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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Bildung
- Sprache: Englisch
A guide for K-3 educators who need to teach phonics at different levels in diverse classrooms—without burning out
The Phonics Playbook is the one phonics-focused resource that offers a solution for phonics instruction in real-world K-3 classrooms. Understanding phonics instruction in theory is one thing, but actually integrating it into daily classroom life—in a way that meets the needs of diverse students—is another. This book offers simplified instruction and practical guidance for differentiating instruction using three models: whole group instruction with elements of differentiation, phonics-focused small group instruction, and small group reading instruction that also incorporates phonics. You will learn to assess student needs, choose the model that’s right for you, and make data-based adjustments as time goes on.
In addition to guidance on differentiation, this book also weaves in best practices in phonics instruction and effective strategies for teaching phonics skills, which is especially helpful for newer teachers. The Phonics Playbook guides you from start to finish and helps you develop a positive, effective mindset around differentiation. Confront the problem of “so many needs and so little time” in a productive, sustainable way and avoid burnout with this excellent guide.
- Review the basics of phonics instruction and learn three different methods for differentiating instruction in K-3 classrooms
- Help students progress with their reading, even when you have many different reading levels in class
- Reduce the workload necessary to provide differentiated instruction in phonics and reading
- Find practical ways of implementing phonics instruction in real-world classrooms with real-world challenges
New and experienced K-3 educators, principals, and literacy coaches, as well as homeschool educators and parents, will appreciate the no-nonsense approach in The Phonics Playbook.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
About the Author
Acknowledgments
Introduction
The Differentiation Dilemma
Why Differentiation Matters in Phonics Instruction
Where Do I Begin?
References
CHAPTER ONE: Assessing Students' Needs So You Can Differentiate
What Are We Looking For?
Choosing the Right Phonics Assessment to Guide Differentiation
Administering a Diagnostic Phonics Assessment
Analyzing the Results
Using the Diagnostic Test Results to Form Groups
What's Next?
Reference
CHAPTER TWO: Effective Phonics Instruction Within Any Model for Differentiation
Research‐Based Principles for Effective Phonics Instruction
Why Routines?
High‐Impact Routines for Teaching and Practicing Phonics Skills
Creating a Schedule
What's Next?
References
CHAPTER THREE: Model 1: Whole‐Class Instruction with Built‐In Differentiation
Discussion of Ms. Tate's First‐Grade Classroom
Discussion of Mr. Suarez's Third‐Grade Classroom
Leveraging Leveled Materials
Types of Leveled Materials
Final Thoughts on Leveled Materials
Putting It All Together: Example Schedules
Organizing Your Physical Space
Strengths and Limitations of This Model
What's Next
Reference
CHAPTER FOUR: Model 2: Daily Phonics‐Focused Small Groups
Discussion of Mrs. Chau's Kindergarten Classroom
Discussion of Ms. Abazi's First‐ and Second‐Grade Classroom
Which Activities Are Best for Small‐Group Instruction?
What Are the Other Students Doing?
How to Launch Small Groups
Putting It All Together: Example Schedules
Organizing Your Physical Space
Strengths and Limitations of This Model
What's Next?
CHAPTER FIVE: Model 3: Phonics as Part of Reading‐Focused Small Groups
Discussion of Mrs. Maka's Third‐Grade Classroom
Example Schedules
Variations on This Model
Strengths and Limitations of This Model
What's Next?
CHAPTER SIX: How to Choose the Model That's Right for You
Considerations for Choosing a Model
Too Many Needs and Not Enough Time?
Blending Multiple Models for Differentiation
When to Change Up Your Model
What's Next?
CHAPTER SEVEN: Special Considerations for Early Kindergarten
Teaching the Alphabet
Suggested Schedule
Should I Teach the Alphabet in Small Groups?
How to Differentiate Your Alphabet Instruction
What Comes After the Alphabet?
Post‐Alphabet Small‐Group Instruction
References
CHAPTER EIGHT: Considerations for English Language Learners
How to Teach Phonics to Multilingual Language Learners
Getting to Know Your Students
Scaffolds That Support Receptive Language Skills
Scaffolds That Support Expressive Language Skills
Removing Scaffolds
Viewing All Students as Language Learners
References
CHAPTER NINE: How to Differentiate Students' Independent Phonics Practice Activities
Systems for Differentiating Independent Work Activities
Ideas for Differentiated Work Activities
Conclusion
Appendix
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Strategies for Making a Word List Easier or More Difficult
Table 3.2 Strategies for Making a Decodable Text Easier or More Difficult
Table 3.3 Late Kindergarten or First‐Grade Sample Schedule with Differentia...
