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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Religion und Spiritualität
- Sprache: Englisch
- Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017
This fourth edition of the international bestseller is the ideal introduction for those who are new to Christian Theology. In this revised and expanded edition, the author introduces readers to the central ideas and beliefs, the key debates and the leading thinkers of Christianity. Throughout, the aim is to bring clarity and brevity to the central ideas of Theology, both traditional and contemporary. The text comprehensively covers the individual doctrines that form the Christian belief system, weaving together these doctrines, their history, and the intellectual nuance behind them into an inter-connected web. All major Christian denominations are explored, as are their differences and shared customs and beliefs. This rich tapestry results in a clear view of Christianity, providing a coherent vision of the religion in its main forms.
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TheologyThe Basics
Fourth Edition
Alister E. McGrath
This edition first published 2018© 2018 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Edition HistoryBlackwell Publishers Ltd (1e 2004 and 2e 2008); John Wiley & Sons Ltd (3e 2012)
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Alister E. McGrath to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available for this title
ISBN 9781119158080 (pbk)
Cover image: Christ Pantocrator (encaustic on panel), Byzantine School, (6th century) / Monastery of Saint Catherine, Mount Sinai, Egypt / Photo © Zev Radovan / Bridgeman Images.Cover design by Wiley
Set in 10.5/13pt BemboStd by Aptara Inc., New Delhi, India
1 2018
Brief Contents
List of Illustrations
Preface
The Development of Christian Theology: A Short Historical Overview
The Apostles’ Creed
Getting Started
1 Faith
2 God
3 Creation
4 Jesus
5 Salvation
6 Spirit
7 Trinity
8 Church
9 Sacraments
10 Heaven
Moving On
Audio and Video Resources for This Textbook
Brief Glossary of Theological Terms
Details of Theologians Cited
Sources of Citations
Index
CONTENTS
Cover
List of Illustrations
Preface
The Development of Christian Theology: A Short Historical Overview
The Apostles' Creed
Getting Started
1 Faith
What is faith?
Can God's existence be proved?
Are proofs of God's existence of any use?
Faith is beyond reason but not contrary to reason
Faith and God's promises
Faith and doubt: the problem of suffering
Engaging with a text
2 God
Analogies in theology
God as father
A personal God
God as almighty
Can God suffer?
Engaging with a text
3 Creation
Creation in the Old Testament
The concept of creation “out of nothing”
Creation and dualism
Implications of the doctrine of creation
Models of God as creator
Humanity and creation: the “image of God”
Creation and natural theology
Creation and creationism
Engaging with a text
4 Jesus
Jesus as Messiah
Jesus as Lord
Jesus as Son of God
Jesus as Son of Man
Jesus as God
Functional statements about Jesus
Early Christological models
The Council of Chalcedon
The incarnation and icons
Jesus as mediator
The debate about the “Historical Jesus”
Engaging with a text
5 Salvation
Pauline images of salvation
The problem of analogy: salvation as ransom
The cross as a sacrifice
The cross as a victory
The cross and forgiveness
Salvation, sin, and Christ
An Orthodox perspective: salvation as deification
Salvation as being righteous in the sight of God
Salvation, Christ, and the redeemed life
Engaging with a text
6 Spirit
Biblical models of the Holy Spirit
Irenaeus on the role of the Holy Spirit
The debate over the divinity of the Holy Spirit
The filioque debate
The functions of the Spirit
The symbols of the Spirit: a dove, fire, and oil
Engaging with a text
7 Trinity
The grounds of the doctrine of the Trinity
The development of the doctrine of the Trinity
A trinitarian heresy: modalism
Visualizing the Trinity
The Trinity and the naming of God
Communicating the Trinity: hymns
The “social Trinity”: Jürgen Moltmann
Engaging with a text
8 Church
The church: local or universal?
Only one church?
The catholicity of the church
The church: holy or just human?
The church as constituted by the Word of God
Pure or mixed body: what difference does it make?
Ministry within the church: the Second Vatican Council
Engaging with a text
9 Sacraments
What is a sacrament?
What is the function of the sacrament?
What factors affect the effectiveness of sacraments?
Is infant baptism justified?
In what way, if any, is Christ present at the eucharist?
