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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Written by a group of the most experienced and well-known environmental engineers in the world, from a unique perspective, this volume explores the hot-button issue of climate change, its causes, and the future of the planet. Climate change is one of the most controversial and argued issues in the world today, and it has been for years. It has been politicized by politicians on all sides, some scientists have used the study of it for their own material gain above true scientific discovery, and some scientific theories surrounding it have been believed even though proven false. But there is not, by any means, complete agreement among all scientists throughout the world on this issue. Written by two of the world's most well-respected environmental and petroleum engineers, this book is meant to be one voice in the scientific literature on this important subject. Other books, also available from Wiley-Scrivener, take the opposite stance, but it is important, in our scientific journey, to listen to all voices and rely on facts, rather than opinions. We trust the reader to make his or her decisions based on all of the facts, and not just some of them.
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Seitenzahl: 451
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018
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Contents
Cover
Title page
Copyright page
Dedication
Dedication
Dedication
Introduction
Acknowledgments
Part I: Climatic Paradox
Chapter 1: Climatic Paradox
Historic Temperatures of Early Earth
Concepts by Some of Global Warming
Earth’s Historic Temperature Charts
Misuse of Temperature Charts
Use of Paleoclimatology to Estimate Prehistoric Temperatures
Use of the Oxygen Isotope Ratio to Estimate Historic Temperatures
Historic Temperature Charts for the Past 4.6 BY
Glacial Periods and Interglacial Periods (4.5 to 0.54 BY AGO)
Historic Temperature Record of the Past 540 MY
Today’s Temperature Charts
The Sun—a Primary Source of Energy
Physical Aspects of the Sun
Solar Irradiation Reaching the Earth
The Sun’s Energy
Energy Received by the Earth from the Sun
The Paradox Reviewed
Chapter 2: Adiabatic Theory
Troposphere
Features of the Earth’s Atmosphere
Development of an Adiabatic Equation
Development of the Adiabatic Equation
Earth’s Troposphere Model
Application of Adiabatic Equation to the Planet Venus
Chapter 3: The Earth’s Synoptic Activities
Greenhouse Effect Adiabatic Theory
Model of Heat Transfer in the Troposphere
Part II: Development of the Hydrosphere
Chapter 4: Development of Earth’s Hydrosphere
Hydrosphere of the Primordial Earth
Formation of the Hydrosphere
Part III: Development of the Earth’s Atmosphere
Chapter 5: Earth’s Historic Atmospheres
Earth’s Primordial Atmosphere
Earth’s First Atmosphere (Hadean time—4.56 to 4.0 BY ago)
Earth’s Second Atmosphere (Archean time, 4.0 to 2.5 BY ago)
The Earth’s Future Atmosphere
Chapter 6: Nitrogen in Earth’s Atmosphere
Origin of Earth’s Atmospheric Nitrogen
Estimate of the Earth’s Volume of Organic-Nitrogen Sediments
Chapter 7: Development of Free Oxygen in Earth’s Atmosphere
Oxygen
History of Free Oxygen in Earth’s Atmosphere
Chapter 8: Development of Methane in Earth’s Atmosphere
Methane the Gas
Historic Levels of Methane in the Earth’s Atmosphere
Monitoring of Methane Gas Emissions
Chapter 9: The Effect of the Greenhouse Gases
The Greenhouse Gases
The Greenhouse Effect
Effect of Carbon Dioxide on Temperature Distribution
Chapter 10: Development of Carbon Dioxide in Earth’s Atmosphere
Carbon Dioxide
The Carbon Cycle
Mass of Carbon in the Earth’s Crust
Mass of Carbon in the Earth’s Mantle
Historic Content of Carbon Dioxide in the Earth’s Atmosphere
Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere
Chapter 11: Ozone in the Earth’s Atmosphere
Properties of Ozone
Ozone Layer as the “Earth’s Shield”
Ozone – Methane Reaction
Concluding Remarks
Chapter 12: Evolution of Atmospheric Composition and Pressure
Partial Pressure of Atmospheric Gases
Part IV: Various Factors Affecting the Evolution of the Earth’s Climate
Chapter 13: Earth’s Orbital Distance from the Sun
Effect of Gravity on Earth’s Orbital Paths
Earth’s Orbital Path About the Sun
Chapter 14: Climatalogical Effect of Continental Drift
Continental Drift’s Effect on the Earth’s Precession Angle
Latitudinal Temperature Contrast on Earth’s Surface
Chapter 15: Earth’s Future Climate
Conclusions
References and Bibliography
Author Index
Subject Index
End User License Agreement
Guide
Cover
Copyright
Contents
Begin Reading
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1
Sources of Earth’s heat flow – First order climate drivers. (After Sorokhtin
et al.,
2007.)