Table 3.4 Second‐Grade Sample Schedule with Differentiation Model 1
Table 3.5 Third‐Grade Sample Schedule with Differentiation Model 1
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Kindergarten Sample Schedule with Differentiation Model 2
Table 4.2 First‐Grade Sample Schedule with Differentiation Model 2
Table 4.3 Second‐Grade Sample Schedule with Differentiation Model 2
Table 4.4 Third‐Grade Sample Schedule with Differentiation Model 2
Table 4.5 Model 1 and Model 2 Combination Schedule with Two Small Groups Da...
Table 4.6 Model 1 and Model 2 Combination Schedule with Three Small Groups ...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Example Schedule with Separate Small‐Group Spelling and Reading D...
Table 5.2 Example Schedule with Whole‐Group Spelling Instruction and Readin...
Table 5.3 Example Schedule with Daily Phonics and Reading Small Groups
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Comparison of All Three Models for Differentiation
Table 6.2 If/Then Guide for Determining When to Move On to the Next Skill
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Example Schedule for Teaching the Alphabet
Table 7.2 Alphabet Activities and Ways to Differentiate Them
List of Illustrations
Introduction
FIGURE I.1 The phonics staircase.
Chapter 1
FIGURE 1.1 Diagnostic phonics assessment.
FIGURE 1.2 Scoring the spelling portion of the diagnostic phonics assessment...
FIGURE 1.3 Carlos's results and sticky note.
Chapter 2
FIGURE 2.1 Blending drill, first word.
FIGURE 2.2 Blending drill, second word.
FIGURE 2.3 List of words for blending.
FIGURE 2.4 Word sort example.
FIGURE 2.5 Decodable text for ‐
op
words.
FIGURE 2.6 Decodable text for multisyllabic words with long
a
.
FIGURE 2.7 Building words with magnetic letter tiles.
FIGURE 2.8 Example dictation.
FIGURE 2.9 High‐frequency words in a pocket chart sentence.
FIGURE 2.10 High‐frequency word
what
mapped into sound boxes.
FIGURE 2.11 Segmenting a word into sound boxes.
FIGURE 2.12 Sorting pictures by first sound.
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3.1 Making long
a
words with a magic
e
puppet.
FIGURE 3.2 Sound boxes for segmenting.
FIGURE 3.3 Differentiated word sort for ‐
tion
/‐
sion
.
FIGURE 3.4 On‐level list of AR words.
FIGURE 3.5 Below‐level list of AR words.
Chapter 4
FIGURE 4.1 Key word poster for the
ai
vowel team.
Chapter 7
FIGURE 7.1 Example alphabet rhyme.
FIGURE 7.2 Example picture sort.
FIGURE 7.3 Blending drill with a VC word.
Chapter 8
FIGURE 8.1 Example of a decodable passage.
FIGURE 8.2 Keyword phonics poster for
ee
vowel team.
FIGURE 8.3 Example vocabulary poster.
FIGURE 8.4 Spelling activity.
FIGURE 8.5 Sentence starter example.
Chapter 9
FIGURE 9.1 Differentiated work folders.
FIGURE 9.2 Example picture sort.
FIGURE 9.3 Example blending line.
FIGURE 9.4 Spring‐themed word sort.
FIGURE 9.5 Say, tap, write activity.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
About the Author
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Begin Reading
Appendix
Index
End User License Agreement
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The Phonics Playbook
How to Differentiate Instruction so Students Succeed
Alison Ryan
Copyright © 2024 by John Wiley & Sons Inc., All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Published simultaneously in Canada.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data Is Available:
ISBN 9781394197453 (Paperback)
ISBN 9781394197460 (ePDF)
ISBN 9781394197477 (ePub)
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: Courtesy of Alison RyanAuthor Photo by Jenna Henderson
About the Author
Alison Ryan, MEd, has been working in education since 2005. Her favorite roles include classroom teacher, reading interventionist, literacy specialist, and director of curriculum and instruction. Alison's training includes a master's degree in literacy leadership, ESL endorsement, Orton‐Gillingham training, and Structured Literacy coursework. Alison founded Learning at the Primary Pond, Inc., in 2012 to help other teachers implement highly effective, engaging literacy instruction.
Acknowledgments
I am incredibly grateful for the opportunity to write for Jossey‐Bass.
