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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Strategy is the art of thinking about war before it occurs. Noting that space already plays a role in all of today’s wars, Space Strategy studies how conflicts are extending into this new domain. The book defines extra-atmospheric space and focuses on its varying features and constraints. By exploring the opportunities for action provided by different strategic positions, the book analyzes the most plausible combat scenarios from, against and within space. It explains the concepts of militarization, weaponization and martialization of space and shows how space systems constitute an essential component of information literacy – the key to power in the 21st Century.
Space Strategy then demonstrates why our society, having become space-dependent, must take appropriate measures to develop its spatioresilience. Finally, the author summarizes his reflections in the form of a mnemonic listing twelve principles of space strategy.
Completed by educational appendices and a glossary containing one thousand entries, Space Strategy meets the needs of students, researchers or any other reader curious about expanding their knowledge of strategy.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title
Copyright
Foreword
Preface to the First Edition of
Stratégie Spatiale
(2011)
Notice to Readers
Acknowledgments
Introduction: Space: The Final Frontier of Strategy
1 Space Strategy: From Words to Actions
1.1. Geostrategy of space and space strategy
1.2. Principles and methods to the systemic analysis approach
1.3. Debris, laser and spaceplane
1.4. Conclusion
2 Strategic Space: What Are the Limits?
2.1. Physical limits of outer space
2.2. Functional limits of space and outer space
2.3. Judicial limit of outer space
2.4. Conclusion
3 How Can We Reach Space and Then Act Within It?
3.1. Piercing the gravitational opacity
3.2. Utilizing physical and radioelectric radiation
3.3. Space positions worth occupying or controlling
3.4. Conclusion
4 Space: What Are the Strategic Stakes?
4.1. Centripetal force of terrestrial strategic stakes
4.2. Centrifugal weakness of an autonomous strategic space factor
4.3. Space as strategic vector of information dominance
4.4. Conclusion
5 Fighting Against Earth from Space?
5.1. Militarized space: global support
5.2. Weaponized space: celestial offensive
5.3. “Martialized” space: the alternative way
5.4. Conclusion
6 Fighting Against Space from Earth?
6.1. Space situational awareness
6.2. Whoever controls the low ground controls the high ground
6.3. Space and nuclear: deterred deterrence?
6.4. Conclusion
7 Combat within Space?
7.1. Small Earth space strategy
7.2. Strategic expansion of aerospace
7.3. The great lunar and Lagrangian strategy
7.4. Conclusion
8 Twelve Principles of Space Strategy
8.1. The four “preliminary principles” of space strategy
8.2. The four “cardinal principles” of space strategy
8.3. The four “complementary principles” of space strategy
8.4. Conclusion
9 Moving Beyond Space Strategy
9.1. The four “i”s: indispensable, invisible, imaginary, inescapable
9.2. Space warrant to and part of mankind’s global commons
9.3. Space: platform for irenology
9.4. Conclusion
Conclusion: Space, Shield or Shroud of Humanity?
Postface
Appendix 1: Physical Limits of Outer Space
A1.1. Density
A1.2. Pressure
A1.3. Composition
A1.4. Mass
A1.5. Temperature
A1.6. Ionization
A1.7. Magnetism
A1.8. Gravity
A1.9. Physiological effects
A1.10. Effects on vehicles
A1.11. Conclusion
Appendix 2: Kepler’s Laws
A2.1. Kepler’s first law or “law of orbits” (1609)
A2.2. Kepler’s second law or “law of areas” (1609)
A2.3. Kepler’s third law or “law of periods” (1618)
A2.4. Terminological clarifications
Appendix 3: Space Law
Appendix 4: Excerpt from the Report of the Legal Subcommittee of UN OOSA on Its Fifty-Fourth Session – Held in Vienna from April 13–27, 2015
A4.1. Matters relating to the legal definition and delimitation of outer space
A4.2. Report of the Chair of the Working Group on the Definition and Delimitation of Outer Space
Appendix 5: Detailed Description of “Two-Line Element (TLE)” Orbital Parameters
Appendix 6: “We Choose to Go to the Moon”
How to Use This Glossary
G.1. Translation of an official French word
G.2. Other words
G.3. Remark pertaining to the use of references in the following glossary
Glossary
Bibliography
Main Internet Sites
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
1 Space Strategy: From Words to Actions
Table 1.1.
Three levels of military action (© Jean-Luc Lefebvre)
2 Strategic Space: What Are the Limits?
Table 2.1.
Aerospace transition zone (ATZ) © Jean-Luc Lefebvre
3 How Can We Reach Space and Then Act Within It?
Table 3.1.
Types of orbits and their respective applications (© Jean-Luc Lefebvre)
Appendix 1: Physical Limits of Outer Space
Table A1.1.
Composition of the atmosphere near the surface of the Earth
5
Table A1.2.
Characteristics of the Earth’s environment ( Jean-Luc Lefebvre – original production)
Appendix 5: Detailed Description of “Two-Line Element (TLE)” Orbital Parameters
Table A5.1.
Detailed description of "Two-Line Element (TLE)" (© Jean-Luc Lefebvre)
List of Illustrations
Acknowledgments
Figure 1.
Planck observing background microwave radiation (© ESA)
Introduction: Space: The Final Frontier of Strategy
Figure I.1.
Sputnik, the first artificial satellite of Earth (© CNES)
Figure I.2.
Aircraft carrier Le Charles de Gaulle approaching a port (© Marine nationale (French Navy)). “In the high-seas, maneuverability is total: it is two dimensional on the surface and three dimensional under the sea, but is reduced to land approaches”
1 Space Strategy: From Words to Actions
Figure 1.1.
La guerre en orbite, Serge Grouard, 1994 (© Economica)
Figure 1.2.
Atmospheric reentry craft
14
(© ESA)
Figure 1.3.
Evolution of objects around the Earth (© CNES)
2 Strategic Space: What Are the Limits?
Figure 2.1.
Evolution of temperature depending on altitude and the denomination of atmospheric layers from a thermal perspective (© Jean–Charles Brunet)
Figure 2.2.
Vertical slice of the magnetosphere (© Belin
4
)
Figure 2.3.
