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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Serie: ISTE Invoiced
- Sprache: Englisch
The Use of Algae in Human Health explores the use of algae in traditional Asian medicine, for both preventive and curative purposes. The book looks at both historical and current uses, as algae is still used on an empirical basis in popular medicine in Asia.
The first part of this book focuses on the integration of algae into the therapeutic practice of ethnomedicine. The second part focuses on molecules derived from algae, which include fucoidans, alginates, carrageenans and polyphenols; they have been described in the scientific literature as having therapeutic activities both in vitro and in vivo.
These varied functions (antitumoral, antiviral, antibacterial, antithrombotic, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant) are of major interest in human health. However, new drugs based on algal molecules are proving slow to develop. The book reviews the scientific, technological and economic obstacles that may explain why development is lagging.
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Seitenzahl: 225
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Introduction
1 Algae in Traditional Medicine: Algae in Traditional Medicine
1.1. Traditional Asian medicines
1.2. Other traditional medicines
2 Activities of Therapeutic Interest: Activities of Therapeutic Interest
2.1. Antioxidant activities
2.2. Antibacterial activity
2.3. Antifungal activity
2.4. Antiviral activities
2.5. Anticoagulant and antithrombotic activity
2.6. Anti-inflammatory activities
2.7. Anti-allergenic activities
2.8. Antitumor activity
2.9. Anti-cholesterol activity
2.10. Other activities
3 Molecules Molecules
3.1. Polysaccharides
3.2. Proteins and peptides
3.3. Lipids, fatty acids and sterols
3.4. Phenolic derivatives
4 Therapeutic Development: Strategies and Limits: Therapeutic Development: Strategies and Limits
4.1. Epidemiological studies
4.2. Clinical studies
4.3. Patents
4.4. Resource availability, accessibility and biochemical variations
4.5. Perception and ignorance of the resource
Conclusion
References
Index
Other titles from iSTE in Agriculture, Food Science and Nutrition
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1. Precepts of traditional Chinese medicine for the prevention or tr...
Table 1.2. Examples of the use of Sargassum species (Sargassum spp.) in trad...
Table 1.3. Examples of green, red and brown algae used in traditional Chines...
Table 1.4. Example of a medicinal preparation incorporating the brown algae ...
Table 1.5. Examples of green, red and brown seaweed used as antiparasitic ag...
Table 1.6. Algal species used in traditional Japanese Kempo medicine for the...
Table 1.7. Examples of green and red algae used in traditional Korean medici...
Table 1.8. Examples of algal species used by traditional Filipino medicine (...
Table 1.9. Examples of algal species used by traditional Indonesian medicine...
Table 1.10. Examples of treatments using algae in Bulgarian traditional medi...
Table 1.11. Examples of the use of algae in traditional Northern European me...
Table 1.12. Main seaweed genera used by prehistoric populations on the south...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1. Examples of brown algae consumed in Japan and tested for antioxid...
Table 2.2. Antibiotic activity of different algal extracts (diameter of grow...
Table 2.3. Inhibitory activity of aqueous extracts of HIV-1 reverse transcri...
Table 2.4. Comparison of minimum concentrations required to inhibit 50% of v...
Table 2.5. Concentration of the algal extract required for 50% inhibition (I...
Table 2.6. Some examples of algal extracts belonging to the three main botan...
Table 2.7. Effect of algal extracts on adipogenesis in cells of the 371-L1 l...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1. Examples of organisms with alginate lyases (according to Wong et ...
Table 3.2. Examples of alginate-based pharmaceutical products (according to ...
Table 3.3. Examples of reported biological activities for alginate oligosacc...
Table 3.4. Some examples of biological activities of therapeutic interest as...
Table 3.5. Examples of therapeutic activities of interest associated with fu...
Table 3.6. Examples of characteristics of different types of carrageenans (a...
Table 3.7. Acute toxicity of carrageenans according to mode of administratio...
Table 3.8. Examples of antiviral activities associated with carrageenans or ...
Table 3.9. In vitro inhibitory activity (IC50) of tumor cell proliferation i...
Table 3.10. Effect of the action of oligosaccharides porphyrans on the amoun...