Engaging with a text
10 Heaven
The New Testament
Augustine: the two cities
Medieval debates about the resurrection body
Modernity: criticism and recovery of eschatology
Jürgen Moltmann: the theology of hope
Spe Salvi: Benedict XVI on the Christian hope
The last things
Engaging with a text
Moving On
Audio and Video Resources for This Textbook
Brief Glossary of Theological Terms
Details of Theologians Cited
Sources of Citations
Index
EULA
List of Illustrations
Getting Started
Figure 1
Karl Rahner (1904–84) © Bettmann/Corbis.
Figure 2
Detail from
The School of Athens
by Raphael (1483–1520), showing the great ancient Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle. Stanza della Segnatura, Vatican. Photo Scala, Florence.
Chapter 1
Figure 3
John Paul II celebrates Mass in Bellahouston Park, Glasgow, during his visit to Scotland in 1982. © Bettmann/ Corbis.
Figure 4
Jürgen Moltmann (born 1926). Courtesy of the Episcopal Church.
Chapter 2
Figure 5
Julian of Norwich, statue by David Holgate at Norwich Cathedral. © Jason Bye/Alamy.
Figure 6
Martin Buber (1878–1965). David Rubinger/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images.
Chapter 3
Figure 7
William Blake's
The Ancient of Days
, 1794, relief etching with watercolor, 23.3 × 16.8 cm. British Museum, London. Blake here depicts God speaking out of the whirlwind, described in Job 38–42. AKG Images/Erich Lessing.
Figure 8
The Triumph of Saint Thomas Aquinas
, painting by Benozzo Gozzoli, ca. 1420–97, tempera. Musée du Louvre, Paris. The Art Archive/Musée du Louvre, Paris/Gianni Dagli Orti.
Chapter 4
Figure 9
Image of a carving of a fish as an early Christian symbol, funerary graffito from Rome, second–third century AD. Museo della Civiltà Romana, Rome. © The Art Archive/Alamy.
Figure 10
Engraved portrait of John Calvin (1509–64), author of the
Institutes of the Christian Religion
. © Fred de Noyelle/ Godong/Corbis.
Chapter 5
Figure 11
Albrecht Dürer's
The Harrowing of Hell
, 1510 (or Christ's Descent into Hell/Christ in Limbo), woodcut, 39.2 × 28 cm. AKG Images.
Figure 12
Giovanni Bellini,
Crucifixion
, ca. 1470, wood, 71 × 63 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris. AKG Images/Erich Lessing.
Chapter 6
Figure 13
A depiction of the Day of Pentecost – Joseph Ignaz Mildorfer,
The Coming of the Holy Spirit
, 1750s, oil on canvas, 55 × 33 cm. The Day of Pentecost is traditionally seen as marking the coming of the Holy Spirit upon the early church. Hungarian National Gallery, Budapest.
Figure 14
Meeting of the Second Vatican Council, St. Peter's, Rome. David Lees/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images.
Chapter 7
Figure 15
Andrei Rublev (1360–ca. 1430),
Holy Trinity
, icon. Tretyakov State Gallery, Moscow. Photo: Scala, Florence.
Figure 16
Charles Wesley preaching to the Indians in 1745, engraving. The Art Archive/Eileen Tweedy.
Chapter 8
Figure 17
Hans Küng (born 1928). Sean Gallup/Getty Images.
Figure 18
Augustine of Hippo by Benozzo Gozzoli, 1465, fresco. Museo Civico San Gimignano. The Art Archive/Museo Civico San Gimignano/Gianni Dagli Orti.
Chapter 9
Figure 19
Perugino,
The Baptism of Christ
, ca. 1498–1500, oil on olivewood, 30 × 23.3 cm. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. The Baptism of Christ is seen by many theologians as a mandate for the baptism of Christians. AKG Images/Erich Lessing.
Figure 20
Juan de Juanes,
The Last Supper
, ca. 1562, oil on panel, 116 × 191 cm. Museo del Prado, Madrid. AKG Images/Erich Lessing.
Chapter 10
Figure 21
Gustav Doré,
The New Jerusalem
, woodcut, ca. 1866.