Evolution of atmospheric pressure as altitudes rise between 0 and 20,000 m and the resulting physiological thresholds (© Jean–Charles Brunet)
Figure 2.4.
Felix Baumgartner “walking home from space” (© Zenith Watches)
Figure 2.5.
Sun–Earth connection (© CNES)
Figure 2.6.
Evolution of large air balloons and an altitude curve of the BU60-1 balloon (© Jean–Charles Brunet according to Japanese space program website JAXA)
Figure 2.7.
The International Space Station (ISS) (© CNES)
Figure 2.8.
Earth seen from the Moon, Apollo 11 mission (© NASA “As a natural high-ground, The Moon dominates Earth”)
Figure 2.9.
Universum by Camille Flammarion
54
3 How Can We Reach Space and Then Act Within It?
Figure 3.1.
All three cosmic velocities and the four main types of spacecraft trajectories (© Belin
4
)
Figure 3.2.
Conservation of motion applied to the canonball and canon (© Nexter)
Figure 3.3.
Tangential velocity provided by the rotation of Earth at the latitudes of some bases (© Belin
10
)
Figure 3.4.
Orbital speed of a satellite placed on a circular orbit according to its altitude (logarithmic abscissa scale) (© Jean-Luc Lefebvre)
Figure 3.5.
Revolution period of a satellite of Earth placed on a circular orbit according to its altitude (logarithmic scales) (© Jean-Luc Lefebvre)
Figure 3.6.
An example gravitational assistance: the trajectory of the Voyager 1 probe within Jupiter’s sphere of influence
14
(© Belin)
Figure 3.7.
Captain Haddock’s whisky (© Casterman
17
)
Figure 3.8.
Overcrowding on the geostationary orbit (© ESA)
Figure 3.9.
The ESA’s space observatory for gamma radiation (© ESA)
Figure 3.10.
The different “atmospheric windows” (radioelectric opacity of the atmosphere according to the wavelength) (© Jean-Charles Brunet)
Figure 3.11.
Characteristic parameters of an ellipse (© Jean-Luc Lefebvre
23
)
Figure 3.12.
Eccentricity and the shape of the orbit (© Jean-Luc Lefebvre
24
)
Figure 3.13.
Ground tracks of a Molniya satellite
27
Figure 3.14.
Different classes of Earth orbits (© Jean
-
Luc Lefebvre)
Figure 3.15.
Galileo constellation (artistic representation) (© ESA)
Figure 3.16.
Three satellite stations would ensure complete coverage of the globe
36
Figure 3.17.
Characteristics of geostationary orbit (© Jean-Luc Lefebvre
37
)
Figure 3.18.
Three examples of orbital inclination (© Jean-Charles Brunet
38
)
Figure 3.19.
Principle of heliosynchronism (© Jean-Charles Brunet
42
)
Figure 3.20.
Satellites and space debris gravitating around earth (© Dr. Michael Najjar – Sorbonne UPMC)
Figure 3.21.
Gravity curves and the five Lagrange points in a system with two celestial bodies (© Belin
45
)
4 Space: What Are the Strategic Stakes?
Figure 4.1.
Maritimes routes visualized based on satellite detections
6
(“Maritime routes are restricted by capes and straits”)
Figure 4.2.
GPS III-A Satellite (© Lockheed Martin
10
)
Figure 4.3.
Artistic representation of the transmission of Helios images to different ground stations, also linked to one another through the Syracuse 3 satellite (© CNES)
Figure 4.4.
Example of a physical line of communication: the satellization trajectory for the Ariane 5 launcher (© CNES)
Figure 4.5.
Trajectory of the Genesis probe (© Jean-Charles Brunet
22
)
Figure 4.6.
Project by Airbus Defence and Space for a solar power space station (© Airbus Defence and Space)
Figure 4.7.
The three waves of human development according to Alvin Toffler (© Jean-Luc Lefebvre
36
)
Figure 4.8.
Television satellite DIRECTV-15 (artistic representation) (© Airbus Defence and Space)
5 Fighting Against Earth from Space?
Figure 5.1.
The three monkeys of wisdom at the Toshogu shrine (17th Century) located in Nikkô (Honshu, Kantô region, Tochigi prefecture)
5
Figure 5.2.
Helios military observation satellite 2 (© CNES) – “see all (or practically all)”
Figure 5.3.
ODDA loop (© Jean-Luc Lefebvre): observation, orientation, decision, action
Figure 5.4.
Project Hoasis for geostationary observation (© Thales Alenia Space)
Figure 5.5.
“Whoever controls space can crush Earth with his hands!” (© Jean-Charles Brunet, original photocomposition from an idea by the author)
Figure 5.6.
Space laser (© ESA)
Figure 5.7.
Space mirror on the Herschel satellite (© ESA)
Figure 5.8.
Leonidas in Thermopylae, by Jacques-Louis David, oil on canvas (395 x 531 cm), 1814, Louvre Museum © RMN
6 Fighting Against Space from Earth?
Figure 6.1.
Two representations of power (© Musée de la Marine/© NASA)
Figure 6.2.
Ground resources for space-surveillance imagined by the European Space agency (artistic representation) (© ESA)
Figure 6.3.
SOHO unveils the mysteries of the Sun (artistic representation) (© ESA)
Figure 6.4.
Last flight of the Boeing 747 ALTB (© Boeing
21
)
Figure 6.5.
Ariane 5 launcher on its launching pad (© CNES)
Figure 6.6.
“Whoever controls the low-ground controls the high-ground!” (Kennedy Space Center © NASA)
Figure 6.7.
M51 being launched from a submarine NG (© Airbus Defence & Space)
Figure 6.8.
Missile defense system (artistic representation) designed by the Airbus Defence & Space Company (© Airbus Defence & Space)
7 Combat within Space?
Figure 7.1.
Distribution of the debris from the Fengyun 1C 6 months after its destruction (© Jean-Charles Brunet
7
)
Figure 7.2.
Orbits of the debris caused by the collision between satellites Iridium-33 and Kosmos-2251, on February 10, 2009 3 h after collision (picture at the top), then 6 months later, August 5, 2009 (picture at the bootom) (© NASA
9
)
Figure 7.3.
Increase in the number of space debris through time (© NASA
12
)
Figure 7.4.