Table 3.11. Examples of protein content and their variations according to bo...
Table 3.12. Some examples of activities of therapeutic interest associated w...
Table 3.13. Some examples of methods for obtaining algal peptides by enzymat...
Table 3.14. Examples of the lipid composition of some edible algae from the ...
Table 3.15. Some examples of the in vitro antitumor activity of lipids from ...
Table 3.16. Examples of biological activities of therapeutic interest associ...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1. Demographic and social–economic profiles of the sample of patient...
Table 4.2. Examples of the mechanisms of action of the main polysaccharides ...
Table 4.3. Main French academic structures involved in the research and deve...
List of Illustrations
Introduction
Figure I.1. Gilgamesh harvesting the marine plant, or herb of youth, from the ...
Figure I.2. Brown alga Sargassum muticum used for centuries in traditional Chi...
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1. Association or integration of traditional Asian medicines and West...
Figure 1.2. Geographical location of the Amami Islands (according to Google Ma...
Figure 1.3. Digenea simplex
(photo credit © Lerissel et al. 2021).
Figure 1.4. Structure of kainic acid
Figure 1.5. Donguibogam Encyclopedia, on display at the National Museum of Kor...
Figure 1.6. Codium fragile (Cheong-kag), a green alga used in traditional Kore...
Figure 1.7. Caulerpa lentillifera, a green alga used in traditional Korean med...
Figure 1.8. Ilocos Norte region in the Philippine archipelago (from Google Map...
Figure 1.9. Caulerpa racemosa (photo credit © Hobgood N. 2007)
5
.
Figure 1.10. Padina sp. (Lap-lapayag), a brown alga used in traditional Filipi...
Figure 1.11. Location of the island of Sumba in the Indonesian archipelago (fr...
Figure 1.12. Distribution of the different taxonomic groups of algae used in t...
Figure 1.13. Distribution by the algal group of species used for the treatment...
Figure 1.14. Ecklonia maxima (photo credit © Derekkeats 2010, uploaded by JoJa...
Figure 1.15. Fucus serratus
(photo credit © Fleurence J. 2023).
Figure 1.16. Fucus vesiculosus, a brown alga used in traditional homeopathic p...
Figure 1.17. Poster promoting the benefits of the Maraliment seaweed cure (acc...
Figure 1.18. Early 20th century advertisements for the laxative Jubol, made fr...
Figure 1.19. War propaganda advertisement in Le Petit Provençal (1916): the qu...
Figure 1.20. Bales of cochayuyo about to be sold at a market in Chile (photo c...
Figure 1.21. Green alga Ulva sp. or limu palahalaha, considered sacred in trad...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1. Lipid auto-oxidation reactions by radical mechanism (according to ...
Figure 2.2. Comparison between methods for assessing (lipoxygenase inhibition,...
Figure 2.3. Comparative efficacy of ethanolic and aqueous extracts of Sargassu...
Figure 2.4. Impact of algae concentration on the trapping of 50% DPPH-type fre...
Figure 2.5. Effect of an increasing amount of algae on the antioxidant activit...
Figure 2.6. Influence of the extraction solvent type on the extraction yield o...
Figure 2.7. Influence of the type of extraction solvent on the antioxidant act...
Figure 2.8. Antioxidant activity of methanolic extracts obtained from differen...
Figure 2.9. Disk diffusion method used for screening antibacterial activities ...
Figure 2.10. Antibacterial activity of an ethanolic extract of Enteromorpha in...
Figure 2.11. Comparative antibacterial activity of ethanolic and dichlorometha...
Figure 2.12. Comparison of the antibacterial activity of different Ulva intest...
Figure 2.13. Difference in the wall structure between Gram+ and Gram– bacteria...
Figure 2.14. Effect of methanolic extracts of different algal species on growt...
Figure 2.15. Effect of a methanolic extract of the brown alga Dictyota bartayr...
Figure 2.16. Antiviral effect of different algal extracts on herpes simplex vi...
Figure 2.17. Antiviral activity of an aqueous extract obtained under heat from...
Figure 2.18. Determination of the minimum concentration of algal extract to ac...