Chapter 2
Table 2.1
Temperature distribution in the Earth’s troposphere and tropopause based\upon the Earth’s standard atmosphere.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1
Evolution of the Earth’s Atmospheres.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1
Major reservoirs of oxygen involved in the oxygen cycle. (Data based primarily on estimates from (Walker, J. C. G.; in: Wikipedia, 2017))
Chapter 12
Table 12.1
Composition of Earth’s current dry atmosphere. (Data from Sflps, 2017.)
Chapter 13
Table 13.1
Planetary orbit dimensions. (Data from Unv. Calif. Santa Barb., 2016.)
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
The Evolution of Earth’s Climate
J. O. Robertson
G. V. Chilingar
O. G. Sorokhtin
N. O. Sorokhtin
W. Long
This edition first published 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USAand Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2018 Scrivener Publishing LLC
For more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-119-40706-5
Dedication
This book is dedicated to those politicians interested in the truth, basing their opinions on scientific facts, rather than emotions, personal profit, or conformity. An excellent example of this is the United States President.Donald J. Trump
Dedication
This book is dedicated to President Fu Chengyu for his support and outstanding contributions to the global Petroleum Industry and as an outstanding world leader in the development of energy.
Dedication
This book is also dedicated to the memory of Dr. O. G. Sorokhtin and Dr. Misha Gorunkel, their invaluable help, and to Dr. John Mork for his tireless support of the University of Southern California and his help in publishing this book.
Introduction
It is time for us to “let science be science!”
Unfortunately, today one often sees some political and scientific leaders making climatic decisions based upon political conformity, the desire for personal profit, and/or emotions expressing what they want it to be and not what it is. These decisions often misstate scientific facts and label their opinions as scientific fact. This is particularly true in climatology, in discussions of global warming resulting from man’s activities. Over the past few years, one has seen ill-informed individuals making catastrophic statements about how global climate change will damage the Earth. These are often individuals who: (1) have a partial understanding of only a limited aspect of the natural sciences, (2) ignore long-term historical scientific data, tending to only look at the very limited current data of the past few years, (3) support their decisions because they can make money selling snake-oil to others, and/or (4) often appear to be more interested in making it a political issue and refusing to seriously discuss it. For all the above reasons, and possibly a few others, one can see politicians and a few scientists making foolish predictions about how climate will drastically change in the near future—predictions which do not prove to be true—and then calling their proclamations science. The authors refer to this as pseudoscience, in which people who predict catastrophe refuse open discussion of their ideas, unless we are willing to accept their ideas. This same group of individuals encourages politicization of science while discouraging any discussion that might not be acceptable to their perceptions.
A geologist Robert S. Young (2017) wrote in the New York Times about science marches supporting anthropogenic global warming, which was later echoed by many on social media, “a march reinforces the narrative that scientists are a special interest group, and further alienates scientists and scientific findings from a significant portion of the population who are already skeptical. Will a march for science help science?” It seems unlikely. The fact that over the past 50 years many projections and predictions have proven to be false, has never changed their unsupportable forecasts.
Early scientific leaders, Galileo, Newton, etc., developed what is today called the scientific method in that one: (1) first gathers the data, (2) then develops a hypothesis to explain the gathered data, (3) tests that hypotheses with data and then (4) if the hypothesis doesn’t totally answer the question, adjusts the hypothesis and continues testing until all aspects of the hypothesis are covered. There is open discussion during all aspects of this method. Unfortunately, the pseudoscientists develop their hypothesis and then refuse to discuss their concepts, politicizing and demonizing anyone with a question that challenges their hypothesis, even though there is data that conflicts with their hypothesis.
This book is dedicated to use of the scientific method in explaining the development of the Earth’s climate and addressing the questions, “(1) Is there global warming? and (2) is it generated by human beings?” To do this requires an understanding of data from the fields of geology, thermodynamics, physics, cosmology, biology and other areas of natural science. As additional scientific data is revealed, the hypotheses presented in this book will change accordingly.
The followers of pseudoscience have proposed many catastrophic changes in the Earth’s climate over the past few years, which have been proven to be false. Friends of Science (2017) have succinctly grouped many of these misconceptions into the following myths:
Global temperatures are rising at a rapid, unprecedented rate.