Distribution of space debris by altitude (© NASA
17
)
Figure 7.5.
A Rafale fighter jet can become a launch platform for a small launcher in any point of terrestrial airspace (© French Navy)
Figure 7.6.
“Spaceships will replace conventional warships in the oceans”. The European ship Jules Verne that resupplies the ISS (© CNES)
Figure 7.7.
Aerospace drone X-37B landing (© Boeing)
Figure 7.8.
Orbital test vehicle X-37B being reprepared for a new launch (© NASA)
Figure 7.9.
X-37B after its return to Earth (© US Spacecom). “Aerospace technicians could very well replace air technicians in 21st century bases…”
Figure 7.10.
Earth as seen from Lunar orbit (Apollo 11 mission) (© NASA)
Figure 7.11.
Lagrange points for the Earth–Moon system (© Jean-Charles Brunet)
Figure 7.12.
The Lagrangian points in the Earth–Sun system (© Jean-Charles Brunet
66
)
Figure 7.13.
Solar laboratory SOHO placed in Lagrange point L1 of the Earth–Sun system (© NASA and ESA – picture credit: Alex Lutkus)
Figure 7.14.
Map of the Cosmic Background Radiation of the Universe established by the European Planck observatory (© ESA)
Figure 7.15.
Seven closest Lagrange points to Earth (© Jean-Charles Brunet, based on a sketch by the author)
Figure 7.16.
Shot of Earth taken by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (© NASA
77
)
8 Twelve Principles of Space Strategy
Figure 8.1.
The GRAVES space trajectography radar (© Sirpa air)
Figure 8.2.
CNES inspector tracking the Spot 2 satellite during its deorbiting (© CNES)
Figure 8.3.
Buzz Aldrin saluting the American flag on the Moon, July 21, 1969 (© NASA)
Figure 8.4.
Bull with a human head at the gates of the palace of Sargon II the Assyrian king located in Dur-Sharrukin, now Khorsabad in Irak (© Urban
12
)
Figure 8.5.
“There cannot be a strong space power without competent space professionals” (© CNES)
Figure 8.6.
Organizational layout of the French Commandement Intégré de l’Espace (CIE) (© EMA
17
)
Figure 8.7.
Comparison of space budgets among major space powers (US $) (© OCDE
19
)
Figure 8.8.
Crab-spider (Thomisidae) with its prey © Didier-85
23
“like the crab amassing its spoils to ensure its growth and vitality, a smart space power invests in the long term to reinforce its influence in the field”
Figure 8.9.
Ariane rocket launch L01 (© CNES)
Figure 8.10.
The Centre spatial guyanais (CSG), Europe’s spaceport (© CNES)
Figure 8.11.
Planisphere presenting Earth’s space bases Jean-Luc Lefebvre using a CNES map base (CNES Végétation tool)
Figure 8.12.
Kiruna station in Sweden is an essential operational link for European observation satellites (© ESA)
Figure 8.13.
Ariane 5 Launcher on its launching platform, vol. 166 (© CNES) “Destructions such as a launcher before take-off can mean months, even years before restoring operational capacity.”
Figure 8.14.
ESA control room © ESA
“
the most elegant way to neutralize a space system is simply to deny an opponent’s use of it, or even take control of it instead
”
Figure 8.15.
The X37B after its return to Earth (© US Spacecom) “The space plane or space drone also contributes to creating and maintaining the aforementioned fog of war!”
Figure 8.16.
Exploding satellite generating thousands of space debris (artistic representation) (© CNES)
Figure 8.17.
Areas accessible by Formosat-2: the satellite performs exactly 14 orbits a day (the purple strips represent the observable areas during its revolution; © NS
P
O
45
)
Figure 8.18.
Artemis and Spot 4 communicating via a Silex optical link (© ESA) “Non-physical lines of communications transport information, something that has become as vital to everyday functions as the transport of merchandise”
Figure 8.19.
Messenger pigeon inspecting the French army (© FNCV
62
) “a nation able to entrust its vital communications to pigeons is in a better position to go without satellites than the one which has no backup solution whatsoever”
Figure 8.20.
The intelligence branch of the defense base in Creil (© CNES)
Figure 8.21.
Military reconnaissance satellite MUSIS
66
(© CNES)
9 Moving Beyond Space Strategy
Figure 9.1.
The Voyager 2 probe (© NASA)
Figure 9.2.
The Cassini-Huygens probe flies above the rings of Saturn (© CNES, Ducros David, 2004)
Figure 9.3.
July 14 parade over the Champs-Elysées in Paris (© ECPAD) “Troops, vehicles and even fighter planes parade for national holidays, not satellites!”
Figure 9.4.
Earth station (© ESA) “Invisible, yet indispensable, space infrastructures are “the air” passing through the lungs of the media”
Figure 9.5.
Blast-off of Saturn V Apollo 11 launch, July 16, 1969 (© NASA)
Figure 9.6.
“That’s one small step for man; one giant leap for mankind” (© NASA)
Figure 9.7.
Space debris running around Earth and GEO (© NASA)
Figure 9.8.
Example of international collaboration for climate monitoring, the “A-train” of atmospheric observation satellites (© NASA)
Figure 9.9.
First picture of Earth taken by meteorological satellite MSG-4 (© EUMETSAT)
Figure 9.10.
Envoy of mankind (© CNES)
Conclusion: Space, Shield or Shroud of Humanity?
Figure 1.
Missile M-51 (© Airbus Defence & Space)
Figure 2.
To prevent Earth-crossing objects, a surveillance system using satellites is a solution currently under consideration by the European Space Agency (© ESA, artistic representation)
Figure 3.
Asteroid Impact Mission (AIM) (© ESA)
Appendix 1: Physical Limits of Outer Space
Figure A1.1.
Evolution of the atmosphere’s density according to altitude
2
(© Jean-Charles Brunet)
Figure A1.2.
Evolution atmospheric pressure according to altitude
3
(© Jean-Charles Brunet)
Figure A1.3.
Distribution of components according to altitude in the homosphere
7
(© Jean-Charles Brunet)
Figure A1.4.
Proportion of the mass of the atmosphere located below a given altitude (© Jean-Charles Brunet
12
). For example, 90% of atmospheric mass is below 16 km in altitude
Figure A1.5.
