly or indirectly affect the likelihood of reproducing—reproductive success or fitness. Thus, I coined the term Phylogenetically Important Event (PIE), pointing to the connection to natural selection.
The result I offer here is a basis for a true natural science of behavior that links to biology and anthropology through evolutionary thinking. On one hand, it brings behavior analysis together with ethology, behavioral ecology, and evolutionary biology. On the other hand, it brings behavior analysis together with studies of culture and cultural evolution.
I included in the book only articles that put forward the philosophical and theoretical framework for an effective natural science of behavior. The only quantitative paper is the analysis of avoidance (Baum, 2020; Chapter 10), which I included because it presents the strongest support for induction and the molar view and the greatest challenge to the molecular view. A great deal of empirical work that supported the new framework is omitted. The interested reader will easily find those works in the references and online.
The book is organized into three parts. The first, “Multiscale Behavior Analysis,” concerns primarily the framework based on the flow‐like nature of behavior and the link to evolution. The second part, which necessarily overlaps with the first part, offers a pure form of behaviorism, building on B. F. Skinner's work, but correcting flaws in Skinner's thinking. For want of a better name, I called this “Molar Behaviorism,” but it is really just an update of what Skinner called “radical behaviorism.” The third part contains some articles on culture from a behavioral point of view, linking to anthropology.
I am indebted to others for help and support as these ideas unfolded. Most importantly, my mentor, Richard J. Herrnstein guided me, challenged me, and encouraged me. Also of invaluable help was my friend and peer Howard Rachlin. Often Phil Hineline contributed too.
February 10, 2022, Walnut Creek, CA.
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1
Source: Originally published in Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 20 (1973), pp. 137–153. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons. Preparation of this manuscript was supported by grants from the National Science Foundation, National Institutes of Health, and National Institute of Mental Health to Harvard University. The author thanks R.J. Herrnstein and H. Rachlin for their helpful advice and criticism.
Chapter 2
Source: A version of this paper was presented at the meetings of the Association for Behavior Analysis, Philadelphia, May 1988. This work was supported by Grant BNS 84‐01119 from the National Science Foundation. Originally published in The Behavior Analyst, 12 (1989), pp. 167–176. Reproduced with permission of Springer Nature and Association for Behavior Analysis International.
Chapter 3
Source: This paper was originally given in a symposium at University of Nevada, Reno. It was published as a chapter in L.J. Hayes and P.M. Ghezzi (eds.), Investigations in Behavioral Epistemology. Context Press, an imprint of New Harbinger Publications, 1997. Reproduced with permission of New Harbinger Publications, Inc.
Chapter 4
Source: Originally published in Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 78 (2002), pp. 95–116. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons.
Chapter 5
Source: Originally published in The Behavior Analysis Today, 4 (2003), pp. 78–81. © 2003 William M. Baum. Reproduced with permission of American Psychological Association.
Chapter 6
Source: Originally published in Behavioural Processes, 66 (2004), pp. 349–359. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier. The author thanks Michael Davison for many helpful comments on earlier versions.
Chapter 7
Source: Originally published in Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 97 (2012), pp. 101–124. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons. I thank Howard Rachlin, John Staddon, and Jesse Dallery for helpful comments on earlier versions of this paper.
Chapter 8
Source: Originally published in Managerial and Decision Economics, 37 (2016), pp. 239–248. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons. The author thanks Howard Rachlin for many helpful comments.
Chapter 9
Source: Originally published in H.L. Miller (ed.), The SAGE Encyclopedia of Theory in Psychology, pp. 795–798. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc., 2016. Reproduced with permission of Sage Publications, Inc.
Chapter 10
Source: Originally published in Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 114 (2020), pp. 116–141. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons.
Chapter 11
Source: This paper contains portions of the English version of a book chapter published in Portuguese in D. Zillo and K. Carrara (eds.), Behaviorismos. Vol. 2. Sao Paulo, Brazil: Paradigma. The author thanks Howard Rachlin and Tim Shahan for thoughtful comments on earlier drafts. Originally published in Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 110 (2018), pp. 302–322. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons.
Chapter 12
Source: Originally published as “Behavior, process, and scale: Comments on Shimp (2020), ‘Molecular (moment‐to‐moment) and molar (aggregate) analyses of behavior',” in Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 115 (2021), pp. 578–583. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons.
Chapter 13
Source: Originally presented as the B.F. Skinner Memorial Address at the 1995 Convention of Behaviorology and published in Behaviorology, 3 (1995), pp. 93–106. Reproduced with permission of Behaviorology journal.
Chapter 14
Source: Originally published in Behavior and Philosophy, 35 (2007), pp. 57–60. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies.
Chapter 15
Source: Earlier versions of this paper were presented at Association for Behavior Analysis, May 1995, and American Psychological Association, August 1995. The author thanks Howard Rachlin for thoughtful comments on an earlier draft of the paper. Originally published in The Behavior Analyst, 34 (2011), pp. 185–200. Reproduced with permission of Springer Nature.
Chapter 16
Source: Originally published in Behavior and Philosophy, 45 (2017), pp. 63–78. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies.
Chapter 17
Source: Originally published as “Berkeley, realism, and dualism: Reply to Hocutt's ‘George Berkeley resurrected: A commentary on “Baum's Ontology for Behavior Analysis” ', ” Behavior and Philosophy, 46 (2018), pp. 58–62. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies.
Chapter 18
Source: Originally published as “What is Suicide? Comments on ‘Can Nonhuman Animals Commit Suicide?' by David Peña‐Guzmán” in Animal Sentience, 20 (2018). © William M. Baum.
Chapter 19
Source: Originally published in Perspectives on Behavior Science, 42 (2019), pp. 283–289. Reproduced with permission of Springer Nature.
Chapter 20
Source: This paper is gratefully dedicated to my teacher, Richard J. Herrnstein. A version was presented at the Association for Behavior Analysis meeting in Atlanta, May 1994. The author thanks P.N. Hineline, A.S. Kupfer, J.A. Nevin, H. Rachlin, M.E. Vaughan, and G.E. Zuriff for helpful comments on earlier drafts. Originally published in The Behavior Analyst, 18 (1995), pp. 1–21. Reproduced with permission of Springer Nature.
Chapter 21
Source: The author thanks F. Tonneau, N. Thompson, and R. Hinde for many helpful comments. Originally published in N.S. Thompson and F. Tonneau (eds.), Perspectives in Ethology: Evolution, Culture, and Behavior (Vol. 13), pp. 181–212. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum, 2000. Reproduced with permission of Springer Nature.
Chapter 22
Source: I thank M. Ghiselin, S. Glenn, K. Panchnathan, P. Richerson, and H. Rachlin for helpful comments on an earlier draft. Originally published in M. Tibayrenc and F.J. Ayala (eds.), On human nature: Psychology, ethics, politics, and religion, pp. 397–415. New York: Academic Press, 2017. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.