Figure 22
John Donne, painting by Isaac Oliver, 1615. AKG Images.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Preface
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List of Illustrations
Karl Rahner (1904–84)
Detail from
The School of Athens
by Raphael (1483–1520), showing the great ancient Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle
John Paul II celebrates Mass in Bellahouston Park, Glasgow, during his visit to Scotland in 1982
Jürgen Moltmann (born 1926)
Julian of Norwich, statue by David Holgate at Norwich Cathedral
Martin Buber (1878–1965)
William Blake's
The Ancient of Days
, 1794, relief etching with watercolor
The Triumph of Saint Thomas Aquinas
, painting by Benozzo Gozzoli, ca. 1420–97, tempera
Image of a carving of a fish as an early Christian symbol, funerary graffito from Rome, second–third century AD
Engraved portrait of John Calvin (1509–64), author of the
Institutes of the Christian Religion
Albrecht Dürer's
The Harrowing of Hell
, 1510 (or Christ's Descent into Hell/Christ in Limbo), woodcut
Giovanni Bellini,
Crucifixion
, ca. 1470, wood
A depiction of the Day of Pentecost – Joseph Ignaz Mildorfer,
The Coming of the Holy Spirit
, 1750s
Meeting of the Second Vatican Council, St. Peter's, Rome
Andrei Rublev (1360–ca. 1430),
Holy Trinity
, icon
Charles Wesley preaching to the Indians in 1745, engraving
Hans Küng (born 1928)
Augustine of Hippo by Benozzo Gozzoli, 1465, fresco
Perugino,
The Baptism of Christ
, ca. 1498–1500, oil on olivewood
Juan de Juanes,
The Last Supper
, ca. 1562, oil on panel
Gustav Doré,
The New Jerusalem
, woodcut, ca. 1866
John Donne, painting by Isaac Oliver, 1615
Preface
This short book aims to introduce you to the basics of Christian theology. The phrase “Christian theology” is used throughout this volume in the sense of the systematic study of the fundamental ideas of the Christian faith – in other words, a disciplined exploration of the contents of the Christian revelation. This way of thinking about theology is reflected in a number of definitions of theology offered by its leading practitioners, such as Karl Rahner (1904–84, Catholic), John Macquarrie (1919–2007, Anglican), and Karl Barth (1886–1968, Reformed).
“Theology is the science of faith. It is the conscious and methodical explanation and explication of the divine revelation received and grasped in faith”
(Karl Rahner).
“Theology may be defined as the study which, through participation in and reflection upon a religious faith, seeks to express the content of this faith in the clearest and most coherent language available”
(John Macquarrie).
“Theology is science seeking the knowledge of the Word of God spoken in God's work – science learning in the school of the Holy Scripture, which witnesses to the Word of God; science laboring in the quest for truth, which is inescapably required of the community that is called by the Word of God”
(Karl Barth).
Each of these descriptions of the nature and tasks of theology is helpful in getting a sense of its identity and focus. (Note that both Rahner and Barth are using the word “science” in the sense of an “intellectual discipline.”) While they differ in their emphases, these three definitions have a lot in common. You might like to spend a few moments reflecting on them, as you may find them useful in developing your own views.
There are many reasons for wanting to think about the Christian faith in more detail. It allows Christians to have a deeper grasp of the foundations, contents, and consequences of their faith. As the eleventh-century theologian Anselm of Canterbury (ca. 1033–1109) once remarked, theology is basically “faith seeking understanding.” Part of the inner dynamic of the life of faith is a desire to understand what is believed. Theology can be thought of as the Christian's discipleship of the mind. Yet theology is of importance beyond the Christian community. Those who are not Christians will be interested in learning what Christians believe, and why.
For Christians, theological reflection can lead to personal enrichment, and a deepened appreciation of their faith. For the great Christian theologian Augustine of Hippo (354–430), there is a genuine intellectual excitement to wrestling with God. He spoke of an “eros of the mind” – a sense of longing to understand more about God's nature and ways – and the transformative impact that this could have on people's lives. Other Christian writers have stressed the practical importance of theology, noting how it is essential for the ministry of the church. Preaching, spirituality, and pastoral care, many argue, are ultimately grounded in theology. This business of “thinking about God” takes place at many levels – in church study groups, in Bible studies, through preaching, and in academic seminars. Yet the study of theology has relevance beyond the Christian church. At least a basic understanding of Christian theology will be invaluable to anyone studying western cultural history, literature, or art.