Schematic representation of the Van Allen belts (© Jean-Charles Brunet
17
)
Figure A1.6.
Interaction between magnetosphere and solar wind (© CNES)
Figure A1.7.
Interaction between solar wind and Earth’s magnetic field. Structure of the magnetosphere (
©
CNES-CLIF
19
)
Figure A1.8.
Meridian vertical slice of the magnetosphere in the direction of the Sun (© CNES-CLIF
20
)
Figure A1.9.
Lagrange points for the Earth–Moon system (© Emmanuel Trelat)
Figure A1.10.
Lagrange points for the Sun-Earth system (© Emmanuel Trelat)
Appendix 2: Kepler’s Laws
Figure A2.1.
Characteristics of an elliptical orbit (© Jean-Charles Brunet)
Figure A2.2.
Law of areas (© Jean-Charles Brunet)
Appendix 5: Detailed Description of “Two-Line Element (TLE)” Orbital Parameters
Figure A5.1.
Two-Line Element (TLE) of the satellite NOAA 6 (© NASA
3
)
Guide
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Space Strategy
Jean-Luc Lefebvre
First published 2017 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
ISTE Ltd27-37 St George’s RoadLondon SW19 4EUUK
www.iste.co.uk
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.111 River StreetHoboken, NJ 07030USA
www.wiley.com
© ISTE Ltd 2017
The rights of Jean-Luc Lefebvre to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017930847
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-84821-997-7
Foreword
The day when the upper atmosphere ceased to be an impassable barrier, man may have unwillingly opened a window onto a world that he would either turn into heaven or hell. The importance of this responsibility relates to the link between these two limits, the thickness of our atmosphere and the thickness of the universe.
In his recognized inspiration and style, Antoine de Saint-Exupéry wrote: “We all live in the same cause, are borne through life on the same planet, form the crew of the same ship”1 and this ship is so fragile that it is completely invisible at such a distance of the Sun. It is but a mere insignificant thing at the scale of a system including our Sun and some surrounding stars. At the scale of our galaxy, we are but a strange anomaly, and at the scale of the Universe, we simply do not exist.
We should refrain from any exuberant triumphalism any time we discuss strategy. And there lies the point of this book, which approaches with caution and skepticism, all aspects of strategic obligation as must be supported by the crew-members in this ship. And if our ship is none other than Noah’s ark, then our strategy is survival. Strategic operation then becomes an operation of cautiousness.
The author refers to this major preoccupation in the present book:
“The matter of space weaponization is subject to debate: some claim it has already begun, most say it is inevitable, while a minority of observers hope that the madness of men will not extend to outer space. A third notion is presented here: space martialization that would seamlessly allow installations to be used for combat uses”.
It is obvious that advances in space exploration will continue to take giant steps. Freed from the friction of the atmosphere, spacecrafts can preserve their kinetic energy almost indefinitely.
Atmospheric flight brought us speeds such as Mach 2, heights of dozens of kilometers, distances in the dozens of thousands of kilometers. Space has already given us Mach 25, millions, billions of kilometers, and light-year distances.
Using the same amount of energy as a Concorde, a spacecraft flying for 10 days would be able to take a crew of men to Mars. The first would have travelled 320,000 km (approximately the distance from the Earth to the Moon) struggling against atmospheric drag, while the latter would be able to travel 100,000,000 km, 3,000 times more, and be able to continue on its trajectory without using the slightest amount of fuel.
By jumping into space, we have entered a sanctuary which we know nothing about, and did so with the greed of an invader on a run-down ship, breathless, and with a crew that is constantly in conflict and unable to navigate carefully.
Will we be the Don Quixote of the galaxy, a mere virus at the scale of this saintly universe, or a seed able to flower into the best of humanity over the coming centuries?
In the first case, we will simply disappear, without leaving a trace in a Universe that did not even notice our presence. In the second case, we will become new members of a greater brotherhood, already populated with our “guardian angels”.
But, for the moment, our strategy is focused on the possibility of using space to better control the belligerent instincts of a few crew members, and in doing so, better protect those who have already managed to amass some spoils of war. If we continue to splash our oars aimlessly, we will no doubt go around in circles for a while longer. But a common, intelligent and organized trajectory will captivate the wiser members of our crew.
The author, with much wisdom, approaches the strategic matters of intergalactic enemies and threats, such as the “Earth-crossers” that are asteroids or comets, like the icebergs in Titanic patiently waiting to cross paths with our ark. One of them will approach our orbit in 2029. Knowing how to destroy this assailant will be proof of our new step toward wisdom. Proof that Humanity is able to work together to protect its ship, apply itself enough to survive long enough to slowly explore this sanctuary, and draw the energy and science it has to offer, which will lead it to its next stage of existence.
Our children, grandchildren and great grandchildren will read in their history books about how men were able to find a way to live in peace without fearing that the sky will fall on their heads. They will, in turn, pursue this great strategic mission of making our civilization a singularity that goes beyond Earth’s vicinity to bear a universal message engraved on the tablets of eternity.
General Jean-Loup CHRÉTIEN
1
Antoine de Saint Exupéry, Terre des Hommes (English version:
Wind, Sand and Stars
) – “
Nous sommes solidaires, emportés sur la même planète, équipage d’un même navire
”.
Preface to the First Edition of Stratégie Spatiale (2011)
Colonel Jean-Luc Lefebvre dedicated the first edition of Stratégie spatiale to the strategy of space and subtitled it “La guerre des étoiles: une vision française”1. To my generation of aviators, La Guerre des Etoiles refers to President Reagan’s Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), which was initiated on March 23, 1983.
This was a project that relied on constellations of sensing and killer satellites, Brilliant Eyes and Brilliant Pebbles. Precursor to the notion of deterred deterrence, which is mentioned in this title, SDI satellites were designed to shield the United States from ballistic strikes. The Balance of Terror could, therefore, be broken allowing the free world to win the Cold War on the ground.
One French strategist of the time, General Pierre Gallois – another aviator! – demonstrated mathematically that the American project was not realizable, at least not with the technology of the time2. This analysis eased President Mitterand’s concerns; as in his mind, national deterrence remained just as plausible as it was based also on a piloted component.