Figure 2.19. Delayed activation of thromboplastin by brown algal fractions obt...
Figure 2.20. Delaying activity (in seconds) of thrombinoplastin induction acco...
Figure 2.21. Delaying activity of thromboplastin induction of soluble and inso...
Figure 2.22. Mozuku dish eaten in Japan (Cladosiphon okamuranus) (photo credit...
Figure 2.23. Simplified mechanism of fibrinolysis
Figure 2.24. Impact of mozuka extract consumption on the carotid blood flow in...
Figure 2.25. Impact of applying an extract of Sargassum fulvellum (CH2Cl2) on ...
Figure 2.26. Structure of indomethacin, the anti-inflammatory reference standa...
Figure 2.27. Effect of applying increasing concentrations of methanolic extrac...
Figure 2.28. Comparative efficacy of extracts of Undaria pinnatifida and Lamin...
Figure 2.29. Antipyretic effect of organic and aqueous extracts of the brown a...
Figure 2.30. Potential targets of the inhibitory activity of an algal extract ...
Figure 2.31. Inhibitory effect of the oral administration of algal powder belo...
Figure 2.32. Effect of injecting mice with algal solutions on the in situ inhi...
Figure 2.33. Simplified procedure for testing algal extracts on the mouse mode...
Figure 2.34. Evaluation of the increase in life expectancy of leukemic mice (L...
Figure 2.35. Effect of the addition of an ethanolic extract of Ulva lactuca on...
Figure 2.36. Effect of algae extracts (ethyl acetate) on the growth inhibition...
Figure 2.37. Nematicidal effect of the aqueous extract of Bifurcaria bifurcata...
Figure 2.38. Inhibitory effect of the aqueous extract of Bifurcaria bifurcata ...
Figure 2.39. Inhibitory effect of the aqueous extract (5 mg/mL) of Bifurcaria ...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1. Structure of the basic constituents of an alginic acid molecule (m...
Figure 3.2. Effect of oral administration of alginates of the brown alga Sarga...
Figure 3.3. Comparison of the antitumor activities of sodium alginate and deri...
Figure 3.4. Pathways for obtaining oligosaccharides alginates
Figure 3.5. Effect of administration of sulfated alginate oligosaccharides on ...
Figure 3.6. Comparative effect of sulfated or non-sulfated alginate oligosacch...
Figure 3.7. Evolution of spleen mass in mice as a function of treatment admini...
Figure 3.8. Structure of the laminarin molecule of Ascophyllum nodosum (accord...
Figure 3.9. Impact of in vitro administration on thymocyte cultures of laminar...
Figure 3.10. Structure of glucuronic acid derived from the oxidation of glucos...
Figure 3.11. Effect of in vitro administration of increasing doses of laminari...
Figure 3.12. Structure of a homofucan, or fucoidan, from brown algae (Ascophyl...
Figure 3.13. Impact of the sulfation rate of fucans of Fucus vesiculosus on in...
Figure 3.14. Antithrombotic activity of fucans obtained by different extractio...
Figure 3.15. Chemical structure of the three carrageenan families (according t...
Figure 3.16. Impact of carrageenan injection by intraperitoneal (ip) or intrav...
Figure 3.17. Classic viral infection cycle
Figure 3.18. Effect of κ-carrageenan oligosaccharides of different molecular w...
Figure 3.19. Anti-HIV activity of ʎ-carrageenan and its oligo-carrageenans (ʎ-...
Figure 3.20. Sulfation rates of the different types of ʎ-carrageenans tested f...
Figure 3.21. Effect of κ-carrageenan oligosaccharides on the inhibition of 50%...
Figure 3.22. Effect of oligosaccharides supplied at different doses (mg/kg bod...
Figure 3.23. Antitumor activity of a mixture of oligosaccharides of κ-carragee...
Figure 3.24. Comparative effect of the antitumor agent Cyclophosphamide and KO...
Figure 3.25. Effect of daily administration of KOS mixture at a dose of 200 mg...
Figure 3.26. Inhibitory effect on angiogenesis on egg chorioallantoic membrane...