It is important to avoid thinking of theology in terms of the study of insulated intellectual compartments – such as the doctrine of creation, Christology, and eschatology. Christian beliefs are not a collection of individual, unrelated ideas. They are interconnected, like a web, held together by the coherent vision of reality that lies at the heart of the Christian faith. Theology involves understanding the relationship between doctrines, not simply the doctrines themselves. For example, the Christian understanding of the identity of Jesus Christ has considerable implications for thinking about God and salvation (to mention only two obvious connections, to which others could easily be added).
This short, basic introduction to Christian theology is aimed specifically at those who are approaching it for the first time, and who feel intimidated by the thought of studying theology. It introduces you to some of its basic themes, problems, and personalities, and tries to whet your appetite to know more. There are severe limits to what can be dealt with in a short book like this, and many readers will find themselves frustrated by the brevity of some discussions, and the omission of much material that is so clearly relevant to its topics. Happily, there are plenty of other works that will be able to take your studies further. This book, which is perhaps best seen as a “taster” in Christian theology, will make specific suggestions about what you can do next, once you have finished this introduction.
I do not advocate any one specific form of Christian theology. No attempt is made to settle the longstanding disputes of Christian theology. Instead, you are introduced to them, and helped to understand the points at issue. Catholicism, Orthodoxy, and Protestantism are all represented in this work. The work tries to avoid any form of denominational bias, and aims to treat all positions examined respectfully and fairly. My task is to introduce you to a wide variety of approaches to theology, to help you make up your own mind. The work is generous, both in terms of the range of Christian opinions noted, and the positive attitude adopted towards them. The approach adopted in this book has been tested on student audiences at Oxford University and elsewhere over many years, and I am grateful to those who have helped me evaluate it.
This book aims to introduce you to the basics of Christian theology. It assumes that you know nothing about the subject. It introduces and explains the following aspects of Christian theology:
some of its leading ideas, as they are found in the Apostles’ Creed – about which more presently;
how those ideas were developed and justified;
the basic vocabulary, especially technical terms, used in discussion of those ideas;
some of the key debates that have influenced Christian thinking during the last two thousand years;
some of the leading thinkers who have shaped Christian theology down the centuries.
It also encourages you to interact with these ideas, by helping you to engage with some texts dealing with these questions.
This is not a comprehensive textbook. It is selective, and focuses only on certain basic ideas. But by the time you have finished this book, you will be able to go on to deal with more advanced works in the field, including the two standard and comprehensive theological primers written by the present author: Christian Theology: An Introduction and The Christian Theology Reader. The former, now in its sixth edition, provides a thorough university-level introduction to Christian theology, including comprehensive coverage of the history of theology, the basics of theological method, and detailed engagement with ten major areas of theology. The latter, now in its fifth edition, provides more than 350 primary texts of relevance to the study of theology, along with individual introductions, commentary, and study questions. Although the present book is intended to be a brief introduction to the basic themes of Christian theology, you can also use it to lay the groundwork for a more detailed engagement with these two textbooks.
Theology: The Basics was written in response to many requests for a short and simple introduction to Christian theology. While many appreciated the comprehensiveness of Christian Theology: An Introduction, some found it too long and detailed. They wanted an overview, not a detailed analysis. The author and publisher both felt it was important to respond to these requests, and conceived Theology: The Basics as a sketch map of the landscape of Christian theology.
The scale of the success of this shorter work took both the publisher and author by surprise. When it became clear that the book was being much more widely used than we had anticipated, we decided as a matter of some urgency to commission detailed evaluation of the work by its end users. This has produced many helpful suggestions for improvements, some of which were incorporated into the second edition. As the numbers of users grew, a third edition was developed, which includes further significant improvements – most notably, a chapter dedicated to the theology of the Holy Spirit. It is our hope that this fourth, further improved edition will prove to be an asset to those teaching and studying theology. We look forward to receiving feedback which will help us when the time comes to produce a fifth edition in due course. Please be assured that this work will continue in print for many years, and we will improve it steadily over time, while retaining its distinct characteristics of brevity and simplicity.
Users of this work may like to use it alongside a short collection of readings, designed to complement this textbook. Theology: The Basic Readings, now in its third edition, provides 68 readings, arranged in ten chapters, corresponding to the ten chapters of this work. This makes it an ideal resource to help you take your reflections further. Each reading is carefully introduced, to help you make sense of it and get the most out of engaging with it.