Soviet strategists saw this differently: the USSR had to take the challenge. Kremlin leadership gave the order for a similar protection system to the enemy’s and financed the program despite precarious economic straits.
The rest is history. The USSR was ruined and collapsed. Many analysts admit that the SDI was one of the contributors to this collapse. The United States never realized their space shield, but financed a number of missile-defense programs efficient against limited strikes from certain territories. They even offer allied nations protection under a common antiballistic “umbrella” within NATO, a proposition that was officially retained by the summit in Lisbon in November 2010.
Outer space is, to this day, the last area where the reign of peaceful cohabitation is maintained and effectively respected. After having fought on land, at sea, in the skies, will the 21st Century see man open up to a theater of operations in space?
While the worst is never guaranteed, one should always prepare for it. We must therefore envisage this Star Wars. It is reassuring to see a French vision on this matter appear.
Four star General Jean-Paul PALOMÉROS
Chief Staff of the Airforce from 2009 to 2012
Allied Commander Transformation of NATO from 2012 to 2015
1
The first edition of this book,
Stratégie spatiale
, Editions L’esprit du Livre, 2011, was subtitled “
La guerre des étoiles : une vision française
”, translating as “Star Wars: a French vision” in reference to the eponymous project by Ronald Reagan combined with the fact that the author is performing a study influenced by French culture.
2
GALLOIS P.,
La Guerre des cent secondes
, Paris, Fayard, 1985.
Notice to Readers
Can strategic thought be applied to outer space?
The gambit of this study is to demonstrate how to properly pose the question and provide elements of a response. Using a didactic approach, this book is aimed not only at confirmed strategists, educated searchers, concerned members of the military or students of strategic concepts, but intends to remain accessible to non-specialist readers who are simply interested in acquiring the keys to understanding current issues. Thus, before entering the core of the subject, the first couple of chapters will be dedicated to specifying the nature of the question, outlining the outer space environment and will initiate the uninitiated to the specificities of a confusing space. Naturally, initiated readers can simply review these opening chapters dedicated to notions he or she may already be familiar with. Fans of speed-reading are invited to focus on Chapter 8 that summarizes the fundamental elements of this topic with the “Twelve Principles of Space Strategy”.
In terms of space strategy, it can be hard to draw a divisive line between politics and actual strategy, something that Serge Grouard experienced in La guerre en orbite, presented as an Essai de politique et de stratégie spatiales1 when he chose to simply embrace both in his book. He commented that there were numerous works analyzing space policies from different actors and agrees with General Sir Rupert Smith that wars and conflicts take place on four levels – political, strategic, theatrical and tactical2; his study opts to focus on the strategic aspect, the definition of which is discussed in Chapter 1.
This book is the result of an interdisciplinary approach – transdisciplinary at times – covering not only the fields of strategy and history, but also aeronautics, astronautics and space law and a variety of others, ranging from plasma physics to telecommunications. Each discipline uses consecrated terms that uninitiated readers may not be familiar with. The glossary at the end presents the definitions of a number of terms, expressions and acronyms and their French equivalents.
To help identify glossary entries, throughout the book, they will appear italicized in bold and blue when used for the first time, for example: space strategy. When they appear again, they will appear in roman characters to avoid overloading the typography of the document. The definitions are borrowed from appropriate lexical references or from books such as Traité de stratégie3 by Hervé Coutau-Bégarie and La guerre en orbite4 by Serge Grouard. When there is no satisfactory definition, one by the author is used. The primary used references are listed at the beginning of the glossary and abridged throughout. In addition to the definitions, a French translation is proposed. This is a result of extensive reflection on the French version to use appropriate French terminology rather than using the English words. The author also chose to prioritize entries from the official terminological reference of French language the Journal officiel that are available on the France Terme website5. Particular care has been taken to update the glossary, where a number of new terms have entered into use since the French first edition, such as aerospace transition zone. English readers are encouraged to understand that the French language was an integral part of the methodology for a French thinker, the same way the English language would be reciprocally for an English study. This being, first and foremost, a translation of a French study, it owes it to itself to present the terminological work that was done in that it is intrinsic to the present theoretical consideration. Who knows English terminology may gain from the French in this book.
In short, Space Strategy presents itself as a French study free of any doctrinal ties, binding only the author, who is currently relieved of any official responsibility.
My reason for seeking a new edition of Stratégie spatial, as well as for international publication in English, is not only because the original publisher “L’esprit du livre” no longer exists and the initial title can no longer be found anywhere. The five years since the original edition came out have allowed me to verify whether the theoretical foundations remain solid and that there is no need to revisit them. However, certain examples and data are worth updating. Among other things, the sources have all been verified, in particular the Internet links where the relevant documents are available. To simplify the footnotes, website consultation dates have been omitted, unless it pertains to dated information where the link is no longer available. If the date is not specified, it is between October 1, 2015 and April 15, 2016. This laborious exercise allowed me to confront the versatility of the web of webs where available information never ceases to change address and tends to jump from free sites to commercialized ones, if not disappearing forever.
Finally, I would like to extend my thanks to ISTE Ltd. for making this book possible even though my book could contaminate the strategic thinking that takes place beyond the French language. This, and the reactions it may cause, is a risk I willingly take with delight.
1
This translates as an essay on space strategy and policies, GROUARD S.,
La guerre en orbite
, essai de politique et de stratégie spatiales, Economica, 1994.
2
SMITH R., L’utilité de la force,
Economica, collection Stratégies et doctrines
, Paris, p. 10, 2007.
3
COUTAU-BÉGARIE H.,
Traité de stratégie
, Economica, 7th ed., Paris, 2011.
4
GROUARD S.,
La guerre en orbite
, Economica, 1994.
5
See:
http://www.culture.fr/franceterme
.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the many people who answered my requests when writing this book.