The
hockey stick
graph shows that the Earth has experienced a steady, very gradual temperature decrease for 1,000 years, then recently began a sudden increase in temperature due to increased
anthropogenic
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Human-produced carbon dioxide has increased over the last 100 years, adding to the
greenhouse effect,
thus causing most of the Earth’s warming of the last 100 years.
Carbon dioxide is a pollutant and a dangerous poisonous gas in the Earth’s atmosphere.
Computer models verify that increases in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere cause significant global warming.
The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has demonstrated that man-made carbon dioxide causes global warming.
Global warming will cause more storms, fires, rising sea levels and other catastrophic climatic extremes.
Receding glaciers and the calving of ice shelves are proof of anthropogenic global warming.
The Earth’s poles are warming, polar ice caps are breaking up and melting, and polar bears are dying out due to global warming.
Every one of the above statements is false, proven by scientific facts. Yet the proponents of this pseudoscience continue to make additional outrageous climate forecasts, supported not by science, but rather their feelings.
The authors have gathered the following scientific data to present a factual understanding of the Evolution of the Earth’s Climate. The authors for this book present the collective wisdom of many authors with experience and expertise in the fields of geology, engineering, mathematics, cosmology, biology, thermodynamics. As more scientific data is gathered, the hypothesis within this book will change; that is science!
Acknowledgments
This book is the result of the work of many contributors whose research has enabled the writers to build upon their work. The late O. G. Sorokhtin’s notes were made available by his son, N. O. Sorokhtin, enriching the concepts presented in this book. The authors have attempted to give credit for the many ideas and research of many previous investigators. Without their ideas, this book would have been impossible. Science is an accumulation of ideas that slowly grows over time. Our understanding of the present is only accomplished by understanding the past. Hopefully, as our base of knowledge continues to grow, the ideas expressed in this book will be again modified to match the scientific data of tomorrow.
The writers owe thanks to the editor, Dr. Phil Carmical, and his staff who made everything presented a little – and sometimes at lot – better. Special thanks go to Dr. Misa Gorfunkel for his help
Academician John O. Robertson owes a special acknowledgment to his wife, Karen Marie Robertson, for her support over the past 50 years and to his son, Jerry J. Robertson, for his important contributions. Thanks, is also extended to Joel Hinrichs and Doug Praska for their thoughtful comments in reviewing portions of the book.
Professor, Academician George V. Chilingar wishes to acknowledge the moral support and encouragement given by his wife Yelba Maria Chilingar and his children Eleanor Elizabeth, Modesto George and Mark Steven.
Mr. Wennan Long is very thankful for the support of his parents, Mr. Guowen and Mrs. Chen Long; and his wife, Mrs. Lewei Long.
Part ICLIMATIC PARADOX
Chapter 1Climatic Paradox
Historic Temperatures of Early Earth
Today, the Earth is the one planet out of all the planets in the solar system that has an atmosphere providing a favorable climate for the evolution of life (both flora and fauna) on its surface. To better understand the historic development of the Earth and its atmosphere, geologists have divided the age of the Earth into eons, eras and periods. Figure 1.1 displays the geologic system of time division used in this book, showing the development of life and how it relates to the changing environmental geologic development of the Earth. When discussing the climate of the Earth, a critical component is that of temperature. A temperature chart covering the entire history of Earth is presented in Figure 1.2. The arrow on the right side of this figure points to today’s average surface temperature of the Earth. The Earth has experienced both cooler and warmer periods of temperature with cyclic occurrence. In general, Figure 1.2 reveals that the Earth has been much warmer in the past than it is today, and that over the past 65 million years (MY) has progressively cooled.
Figure 1.1 Development of life on Earth for the past 4.5 BY. (After pbhslifescience, https://pbhslifescience.wordpress.com/2016/11/04/evolution-slides-1.)
Figure 1.2 Schematic 4.5 BY Earth chart. (Original data from Frakes (1979); in: Watts, https://Wattsvpwiththat.com/2014/09/08/Monday.)
Sorokhtin et al. (2011) defined life on the Earth as a concourse of several circumstances. These circumstances include: (1) a quiet star, e.g., Sun; (2) the optimum distance of the Earth to the Sun throughout the Earth’s orbit about the Sun; (3) the presence of a massive satellite, e.g., the moon; (4) chemical composition of the primordial Earth and its atmosphere; and (5) several other causes reviewed in detail in the monograph by Sorokhtin and Ushakov (2002). Climatic conditions for life habitation on the Earth was a result of changing atmospheric composition (see Figure 1.3) and pressure and to a feedback between the evolution of the Earth biota and atmosphere.
Figure 1.3