Figure 3.27. Porphyran structure (according to Fleurence (2018))
Figure 3.28. Some examples of biological activities of human health interest a...
Figure 3.29. In vitro effect of the addition of increasing doses of porphyrans...
Figure 3.30. Effect of different doses of OP145 oligosaccharides on inhibition...
Figure 3.31. Basic structure of ulvabiouronic acid (according to Fleurence (20...
Figure 3.32. Sulfate and uronic acid composition of ulvan fractions UF1 (1), U...
Figure 3.33. Effect of increasing doses of fraction 3 (UF3) of ulvans on the g...
Figure 3.34. R-phycoerythrin (R-PE) (b) extracted from the red alga Palmaria p...
Figure 3.35. Impact of different concentrations of α-subunits of R-PE obtained...
Figure 3.36. Effect of different R-PE concentrations on the viability rate of ...
Figure 3.37. Effect of increasing concentrations of R-PE on the inhibition of ...
Figure 3.38. Distribution of the glycosylated fraction and the protein fractio...
Figure 3.39. Distribution of glycosylated fraction and protein fraction within...
Figure 3.40. Effect of adding increasing concentrations of the lectin ESA on c...
Figure 3.41. Inhibition mechanism of the HIV viral glycoprotein gp 120 by bind...
Figure 3.42. Effect of increasing concentrations of the algal lectin GRFT on t...
Figure 3.43. Stoichiometric binding ratio between GRFT lectin and the glycosyl...
Figure 3.44. Hemagglutinating activity of Ulva lactuca lectin (1 mg/mL) in the...
Figure 3.45. Inhibitory effect on ACE activity of various peptide fractions de...
Figure 3.46. Determination of the inhibitory concentration inhibiting 50% of A...
Figure 3.47. Examples of the influence of depth (1 m or 5 m >) on the lipid co...
Figure 3.48. Examples of the influence of depth (1 m or 5 m >) on the polyunsa...
Figure 3.49. Structure of the fucosterol molecule (according to Fleurence (201...
Figure 3.50. Structure of monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG) (from https://co...
Figure 3.51. Structure of sulfoquinovosyldiacylglycerol (SQDG)
Figure 3.52. Example of the structure of a phospholipid: phosphatidylcholine.
Figure 3.53. Effect of different lipid classes (total lipids, glycolipids) and...
Figure 3.54. Influence of the sampling site for Fucus evanescens on the antifu...
Figure 3.55. Influence of the sampling site for Fucus evanescens on the antifu...
Figure 3.56. Influence of the sampling site of Fucus evanescens on the hemolyt...
Figure 3.57. Hemolytic activity of different glycolipid subclasses (MGDG, DGDG...
Figure 3.58. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) content by algal species (according t...
Figure 3.59. Structure of Saringosterol
Figure 3.60. Efficacy of fucosterol on growth inhibition (IC50) of different l...
Figure 3.61. Structure of some phenolic compounds. a) Phloroglucinol; b) bromo...
Figure 3.62. Structure of various bromophenols present in red algae (according...
Figure 3.63. Structure of flavone, one of the main classes of flavonoids prese...
Figure 3.64. Summary of publications on the various biological activities of p...
Figure 3.65. Antioxidant activity of phlorotannins from Fucus vesiculosus and ...
Figure 3.66. Structure of various molecules belonging to the eckol family. a) ...
Figure 3.67. Comparative inhibition (IC50) of different eckol molecules regard...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1. Effect of the oral administration of Undaria pinnatifida on the ur...
Figure 4.2. Effect of algae supplementation (Ascophyllum nodosum, Fucus vesicu...
Figure 4.3. Number of patents concerning the biological activities of algal po...
Figure 4.4. Evolution of world algae production by crop over the last two deca...
Figure 4.5. Global algae production by world region.
Figure 4.6. Location of the Peter the Great Gulf in the Sea of Japan (from Goo...
Figure 4.7. Location of Golfo Nuevo, Patagonia.
Figure 4.8. Variation in the fucoidan content in the brown alga Sargassum wigh...
Figure 4.9. Location of the Gulf of Mannar.
Figure 4.10. Seasonal variation in the R-phycoerythrin content in the red alga...