Alister McGrath
Oxford University
The Development of Christian Theology: A Short Historical Overview
This short discussion gives you a basic overview of the main features of the development of Christian theology. It aims to help you get the most from the material in this work by highlighting some of the many themes of Christian theology over the last two thousand years – sadly passing over many topics, debates, schools of thought and topics that deserve inclusion here, yet have to be omitted for reasons for space. However, this sketch map of theological history will help you to get your bearings in the midst of this landscape of ideas.
The history of the first two thousand years of Christian thought is generally broken down into more manageable sections. While everyone has their own views about how best to divide Christian history, many use a framework which looks something like this.
The apostolic period
The first hundred years is often referred to as the apostolic period. This is the period during which the works now included in the New Testament were written. During this time, Christianity was spreading throughout the Mediterranean region and beyond. The missionary journeys of St Paul, described in the Acts of the Apostles, are an excellent example of this activity. This book does not include readings from the New Testament, as this document is so readily accessible.
The patristic period
The apostolic period is followed by what is still generally known as the patristic period (some now prefer to refer to this as the “period of the early church”), which is usually held to begin about the year 100. There is no firm agreement about when this period ended: some scholars suggest it ends in the fifth century, while others extend it by at least two centuries. The Council of Chalcedon (451) marked a landmark in Christian thinking, especially over the identity of Jesus Christ, and is seen by many writers as bringing this important period of theological development to a close. The unusual word “patristic” derives from the Greek word pater (“father”), and designates a group of writers who are often collectively known as the “fathers of the church.” (Sadly, there were very few women among them.) The major writers of this period include Irenaeus of Lyons, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, the Cappadocian fathers, Athanasius, and Augustine of Hippo.
The patristic period witnessed important theological explorations of the relation of faith and classical culture, clarifying the place of the Bible in Christian theology (including establishing the New Testament canon), the identity of Jesus Christ, the doctrine of God (including the Trinity), the doctrine of the church, and the relation of grace and free will. In what follows, we will look at each of these in a little more detail.
Faith and classical culture
As Christianity expanded in its first centuries, it moved from a Palestinian context into the Greek-speaking world of the eastern Mediterranean, establishing a presence in the great cities of Alexandria and Antioch. It also began to grow in the western Latin-speaking Roman empire, including North Africa. This raised the question of how Christianity related to ideas already present in this region – for example, classic philosophy.
The place of the Bible
One of the most important achievements of the patristic period was establishing which books dating from the apostolic period were to be regarded as “canonical” or “biblical.” Considerable attention was also paid to the question of how the Bible was to be interpreted, and especially the role of tradition in combating unorthodox interpretations of the Bible. During this period, “creeds” – such as the “Apostles’ Creed,” on which this textbook is loosely based – began to emerge as communally accepted and authorized summaries of the Christian faith.
The identity of Jesus Christ
The patristic period saw clarification of the identity and significance of Jesus as being of the utmost importance. Where was he to be placed on a theological map? The period witnessed growing acceptance of the “two natures” doctrine, along with exploration of how best to make sense of Jesus Christ being both divine and human. The Arian and Nestorian debates were of particular importance in clarifying this matter.
The doctrine of God
Classical Greek philosophy already had its ideas about what “God” was like. One of the most important tasks of Christian theology was to distinguish the Christian idea of God from its pagan and philosophical rivals. Many early debates concentrated on what it meant to say that God was creator, the role of the Holy Spirit, or how the existence of evil was consistent with a good God. However, the most significant discussions concerned the doctrine of the Trinity – the distinctively Christian idea of one God in three persons. How was this to be understood?
The doctrine of the church
Patristic writers initially paid relatively little attention to the doctrine of the church, tending to focus attention on developing a coherent understanding of the sacraments. The Donatist controversy of the fourth century forced the western church to reconsider the nature of the church, and who was authorized to administer the sacraments. These debates would break out once more during the Reformation period.
The doctrine of grace
Although the Greek-speaking church made significant contributions to early Christian reflections on human nature and grace, the most sustained engagement with these issues took place within the western church, largely as a result of the Pelagian controversy between Pelagius and Augustine of Hippo.
The Middle Ages
The Middle Ages, or medieval period, is regarded as extending from the end of the patristic era to about the year 1500. This long period was immensely creative culturally, and productive theologically, producing theological classics such as Peter Lombard's Four Books of the Sentences and Thomas Aquinas's great thirteenth-century work, the Summa Theologiae. Peter Lombard's medieval theological textbook was the subject of many commentaries, which used its material to develop increasingly sophisticated theological ideas. Major theologians of this era include Anselm of Canterbury, Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventure, Duns Scotus, and William of Ockham.