Thank you to my wonderful team for helping me carry out the mission of Learning at the Primary Pond and find time in my schedule to write! Ingrid, thank you for your input on the presentation that ultimately sparked the idea for this text.
Thank you to the amazing educators who are a part of the Learning at the Primary Pond community. You inspire me!
Thank you to my parents for supporting me in my education and helping me develop as a writer.
And last but certainly not least, thank you to my husband for your continued love and support (and for always doing the dishes).
Introduction
It was back‐to‐school night, and I was busy greeting the families of my soon‐to‐be kindergarten students. A couple approached me and introduced themselves as Heidi's (not her real name) parents. “She's so excited for kindergarten,” Heidi's mother told me. “And she's actually already reading, probably at a second‐ or third‐grade level. We'll send a book to school with her so you won't have to worry about finding her something to read.”
My eyes widened. A kindergartener reading at a second‐ or third‐grade level? As a relatively new teacher, I hadn't experienced anything like this before. “Wow,” I said to Heidi's mother. “That's amazing. Thank you for letting me know, and for sending the books!” I mentally filed this information away and continued greeting the other families.
On the first day of school, Heidi greeted me with enthusiasm and was ready to dive right into learning kindergarten procedures and expectations. And, just like her mother said, she arrived with a book to read, which she eagerly opened during quiet time. As the days and weeks went on, Heidi continued to impress me. Not only was she an avid, skilled reader but she was also incredibly articulate and seemed to possess the maturity of a much older child. I worried about Heidi feeling bored at school, but she seemed perfectly content to finish her work quickly and read the books she brought each week.
Heidi is an adult now, and I still think of her from time to time, even though I haven't seen her in years. I also can't help but feel a tinge of regret when I think back to her time with me in kindergarten. Although Heidi seemed to enjoy her days in my classroom, at that time, I didn't have the knowledge that I needed to adequately challenge her. Up until then, I'd only taught prekindergarten and kindergarten, and I didn't have a sense of what skills came next. As a result, I did not deliver the same quality of instruction to Heidi as I was able to provide to the other children who were working at a kindergarten level. Sure, I met with Heidi and discussed the books she was reading. My assistant and I added extra challenges for her within the daily work that all students completed. But did I teach her the skills she'd need to decode challenging multisyllabic words? Did I instruct her in how to use comprehension strategies to elevate her thinking? Unfortunately, the answer is no.
During our careers in education, I think most of us rack up a list of regrets like this, some big and some small. On our mental lists are the names of students we felt we could have helped more. Honestly, it makes sense that we feel this way! We chose teaching as a career because we want to make a difference in students' learning and in their lives. We take this job very seriously, and we want to do the best that we can.
I believe that the job of a teacher requires us to forgive and facilitate: to forgive ourselves for what we did not know or were not able to accomplish, but also to facilitate our own learning and growth. In my case, I needed to gain a deeper understanding of what phonics skills should be taught after kindergarten, how to teach students to decode multisyllabic words, and how to foster higher‐level thinking skills. If I had only known then what I know now, I'm confident that I could have helped Heidi achieve more growth that year. At the same time, I forgive myself for my lack of knowledge. I can't go back in time and fix it. I choose to focus instead on what I can currently control: giving my current students (who now also include educators) the best instruction that I can.
All of this said, even when we do have the necessary knowledge to effectively support our students, there are still many aspects of teaching that are very much out of our control. For example, there were 24 other students in Heidi's class that year, including children who began school without any alphabet knowledge. The amount of time I could spend working individually with Heidi was always going to be limited, even if I had had more complete knowledge of how to help her. The confines of the school day, coupled with the fact that each teacher is only one person, mean that we will always be restricted in the amount of personalized attention we can give each individual student. This is the differentiation dilemma.
The Differentiation Dilemma
Many teachers struggle to effectively tailor their instruction to meet the individual needs of students (usually referred to as differentiating). Sometimes, this struggle results from a lack of knowledge about content, like in my story about Heidi. Sometimes, it stems from a lack of knowledge about practical strategies that make differentiation feasible for a busy teacher. Many times, however, this struggle is rooted in the limitations of the educational system itself.