Figure 4.11. Number of international scientific publications relating to diffe...
Figure 4.12. Number of international scientific publications relating to soy (...
Figure 4.13. Impact factors of various scientific journals dealing with plants...
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Introduction
Begin Reading
Conclusion
References
Index
Other titles from iSTE in Agriculture, Food Science and Nutrition
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The Use of Algae in Human Health
From Traditional Medicine to Molecules with Therapeutic Interest
Joël Fleurence
First published 2025 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
ISTE Ltd27-37 St George’s RoadLondon SW19 4EUUK
www.iste.co.uk
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.111 River StreetHoboken, NJ 07030USA
www.wiley.com
© ISTE Ltd 2025The rights of Joël Fleurence to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s), contributor(s) or editor(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of ISTE Group.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2024951144
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA CIP record for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN 978-1-78630-956-3
Preface
Although algae and plankton have been empirically utilized as food since ancient times, scientific observations were at first limited mainly to academic botanical aspects. […] An important corollary – of these forms of life to clinical medicine – appears to have been neglected.
Schwimmer and Schwimmer (1955), The Role of Algae and Plankton in Medicine
In 2022, the World Health Organization signed an agreement with the Indian government to set up a world center for traditional medicine in the country, the WHO’s stated aim being to enhance the effectiveness of traditional medicines through the contribution of scientific advances and current technologies. According to this organization, which sets the standard for public health, 80% of the world’s population uses these often ancient alternative medicines1. For Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, Director-General of the WHO, scientific research should help to better understand the empirical basis of traditional medicine and reinforce its effectiveness. Conversely, knowledge of the therapeutic practices of traditional medicine, and above all of the mechanisms involved, could lead to applications in modern medicine. Ayurvedic medicine originated in India and is a well-known therapeutic practice worldwide, and it is now duly listed by the WHO. This paradigm shift is at the root of the current interest in traditional medicine, referred to as ethnomedicine. This medical practice relies mainly on the use of plants or their extracts, mainly administered in the form of decoctions. Seaweed is one of the plants used in traditional medicine, particularly in Asia. Numerous examples of the use of these marine plants are described in Chinese, Japanese and Vietnamese traditional medicine. In traditional Chinese medicine, seaweed-based preparations can be prescribed for the treatment of goiters and various respiratory ailments such as bronchitis. But it is not just Asian folk medicine that recommends the use of seaweed. Indeed, seaweed is also used in traditional medicine in Africa (South Africa), South America (Chile) and the Pacific islands.
Once used empirically, traditional medicines are now able to rely on advances in the knowledge of active principles or algal molecules with interesting properties for human health. Indeed, the therapeutic properties concerned relate to the presence of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral, antithrombotic and even antitumoral activities.
This book offers a historical and current overview of traditional medicines that integrate seaweed (macroalgae) into curative or preventive practices in human health. It also lists the activities of therapeutic interest associated with algae and described in the scientific literature. Where possible, it also reviews the algal compounds identified as biochemical supports for pharmacological activities.
Finally, the book also describes the limits to the development of algal molecules for new drugs.
December 2024
Note
1
See:
https://www.who.int/fr/news/item/25-03-2022-who-establishes-the-global-centre-for-traditional-medicine-in-india
.
Introduction
The Sumerian poem The Epic of Gilgamesh is considered one of the oldest texts in human history (2,100 BCE). In this mythical text, the demigod Gilgamesh sets out on a quest to discover the secret of immortality. On his journey, the wise Utnapisthim advises Gilgamesh to search the bottom of the sea for a thorny plant or herb of youth that has the power to rejuvenate any person or animal that consumes it (O’Connor 2017). Gilgamesh locates this marine plant and returns to the shore, in order to have it consumed by an old man and thus ensure its rejuvenating power (see Figure I.1). Before proceeding with his experiment, Gilgamesh returns to bathe and the precious plant is stolen and consumed by a snake. According to the legend, since this event, snakes have been able to renew their skin, but humans have not. This inability to regenerate skin, and thus prevent aging, condemns Gilgamesh and all his fellow creatures to not know immortality. In this Sumerian epic, eternal youth is therefore associated with a marine plant. However, the notion of a marine plant is very general and applies to seaweed, eelgrass and seagrass. Eelgrass (Zostera marina, Zostera japonica) and Posidonia (Posidonia oceanica, Posidonia australis) are mainly found in the northern hemisphere (Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean) or southern hemisphere (Pacific Ocean), but are absent from tropical zones. As the Epic of Gilgamesh is set in the Arabian Gulf, some contemporary authors assimilate the famous plant of immortality to a seaweed and not a sea grass.