Among the many issues to be explored in detail during this period were the relation between faith and reason, how to interpret the Bible, and the theology of the sacraments. Alongside this, there was continuing exploration of issues debated during the patristic period, such as the relation of grace and free will.
Faith and reason
The Middle Ages saw new attention being given to a whole range of issues concerning the relation of faith and reason, theology and philosophy. One reason for this was the emergence of universities in western Europe, particularly the University of Paris. The debates over whether God's existence could be proved are good examples of this concern.
Biblical interpretation
The rise of the monasteries led to a new interest in the correct interpretation of the Bible. The constant monastic use of the Bible in corporate worship and private devotion led to reflection on how the Bible was best to be understood and applied.
The institution of the church
The rise of the papacy raised increasingly important questions about the church and its sacramental system. Major issues debated during the Middle Ages included the definition of a sacrament and the question of how Christ could be considered to be present in the eucharist.
The relation of grace and free will
In many ways, medieval theology can be seen as an extended commentary on Augustine's theology. It is therefore not surprising that the relation of grace and human freedom should emerge as important at this time.
The Reformation and post-Reformation period
The sixteenth century marked a period of radical change in the western church. This period of reformation witnessed the birth of Protestantism, through writers such as Martin Luther and John Calvin. Certain theological debates became especially heated around this time, especially the place of the Bible in theological reflection, the doctrine of the church, and the question of what it is necessary to do in order to be saved. The Catholic church also went through a period of reformation around this time, with the Council of Trent setting out the definitive Catholic position on issues of importance at this point. Many scholars also include the seventeenth century in this period of reformation, arguing that this represents the Protestant and Catholic consolidation of the developments that began in the previous century. It was during this century that Christians emigrated to North America, and began to establish that region as a major player in theological debates.
A number of significant theological developments take place during this period, most of which relate to Protestantism. Two new styles of theological texts make their appearance, both generally (though not exclusively) associated with Lutheranism and Calvinism respectively – Philip Melanchthon's Loci Communes (“Commonplaces”) and John Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion. The “Catechism,” with its distinctive “question and answer” format, became of major importance at this time in theological education. The theological debates of this period were often quite intense, focusing especially on the interpretation and authority of the Bible, the nature of the church, and the doctrine of grace. In each case, Protestants and Catholics found themselves adopting very different positions.
The authority of the Bible
A major debate between Protestants and Catholics concerned whether, in the first place, the Bible had an authority independent of that of the church; and in the second, whether the Bible could be interpreted without the guidance of the church.
The church
Three major debates concerning the church became of particular importance around this time. In the first place, what were the marks of the true church? Was the church defined by institutional, historical continuity with the past – or by the faithful preaching of the gospel. Second, how many sacraments were there? Protestants tended to identify only two gospel sacraments; the Catholic church recognized seven. Third, in what sense, if any, was Christ present at the eucharist? The Catholic church maintained its commitment to the specific doctrine of transubstantiation, while various viewpoints emerged within Protestantism.
The doctrine of grace
The Reformation brought new controversy over the doctrine of grace. This was expressed in a number of ways, including Protestantism's distinctive doctrine of “justification by faith alone,” which was strongly resisted by Catholicism. A further debate broke out within Protestantism over predestination, focusing on the teaching of John Calvin on this issue.
The modern era
The period since about 1800 is often referred to as the “modern era.” This was a period of considerable instability in western Europe, especially following the French Revolution of 1789, and later through the rise of Marxism in eastern Europe in the twentieth century. Despite these anxieties, it was a period of remarkable theological creativity throughout western Europe and North America. In addition, a growing Christian presence in Africa and Asia during the twentieth century led to an increasing interest in developing “local theologies” in these new regions. These local theologies would be grounded in the Christian tradition, but be sensitive to their local situations. Although this textbook cannot hope to document the emergence of these distinctive theologies outside the west, there is no doubt that this has been a development of major importance, which will become increasingly significant in the twenty-first century.