Here's why: most schools are set up to “educate the masses” through standardized processes. Classroom teachers are given curricula to teach and sets of skills to cover. Regardless of what skills students have and have not yet mastered when they begin the school year, they will (for the most part) be taught the same content. Certainly, some parts of the school day are designed to meet students' unique needs (e.g., small‐group instruction). Students who qualify for special education services are given extra support, or even different content to learn. Gifted students might also receive special instruction. However, the education system as a whole is not designed for fully personalized learning that takes into account the unique strengths and needs of each individual child. If it were, we would need far more than one teacher for every 20 to 30 (or more) students.
I point out this information not to discourage you from differentiating your instruction, nor to imply that the system is broken and there is no hope. Rather, I mention it because I want you to release yourself from the burden of any stress or guilt you might feel from not being able to do “enough” for your students. Many teachers are perfectionists in their instruction, and understandably so. We get to know our students and their academic needs very closely. After all, this is what we are told to do! However, once we are acquainted with students' needs, we naturally want to provide instruction that's just right for each student. But there's only one of us, and the large number of students we work with often have a wide range of needs. This can lead to feelings of frustration. Sometimes our own frustration can even leave us feeling a bit paralyzed. In the dark corners of our minds, we think, “This is impossible,” because we can't personalize our instruction to the extent that we would like to. Instead of differentiating when we can, we feel inadequate and helpless, and our disempowerment leads us not to differentiate much at all. Or perhaps the opposite happens: we feel so much pressure that we try to differentiate every single minute of the school day! But that only leaves us feeling exhausted and ultimately leads to the realization that our current differentiation practices aren't sustainable.
If you struggle with differentiation, I'm here to tell you that you're not alone. You are, more than likely, working within a system that is not designed to support you in fully meeting all students' unique needs. However, when you have the knowledge and tools necessary to differentiate where and when it matters most, this leads to tremendously positive outcomes for your students. The information in this book will empower you to effectively differentiate in an extremely important skill area for young students: phonics instruction.
Why Differentiation Matters in Phonics Instruction
Phonics—instruction that teaches the relationships between letters and sounds—is an essential component of early literacy instruction (National Reading Panel, 2000). Phonics knowledge plays a key role in students' ability to decode (read) words. Being able to decode words helps build students' reading fluency. Fluent reading, in turn, contributes to reading comprehension (e.g., Fuchs et al., 2001). Phonics, therefore, serves as an important foundation of reading success. Plus, phonics knowledge contributes to students' spelling and writing abilities. Although writing involves many skills beyond correct spelling, being able to fluently spell words helps our students more easily get their thoughts onto paper.
Research on children's spelling and reading knowledge indicates that students tend to master phonics patterns in a relatively predictable order, but at different rates. This holds true even for students with diagnosed learning disabilities and dyslexia. (Bear et al., 2016). Picture a group of children proceeding up the same staircase (where each stair step is a set of phonics skills), but they are all standing on different steps on that staircase (see Figure I.1). In a third‐grade classroom, for example, you might have some students still learning long vowels with silent e, while other students are learning to decode multisyllabic words with the schwa sound.
FIGURE I.1 The phonics staircase.
Our instruction needs to guide each student up the phonics staircase, one step at a time. Differentiating our phonics instruction helps us accomplish this. When we differentiate, we create opportunities for children to work on learning tasks that are just a little bit challenging. We provide teacher support so that students can be successful and eventually complete these once‐challenging tasks on their own (to climb to the next phonics stair step). This concept of a “just right” level of difficulty for learning tasks (the zone of proximal development) was introduced by Vygotsky (1978) and has been supported by subsequent neuroscientific studies (Sousa & Tomlinson, 2018).
Knowing where a student's zone of proximal development is helps us avoid instructional activities that are far too difficult or easy. If a learning task is too difficult, students might experience a stress response, and their brains perceive the task as a threat (Sousa & Tomlinson, 2018). This, of course, can lead to a fight, flight, or freeze response, and it certainly does not lead to optimal learning. However, if a lesson or activity is too easy, students will not continue to advance in their learning. Additionally, if students perceive a task as too easy, the hippocampal memory system in the brain will identify it as something that has already been accomplished and as offering no novelty (Kumaran & Maguire, 2007). No novelty means that it is much less likely that dopamine will be released. A lack of dopamine means less focus, memory, and motivation, so you might notice students avoiding a too‐easy task altogether (Sousa & Tomlinson, 2018).