In ancient Rome, Pliny the Elder referred to the medicinal use of seaweed in his encyclopedia Naturalis historia. In particular, he wrote that the external application of seaweed had a beneficial effect in the treatment of gout and pain. However, there was an early split between East and West over the use of seaweed. This was mainly due to the Romans’ perception of seaweed as a simple waste product from the sea with little economic value (Craigie 2011). Independently of the Roman and more generally Western world, Arab physicians used seaweed in the treatment of pain and various chronic conditions (cirrhosis, arthritis) (O’Connor 2017). However, this use was limited to the pre-Islamic period of the Arab world.
Figure I.1.Gilgamesh harvesting the marine plant, or herb of youth, from the bottom of the sea (photo credit © Dalrymple N. 2006).
Seaweed has been used for centuries in traditional Asian medicine (Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese). For 2,000 years, the brown seaweed Sargassum spp. (see Figure I.2) has been advocated by traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of a wide variety of illnesses, including goiters (Liu et al. 2012).
Today, traditional Asian medicine still relies on the use of algae in the treatment of various pathologies, ranging from metabolic disorders (hypercholesterolemia, hyperglycemia) to more chronic conditions (cancer, respiratory infections).
Since the mid-1970s, scientific literature has highlighted the presence in algae of molecules with therapeutic activities of interest to human health (antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral, antitumoral activities). These activities are mainly associated with original compounds found specifically in algae. These are charged and/or sulfated polysaccharides (alginates, fucoidans, carrageenans) or protein pigments (phycobiliproteins).
Figure I.2.Brown alga Sargassum muticum used for centuries in traditional Chinese medicine (photo credit © Fleurence J. 2023).
Against this backdrop, it would seem worthwhile to draw up an inventory of traditional medical practices involving algae, and to compare this with the knowledge available on algae compounds of therapeutic interest in modern medicine.
1Algae in Traditional Medicine
1.1. Traditional Asian medicines
1.1.1. Chinese medicine
Traditional Chinese medicine, or TCM, is an ancient medicinal practice. It is one of the three great traditional medicines along with Galenism (Arab world) and Ayurveda (India). Its origins date back to 3,000 BCE (Nestler 2002). It is best known worldwide for the practice of acupuncture. However, this medicine is not limited to this particular technique and its use is based on a set of prescriptions, some of which can be likened to a lifestyle (see Table 1.1).
Traditional Chinese medicine is based on a set of initially oral traditions, originating in the community, family or religious traditions. Depending on the ethnic group, they may also be based on magical beliefs. Some of these traditions are rooted in Shamanism, Buddhism or Taoism. The diversity of the origins and practices employed has led ethnologist Paul Unschuld to write that “there is not a traditional Chinese medicine, but traditional Chinese medicines” (Unschuld 2018).
Initially based on oral tradition, traditional Chinese medicine has developed over time into a written practice. The oldest text, Yi Jing (“Book of Changes”), was written by the Chinese emperor Fuxi.
One of his successors, Emperor Shennong, was the pioneer of herbal medicine, and the source of the Bencao, or “Treatise on Medicinal Matters”.
Finally, in the 3rd century BCE, the knowledge acquired through traditional Chinese medicine was compiled in a medical encyclopedia known as Huangdi Nei Jing, or “The Yellow Emperor’s Classics of Internal Medicine”. This work, which covers almost 2,000 years of medicinal practice, was written by Emperor Huang Di, better known as the “Yellow Emperor”.
Traditional Chinese medicine is based on a curative as well as preventive approach. This medicine is based on various precepts, such as nutrition, exercise and body manipulation (see