A wide range of theological issues came to the fore during the modern period. Many traditional issues continued to be debated, including the relation of faith and reason, the authority and interpretation of scripture, the doctrine of the Trinity, the identity of Christ, the nature and grounds of redemption, and the nature of the church. In most cases, these debates were shaped by the concerns of the Enlightenment, which stressed the importance of reason, and was generally suspicious of theological arguments involving an appeal to church tradition or divine revelation. The decline of the Enlightenment and the rise of postmodernity has raised new issues for theology, which seem set continue to be discussed in the future.
A growing awareness of the existence of other religions led to a new interest in clarifying the relationship of Christianity and other faiths. This issue has been discussed to a far greater extent, and with far greater intensity, in the twentieth century than in any previous period of history.
The rise of rationalism within western culture led to a critique of a number of aspects of traditional Christian theology. The most important of these was the rise of the “historical Jesus movement” as a result of the belief that there was a massive gap between an essentially simple, rational “Jesus of history,” and the church's rather more complex “Christ of faith.” Yet Enlightenment rationalism itself came under critical scrutiny in the late twentieth century, as postmodernity challenged some of its core ideas – with important theological consequences. As rationalism began to lose its influence in the early twentieth century, Christian theology began to rediscover the importance of revelation, and to regain confidence in the doctrine of the Trinity as a means of expressing the distinctive identity of the Christian God.
A final factor of importance has been the growing realization of the significance of issues raised by feminist writers, who have pointed out the need to explore further issues relating to the traditional use of male language about God, the maleness of Christ as the central figure of the Christian faith, or essentially masculine approaches to biblical interpretation or theological concepts.
This very brief survey of theological history can only skim the surface of some of the great themes that were explored and debated during Christian history. It is hoped that it will help you appreciate and begin to engage with the issues considered in the ten main chapters.
The Apostles' Creed
This book is loosely modeled on the Apostles’ Creed, one of the most familiar and widely cited summaries of the Christian faith. It is regularly included in public worship, and is often the subject of sermons, textbooks, and study guides. Its simple structure creates an ideal framework for exploring some of the central themes of Christian theology. Many users of this book will be taking part in church or college study groups, making the Apostles’ Creed is an obvious reference point for discussion. Many colleges teach courses in basic Christian doctrine using the Apostles’ Creed to frame the lectures.
Although many earlier versions of the Apostles’ Creed are known, this creed reached its final form in the eighth century.
I believe in God, the Father Almighty,
creator of heaven and earth.
I believe in Jesus Christ, God's only Son, our Lord,
who was conceived by the Holy Spirit,
born of the Virgin Mary,
suffered under Pontius Pilate,
was crucified, died, and was buried;
he descended to the dead.
On the third day he rose again;
he ascended into heaven,
he is seated at the right hand of the Father,
and he will come to judge the living and the dead.
I believe in the Holy Spirit,
the holy catholic Church,
the communion of saints,
the forgiveness of sins,
the resurrection of the body,
and the life everlasting. Amen.
Getting Started
Theology is “talk about God”; Christian theology is “talk about God” from a Christian perspective. It begins by recognizing that Christians have quite distinct ideas about who God is and what God is like. We find these expressed in the Bible, which all Christians regard as being of immense importance to matters of faith, despite differences of interpretation and emphasis. Christian theology can be seen both as the process of reflecting on the Bible and weaving together its ideas and themes, and as the result of this process of reflection in certain ideas – ideas that are often referred to as “doctrines” (from the Latin word doctrina, meaning “teaching”).
There are also other documents which Christians regard with great respect, such as the “creeds.” The word “creed” comes from the Latin word credo, meaning “I believe.” A creed is basically a brief statement of the main points of the Christian faith. The best known of these are the Apostles’ Creed and the Nicene Creed. (The term “Nicene Creed” actually refers to a slightly later modification of the creed set out by the Council of Nicea, more accurately known as the “Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed.”) These ancient creeds set out some of the basics of the faith, and are often used widely for teaching purposes. Many theologians would argue that Christian theology is the exploration of the basic ideas of these creeds, investigating their basis in the Bible, and their impact on Christian thinking and living.
A topical approach to studying theology
So how do we go about studying theology? Theology: The Basics adopts a topical approach to studying theology. It considers ten broad areas of Christian theology, all of which are interesting and relevant. The themes are arranged in a way that broadly follows the structure of the Apostles’ Creed, with a few minor adjustments to ensure the most effective presentation of the material. For example, the doctrine of the Trinity (chapter 7) is located relatively late in the work so that it can integrate some core themes discussed in the chapters on God (chapter 2), Jesus (chapter 4), and the Holy Spirit (chapter 6). Each of these chapters aims to provide a brief introduction to these themes. It is very likely that you will feel the need for more detailed discussion of many points, which you can find in the more comprehensive work Christian Theology: An Introduction.