The first group that should be mentioned is the group of experts who accepted to dedicate their time exchanging ideas on the theme of space strategy1: Mrs. Orianne Barrat-Genies, Analyst at the Centre interarmées de concepts, de doctrines et d’expérimentations (CICDE); Colonel Jérôme Bernier, from the Commandement interarmées de l’espace (CIE); Professor Jacques Blamont, Scientific Advisor to the Chairman of the Centre national d’études spatiales (CNES); Lieutenant-Captain Colomban-Lebas, from the Centre d’enseignement supérieur de la marine (CESM); Mr. Jean-Paul Granier, Analyst at the Direction des affaires stratégiques (DAS); Mr. Serge Grouard, Deputy-Mayor of Orléans; Second-lieutenant Béatrice Hainaut, Doctoral Student at the Centre de recherche de l’armée de l’air (CREA); Mrs. Claire Jolly, Analyst at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD); Second-lieutenant Marie-Madeleine Marçais, Doctoral Student at the Centre d’études stratégiques aérospatiales (CESA); Mr. Emmanuel Nal, Head of Studies at the IRSEM; Ms. Laurence Nardon, Analyst for the Institut français des relations internationales (IFRI); Professor Jean-Paul Pancracio, Director of Studies at the IRSEM; Mrs. Oriane Rivaud, Head of Studies at the IRSEM; Professor Jean-Christophe Romer, Associate Researcher at the IRSEM; General Henry de Roquefeuil, Defense Advisor to the Chairman of the CNES; Commander Benjamin Souberbielle from the CESA; Ms. Isabelle Sourbès-Verger, Researcher at the CNRS, Deputy Director at the Centre Alexandre Koyré (EHESS -CNRS); General Jean-Daniel Testé, Deputy General Officer to the Director of Military Higher Education, who in 2015 became Head of the Commandement interarmées de l’espace (CIE); Mr. Jacques Villain, Space Historian; and Engineer in Chief of Armament Olivier de Vulpillières, Head of Studies at the IRSEM.
I also extend my gratitude to the experts who responded to my requests in writing: Mr. Gérard Belmont, from the Laboratory of Plasma Physics and Professor Jacques Blamont of the CNES, on the constitution of the upper atmosphere; Dr. Philippe Achilleas of the Institut du droit de l’espace et des télécommunications, Professor Mireille Couston from University Lyon 3, Mr. Mario Hucteau of the CNES and Professor Laurence Ravillon of the University of Bourgogne for matters relating to legal limitations between air and space; Mr. Fernand Alby on the subject of space debris; and astronaut Jean-François Clervoy for his detailed responses to my questions surrounding physiological perception between air and space.
Special thanks go to people who accepted to meet with me: Professor Jacques Blamont for his description of the upper atmosphere; Admiral Alain Coldefy for our informal exchanges on the link between space and deterrence; and Professor Armel Kerrest for animated conversations on the legal limitations between air and space.
The proofreaders of the original manuscript will forgive me for not mentioning them again; they are all part of the aforementioned group of experts. I do, however, wish to give special thanks to General Gilles Desclaux, Commander of French Air Defense (CDAOA); General Vincent Lafontaine, Director of the Centre interarmées de concepts, de doctrines et d’expérimentations (CICDE); as well as the General Gilles Lemoine, Director at the Centre d’études stratégiques aérospatiales (CESA) for helping me organize the proofing of my project by experts. I also thank Colonel Pascale Martin for her attentive reading and my friends Jean-Louis Henriot and General Michel de Lisi whose comments forced me to push my conclusions further. A number of observations, sometimes contradictory, were passed on to me. I did my best to take note of all of them as scrupulously as possible, though without ever deviating from my convictions.
Creating the glossary brought me into contact with the specialist commission of terminology and neology of space science and techniques. Thanks to the input of the secretaries there, Mr. Jean-Louis Astor and Mr. Jacques Arnould, under the authority of the Chairman, Mr. Michel Petit, the members of the club not only answered my questions but also co-opted me to help the with their project. Since 2010, we have worked together on new definitions that the present glossary will include. I salute them at this time for their voluntary contribution to the expansion of the French lexical field of space.
I would like to pay homage to the author of La guerre en orbite, written in 1994, a reference which offered a solid base and essential guide to my thought process. Many thanks to Mr. Serge Grouard, now deputy of Orléans, for his effective support despite a heavy workload. I join Archibald Haddock in raising my tumbler of whisky to his health and that of our Tintinophile readers who will understand that reference!
Up there, there is no sound, no smell, no more than there is food you can eat or objects you can touch within the protection of a spacesuit. Space is accessible in only one sense: sight. But what a sight! Its horizon is only limited by the age of the Universe, which is said to be close to 13.8 billion years according to the most recent estimations from the Planck space laboratory, which has allowed us to draw up the map of the Universe by observing background microwave radiation.
Figure 1.Planck observing background microwave radiation (© ESA)
Subsequently, this book deserves to be illustrated because space seen from Earth, just like Earth seen from space, are wonderful sights! However, I did not realize the difficulty of such a publication, and I must therefore thank ISTE Press and John Wiley & Sons for publishing the book in color. I must also express gratitude to the following companies: Airbus Space & Defence (formerly Astrium) and Thalès Alenia Space, as well as the French Space Agency (CNES), European Space Agency (ESA) and the American Space Agency (NASA) for the photographic resources they graciously put online in open access for authors such as me. In that regard, the Centre national d’études spatiales deserves a mention for their bespoke greeting and the fantastic iconographic research work that was performed on my behalf by Marie-Claire Fontebasso and Orianne Arnould should be strongly underlined. I also salute my brothers in arms from France and other countries, in particular the Marine nationale and the United States Air Force Space Command (AFSC), whose immediate cooperation was much appreciated. I am also grateful to Isabelle Sourbès-Verger and the co-authors of L’espace, nouveau territoire, published by Belin, for authorizing me to reproduce a number of their particularly informational images. Overall, I want to express my gratitude to all authors who accepted for their work to be mentioned in this book. There was one image, in particular, that was particularly difficult to get a hold of, despite being available in low resolution over the Internet. It was the one of the “three monkeys of wisdom of temple Toshogu” located in Japan. An incredible chain of spontaneous solidarity, initiated by M. Jonathan Moutra, Auditor at the Centre d’études diplomatiques et stratégiques (CEDS), which traveled all the way to M. Shunsuke Ueda, Professor at University Kinki, who eventually took the photo especially for the book. This voluntary cooperation does them honor.