To relate this to phonics instruction, let's say you're working with a child who hasn't fully mastered reading simple, three‐letter words with short vowels. If you start teaching them to read long vowel words, the student isn't likely to be successful with this new skill; long vowels are typically mastered after students learn short vowels (Bear et al., 2016). However, if the student already knows all letter names and sounds, sticking exclusively to alphabet instruction would not sufficiently challenge them. For the student to make the most progress, you should stick with those three‐letter words with short vowels (their zone of proximal development), rather than trying to push them up the phonics staircase before they are ready, or leaving them stuck at the bottom.
As we've discussed, it's usually not possible to differentiate instruction for every component of the school day. However, because phonics instruction plays such a crucial role in reading and writing, this is an area where we should differentiate as much as possible.
Where Do I Begin?
Now that we've discussed the importance of differentiating your phonics instruction, you might wonder, how do I start? Your first task is to understand where each student is currently standing on the staircase of phonics skills (their zone of proximal development). Only then can you select learning activities that are appropriate for their current stages of development. To gain this understanding of students' abilities and needs, it is necessary to assess your students. This is what we will explore in the first chapter.
After we dive into assessment, we'll discuss effective instructional practices and activities for teaching phonics (Chapter 2). Chapters 3 through 6 offer various models and approaches for differentiating your phonics instruction. I recommend reading Chapters 1 through 6 in order. Then, Chapters 7 and 8 will help you address the needs of specific groups of students (kindergarteners and English language learners); you can skip these chapters if they do not apply to you. The final chapter provides ideas for differentiated phonics activities that students can complete independently (e.g., in centers). Chapters 7 through 9 can be read out of order, at any point.
References
Bear, D. R., Invernizzi, M., Johnston, F. A., & Templeton, S. (2016).
Words their way: Word study for phonics, vocabulary, and spelling instruction
. Pearson.
Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Hosp, M. K., & Jenkins, J. J. (2001). Oral reading fluency as an indicator of reading competence: A theoretical, empirical, and historical analysis.
Scientific Studies of Reading
,
5
(3), 239–256.
https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532799xssr0503_3
Kumaran, D., & Maguire, E. A. (2007). Match–mismatch processes underlie human hippocampal responses to associative novelty.
The Journal of Neuroscience
,
27
(32), 8517–8524.
https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.1677‐07.2007
National Reading Panel. (2000).
Report of the National Reading Panel—teaching children to read: An evidence‐based assessment of the scientific research
. Literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction
. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
https://www.nichd.nih.gov/sites/default/files/publications/pubs/nrp/documents/report.pdf
Sousa, D. A., & Tomlinson, C. A. (2018).
Differentiation and the brain: How neuroscience supports the learner‐friendly classroom
(2nd ed.). Solution Tree Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978).
Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes
. Harvard University Press.
CHAPTER ONEAssessing Students' Needs So You Can Differentiate
The term assessment can feel like a loaded word for teachers. Although assessments can be an excellent tool for learning about students' strengths and needs, assessments can also be time‐consuming and difficult to administer while simultaneously managing a classroom. The good news, however, is that an assessment for purposes of phonics differentiation can be relatively quick and easy to administer. Our goal in giving this type of assessment is to determine which specific phonics skills a child has mastered, and which skills they have not yet mastered. With this information in hand, we can determine what's next for each child or where their zones of proximal development will be.
What Are We Looking For?
Before we discuss a specific assessment to guide you in differentiation, we need to be clear on what we are looking for when we assess. As we'll discuss in the next section, there are a variety of assessments available that can provide helpful insight into students' phonics abilities. However, when we are seeking to differentiate our phonics instruction, our primary goal is to determine which specific phonics skills a child can apply to decoding (reading) words, and which phonics skills a child can apply to encoding (spelling) words. For example, we want to determine if a child knows how to read and spell words with consonant digraphs so that we can provide instruction on consonant digraphs if needed.
If your school has provided you with a scope and sequence, or an ordered list of phonics skills to teach, you can use that resource to determine which specific skills you should assess. However, if you don't have a scope and sequence, or you're interested in seeing skills above or below your grade level sequence, refer to the included “K‐3 General Sequence of Phonics Skills,” which is based on developmental spelling research.