Publishing images presents severe technical challenges. Also, numerous illustrations available online were not published due to their low resolutions, which is the case for most of the diagrams and charts useful to understanding physical phenomena. Should I have simply left them out? Most certainly not! I therefore thank Jean-Charles Brunet, graphic designer under employment of the Direction Generale de l’armement (DGA) for editing these images that ended up being far nicer than the originals.
This book would never have seen the light of day without the help from the staff at the Institut de recherche stratégique de l’Ecole militaire (IRSEM), which I formally thank for supporting this project that was my main center of focus and primary activity for over a year.
Finally, three flag officers honored me with their signatures. The spontaneous agreement from General Jean-Paul Paloméros, then chief of staff of the French air force, to write my preface, left me deeply moved. I wish to thank my “senior” from the Piège2 both respectfully and dearly. A man of action, but also of thought, he is one of the rare flag officers moving for space action to be accepted for its true value by decision makers and our defense-setters. Beyond its leader, it is to the French air force that I direct my gratitude. This is the institution that fed my passion for space and accepted to dispatch me to the IRSEM so that I may continue my work and write this book.
The postface, written by General Patrick de Rouziers, then inspector General, brings a geopolitical aspect to this book, which intentionally limits itself to strategy. In his previous functions is Brussels and Paris, General de Rouziers has always been vocal about reinforcing French and allied space power. He is an authority on the matter. Thank you, Patrick, for your kind support.
The divine surprise, if you will, came from across the ocean. I did not expect an answer back for a preface when General Jean-Loup Chrétien sent me a reply days before the cut-off for the first edition of Stratégie spatiale, sending two pages of philosophical and prospective contemplation that open this book. In the days when I was a young officer and still dreamt of one day becoming an astronaut, Jean-Loup, our first French astronaut, was my hero. Today, he has come back down from the stars and taken root on our spaceship called Earth in communion with his brothers and sisters of the forest of humanity. He still excites curiosity and enthusiasm and the idea of something sacred making him a worthy successor to Antoine de Saint-Exupéry. I salute them both for kindling the greatest flame that can burn in a man’s heart that of a noble idea pursued not only for one-self, but also for the people who will come afterwards.
The task of updating and correcting the second edition of Stratégie Spatiale was an even more solitary adventure than writing the initial book. There are few people to mention here. However, this actualized version would never have seen the light of day without the help of Nicole Israël, who supports me far beyond this service, and her friend Daniel Etiemble, without whom I probably never would have contacted ISTE Group. I would naturally like to salute the professionalism of Chantal Ménascé who retained my online proposition for a publication and renewed the rhythm of a busy writer in a man who was already steadily moving to that of a quiet retiree. Thank you Chantal, but also Raphaël, Harry and everyone from ISTE.
I am very grateful for the chance at an international release of this humble French title surrounding a field that is no doubt endless for the Americans, Russians and Chinese that are currently leading the race. However, modesty does not impair competence or recognition, as demonstrated by Cold War era Colonel Robert Genty that both the Soviets and Americans recognized as a unique judge of space records3. May the memory of this master be equally honored as an example of intellectual creativity and scientific rigorousness, which he imparted upon his students with passion.
“In summary, researching and writing remains a long solitary path, with moments of exaltation when discovering new landscapes, but also its arduous deserts when doubt is at your heels. I couldn’t have made it without the presence of my wife, Martine at my side. Her affection and confidence are the mark of unwavering support. I thank her passionately”, was my conclusion in 2011, without possibly imagining that she would precede me in joining Our Father in the heavens in Spring 2014. I undertake the writing of this book once more guided by the flame of her secret presence, in the warmth of my heart.
1
Reusing the acknowledgments from the original French edition, persons are cited in alphabetical order with their titles from 2011. Unless otherwise specified, this will be the case for the rest of the names present in this acknowledgment section.
2
Le Piège
is the name given by veterans of the
Ecole de l’air
in Salon-de-Provence, which trains officers for the French air force. This nickname was initially given to a military aircraft in which the crew would be trapped (
piégé)
if it were shot down.
3
Colonel of the French Force, Robert Genty (February 23, 1910 – December 14, 2001) was the sole judge of space records for 35 years. A specialist in space mechanics, he invented the notion of heliosynchronous satellites that regularly revisits the same points on Earth at the same time, and is in this right is considered the “founding father” of observation satellites. Robert Genty taught at the
Ecole nationale supérieure des télécommunications
(now Télécom ParisTech) where the author had the honor of being his student.
IntroductionSpace: The Final Frontier of Strategy
“Outer space has become a key environment in the global economy and international safety alongside the seas, the skies and land”1.
To enlightened observers, space is either at the core of strategic implications2 or is a new strategic domain to itself3. Space is strategic4 to military leadership which links two notions that are already synonymous in American military command5: nuclear and space.
Being of the mind that we should be wary of a priori blatancy, this study does not assess whether or not space is strategic, but rather how strategic reasoning can be applied to outer space, made accessible to vehicles as far back October 4, 19576.
In this study, we will use the generic term “space” to describe outer space (or exoatmospheric space7).
Figure I.1.Sputnik, the first artificial satellite of Earth (© CNES)
The nature of the environment constrains strategic thinking. Hence, upon a first approach, despite space spanning vast distances, the topography and obstacles restrict strategists to using linear devices: progression axes and frontlines characteristic of battles on land. In the high seas, maneuverability is total: it is two dimensional on the surface and three dimensional under the sea, but is reduced to land approaches.
Aerial weapons access the third dimension upward and elevate strategic considerations from the surface to large volumes. Common and exclusive elements of each environment – condition of the terrain or the sea, clouds and atmospheric conditions – play into Clausewitz’s fog of war.
Figure I.2.Aircraft carrier Le Charles de Gaulle approaching a port (© Marine nationale (French Navy)). “In the high-seas, maneuverability is total: it is two dimensional on the surface and three dimensional under the sea, but is reduced to land approaches”
To classical terrestrial strategy, as old as war, have been added naval strategy, as old as ships, and aerial strategy as old as those magnificent men in their flying machines8. They each have their specificities and common characteristics, and are greatly complementary.
Born of progresses in artillery, our recent access to space has already proven itself useful, as strategic nuclear missiles contributed, if not to winning the Cold War, at least in avoiding it from degenerating into a full scale “hot” war. It is now acceptable to think about this particular environment in terms of strategy. The present book proposes a contribution to this line of thought.
This didactic objective leads us to adopt a plan of investigation articulated over nine chapters. Chapter 1 allows us to frame the subject by defining the expression “space strategy”, presenting the strategic method of analysis we will use and presenting the issues that will serve as primary structural markers. Chapter 2 outlines the meaning of “outer space”, a question as simple as the altitude at which it begins, but still, to this day, having no universal answer. The description of the specificities of outer space and how to move within it are the center of Chapter 3, because it is impossible to begin a discussion on the possibilities of action in space without prior knowledge of the restrictions presented by this environment. Once the setting and its possible actions have been established, it becomes possible to approach the central question within strategic space considerations argued in Chapter 4. The analysis of possible actions is split into three points of view from, against and within space, which occupy, respectively, Chapters 5 to 7. The links between space strategy and land, sea and air environments as components of a global strategy are among the themes we will touch on here. Chapter 8 offers a recap of the ideas presented in this book and offers them under the canonical form of Twelve Principles of Space Strategy. Finally, Chapter 9 imagines some ways in which we can go beyond this strategy.
The conclusion opens a prospective debate between the worrying risk of weaponized space dominating Earth and the reassuring perspective of space being used as shield for humanity against global threats. As of yet, there have been no wars in outer space, because there is no territory to dispute within it. The surface of the moon could very well become the first apple of discord between competing powers. However, there is no longer any possible war without space. This study initiates readers to the subtleties of concepts such as space militarization and weaponization by demonstrating that there can exist an intermediate position known as space martialization. It also demonstrates how space capabilities make-up essential components of information dominance, key to power in the 21st Century. It constitutes an “opening” of strategic thought applied to a distant and invisible place that has yet become completely unavoidable in our day-to-day lives and in the ways we make war.
For specialists, strategy touches on the quintessence of reasoning. To the uninitiated, space represents emptiness. So how can we marry space and strategy?
Etymologically speaking, the quintessence or ether represents the fifth element after fire, water, earth and air. I have demonstrated in past works that each element corresponds to the states of matter (plasma, solid, liquid and gaseous). Space, the last element to be conquered by man, is associated with the fifth element9. And, considering that it envelops our entire physical universe, does it require the entirety of strategic thought to be understood.
1
Défense et Sécurité nationale, Le Livre blanc
, Editions Odile Jacob Paris, 2008.
2
GARCIN T.,
Les enjeux stratégiques de l’espace
, Emile Bruylant, Brussels, 2001.
3
NARDON L., “L’espace, un nouveau champ stratégique”,
Politique étrangère
, vol. 2, pp. 249–251, 2007.
4
MONTANIÉ B. (rear-admiral), “Espace militaire – L’espace est stratégique”,
Revue Défense nationale
, no. 3, March 2004.
5
United States Strategic Command (US STRATCOM).
6
On October 4, 1957, the USSR successfully satellized Sputnik 1, Earth’s first artificial satellite. In all fairness, it should be noted that the first vehicles to access space were the V2 rockets designed by the Germans and launched on September 8, 1944. Certain trajectories of these missiles peeked at 330 km. For reference, see the Techno-science website:
http://www.techno-science.net/?onglet=glossaire&;definition=10194
.
7
In French, the dictionary of the Académie française (9th edition) dedicates the term
extra
-
atmosphérique
, but the term
exoatmosphérique
is also usable to describe space outside of Earth’s atmosphere.
8
Reference to the film by British filmmaker Ken Annakin of 1965 titled “
Those Magnificent Men in their Flying Machines, or How I Flew from London to Paris in 25 Hours and 11 Minutes
”. This film traces the history of an air race from London to Paris in 1910 and which prefigured the future of aviation within the brewing world conflict.
9
LEFEBVRE J.-L.,
A la recherche du cinquième élément: du feu à l’espace, une brève histoire de conquêtes
, L’Harmattan, Paris, 2007.
1Space Strategy: From Words to Actions
“Strategy is knowledge, will and ability”
Admiral Raoul CASTEX
Should we be talking about space geostrategy or simply space strategy?
What method should we use to approach this subject?
What are the key factors that may influence this strategy?
This first chapter aims to answer these preliminary questions.
1.1. Geostrategy of space and space strategy
Experts from the “space strategy workgroup”1 take issue with the use of the word strategy when it comes to space beyond our atmosphere. The consensus is that most countries2 will employ space policies rather than space strategies.
Among them, four nations can nonetheless claim to be developing a true space strategy in an aim to militarize space:
– the United States
3
without a doubt;
– Russia, which has officially created an aerospace army as of August 2015;
– China, which considers any common space as “
critical security domain
” for its country
4
;
– India, which is now a major power in the field of outer space.
The European Union has struggled to develop a space policy that matches its own economic and geopolitical weight, as demonstrated by the difficulties experienced during the Galileo program. A few European states (France, Germany, Italy, United Kingdom, Spain) have separate military aerospace assets that they try and coordinate together, but there is no proper national space strategy. Japan has the skills and the technological resources necessary to develop a real space strategy, but chooses not to for constitutional reasons. Lastly, Brazil, which does not yet have its own individual access to space, cannot be considered a military aerospace power.
Figure 1.1.La guerre en orbite, Serge Grouard, 1994 (© Economica)
In order to define the word “strategy”, we start with that of General André Beaufre, subsequently quoted by Serge Grouard in his book, “La guerre en orbite”5. To them, strategy is “the art of discourse of parties using force to resolve a conflict”6.
The military definition of strategy that was taught in the French war school7 by professor Hervé Coutau-Bégarie8 descends directly from the previous one: “Strategy is the dialectic of opposing intelligences within a conflict, based on the use or the threat of using force towards political aims”9.
This definition stresses the importance of intelligence, rather than determination, as “strategy is about intelligence, tactics are about determination”10. The reference to “within a conflict” aims to exclude any situation where there is no risk of fighting (diplomacy, economics, commerce, etc.). The “threat of using force” takes into account deterrence strategies. Lastly, “toward political end” means that strategy remains conditional to politics, which determines the ends and assigns the means to the strategist.