K–3 General Sequence of Phonics Skills
Consonant and short vowel sounds (alphabet)
Consonant‐vowel‐consonant (CVC) words and plural CVC words
Consonant digraphs
Double final consonants (‐
ff
, ‐
ll
, ‐
ss
, ‐
zz
)
Consonant blends
Glued sounds
R‐controlled vowels
or
,
ar
(
er
,
ir
, and
ur
might be taught for decoding but are not typically mastered until after students have learned vowel teams)
Silent
e
Vowel teams
R
‐influenced vowel patterns (all vowels)
Diphthongs
Complex consonants (silent consonants, three‐letter blends, soft
c
and
g
, word endings ‐
dge
/, ‐
ge
, and ‐
tch
/‐
ch
)
Adding ‐
ing
and ‐
ed
to one‐syllable words where the base word spelling changes
Unaccented syllables with
schwa
Advanced prefixes and suffixes, including Greek and Latin roots
Note: Many students will not have fully mastered all of these skills on completing third grade. For a more detailed scope and sequence with additional skills, visit fromsoundstospelling.com/book and download ours for free.
Remember, children might vary in the rate at which they learn these skills, but they will typically acquire these skills in largely the same order (Bear et al., 2016). Additionally, it is normal for children to have some gaps in their knowledge. Perhaps a skill was introduced, but a child did not fully master it at that time. Although they were able to continue learning more advanced skills, you will need to loop back and address the skill gaps so that they do not interfere with students' decoding and encoding.
Choosing the Right Phonics Assessment to Guide Differentiation
There are many different phonics and reading assessments available. Although we won't discuss all types of assessments in this chapter, we will look at some common types of assessments that many teachers are required to or choose to administer. Understanding the type and purpose of an assessment can help you determine whether it gives you an accurate representation of the information you are seeking.
Norm‐Referenced Assessments
First, let's explore norm‐referenced assessments. A norm‐referenced assessment compares a student's skills or knowledge to that of their peers (a norm group). A norm group is typically made up of several thousand students in a state, region, or country. Norm‐referenced assessments will often provide results in a percentile rank format. For example, a child's results on a reading assessment might indicate that they fall in the 30th percentile. This means that the child scored as well as or better than 30% of students in the norm group. The remaining 70% of students in the norm group scored higher than this student. Norm‐referenced assessments can be helpful in identifying students who need special services because they have scored much lower than other students, or because they have scored much higher than other students. A percentile rank by itself does not, however, reveal whether a student is proficient with a set of specific skills.
One common type of norm‐referenced test is a universal screener. A universal reading screener is designed to help educators quickly identify students who might have reading difficulties or are at risk of developing reading difficulties. Universal screeners are often given one to three times per academic year. Screeners are usually quick (e.g., students decode as many nonsense words as they can in one minute or read as many words of a passage as they can in one minute). These can alert you to students who might be struggling (or who are very advanced) by comparing them to a norm group. Universal screeners often indicate which students need to improve their fluency in terms of being able to produce letter sounds quickly, decode words quickly, or read texts quickly. However, universal screeners do not tell you which specific skills students have or have not mastered.
Criterion‐Referenced Assessments
A criterion‐referenced assessment compares students' skills or knowledge to specific standards or learning goals. For example, you might learn that a child got 75% of the questions about the main idea correct. The test results might also use a label like proficient to describe these results. A criterion‐referenced assessment does not compare each student to other students. Instead, it focuses solely on predetermined academic goals, and it tells you if a student met those goals.
Many norm‐referenced and criterion‐referenced assessments will not give us the information we need in order to differentiate our phonics instruction. Although data from a norm‐referenced assessment could help us see how a child performs in phonics in comparison to their peers, this does not tell us which specific phonics skills a child has and has not mastered. A criterion‐referenced assessment that only gives us a score of proficient or not proficient is not helpful for this purpose, either. We need more detailed information about a child's mastery of specific phonics skills.
That said, some norm‐referenced and criterion‐referenced assessments do provide additional information about mastery of specific phonics skills. If you have assessment results that provide this information, you might already have what you need to differentiate. The results would need to show you, for example, that a student has mastered reading and spelling CVC words, digraphs, double final consonants, blends, and glued sounds, but not yet r‐controlled or long vowels. If the assessment does not provide this level of specificity, it will not give you enough information to successfully differentiate using the strategies set forth in this text.
What type of assessment, then, do we need to administer so that we can effectively differentiate our phonics instruction? We need an informal diagnostic assessment. A diagnostic assessment tests students' skills and knowledge in specific areas. To determine which phonics skills students have and have not mastered, we can ask our students to read and spell lists of carefully selected words. For students who cannot yet read or spell words, we can instead assess their letter‐sound knowledge. Note that other assessments that test related skills like phonemic awareness might also be helpful in guiding our reading instruction. However, for the purposes of this book, we are going to focus on phonics‐specific assessments.
Administering a Diagnostic Phonics Assessment
Figure 1.1