This topical approach to studying theology has many advantages. There are, however, other ways of studying theology. Some people prefer to study a very limited number of theologians, and see what kind of approach they adopt. They focus down on a few representative theologians, and use them as gateways to the study of theology as a whole. How do they develop their ideas? How do they assess arguments? How do they use the Bible and other theologians in their approach? Two theologians from the classic era of Christian theology are particularly popular here:
Thomas Aquinas (ca. 1225–74), a great theologian of the Middle Ages, whose
Summa Theologiae
(Latin: The “Totality of Theology”) is one of the most admired works of systematic theology.
John Calvin (1509–64), whose
Institutes of the Christian Religion
is a landmark in Protestant theology.
In the twentieth century, two theologians are often singled out as being of especial interest:
The Protestant writer Karl Barth (1886–1968), whose
Church Dogmatics
is often regarded as the most important theological publication of this period.
The Catholic theologian Karl Rahner (1904–84), whose
Theological Investigations
reestablished the short theological essay as a major way of conducting theological debate and exploration.
This approach has many merits. It does, however, make considerable demands on students. For a start, the writings of these theologians are often rather long. In addition, you need to know a lot of background material before you can really make sense of them. Anyway, why limit the study of theology to such a small range of figures? Surely a more representative range of theologians would be more appropriate?
Figure 1 Karl Rahner (1904–84) © Bettmann/Corbis.
Other writers suggest that a historical approach is better. This means looking at the history of Christian theology, and seeing how it developed down the ages. Instead of focusing on a single individual, this approach allows students to see how Christian thinking has evolved. Again, it is a good way of doing theology. It helps us to understand, for example, that there are a number of phases or stages to the development of Christian theology. This book provides a brief overview of the history of theology, as this is helpful in making sense of some of the questions that will be discussed.
Yet a purely historical approach makes huge demands on students. Two thousand years of history take a long time to master! While studying the history of theology is a fascinating thing to do, it needs to be done in much greater depth than this brief work allows. Yet this approach has a further weakness: it suggests that theology is the study of theologians. It's not. It is the study of Christian ideas, which is helped by looking at how individual theologians understand those ideas. The theologian is not a “professional rememberer,” who answers questions merely by reproducing the earlier answers of Augustine, Aquinas, or Luther; rather, the theologian is someone who explores ideas in the company of other theologians, who can help the process of understanding and application.
The topical approach used in Theology: The Basics considers individual subject areas – such as the nature of faith, or the doctrine of the church, broadly following the pattern of the Apostles’ Creed. This approach involves looking at a number of areas of Christian thought, and exploring what Christian theologians have said about them and how they developed those ideas. This will help you to develop tools to think for yourself about theological issues, rather than just learning what certain great theologians have thought about them. And it allows you to look at a wide range of theologians – such as Athanasius, Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Martin Luther, John Calvin, Karl Barth, and Karl Rahner.
Any serious engagement with theology is going to involve examining specific theological topics and individual theologians, as well as the general history of the discipline. However, a short book like this cannot hope to do justice to the complexities of individual thinkers or history. Yet the topical approach being used will allow us to look at the history of a debate, where this is relevant to the topic being discussed – and also at individual theologians, when they have a particular contribution to make to the discussion. This volume provides three useful additional resources to help with this process of interaction: a brief glossary of theological terms, and the biographical details of the major theologians mentioned in the text. The sources of all extracted citations are also provided, to allow readers to explore them in more detail in their proper contexts.
Before we begin to look at Christian theology in more detail, we need to think about the basic sources of theology. Throughout its long history, Christian theology has made an appeal to three fundamental resources: the Bible, tradition, and reason. The topical approach allows us to explore the place of each of these resources in theological debate. In view of their importance, we shall examine each in further detail, before moving on to our first topic.
Introducing the Bible
The word “Bible” comes from the Greek word biblia (“books”). It refers to a collection of books which Christians regard as having authority in matters of thought and life. The Bible is divided into two major sections, known as the Old Testament and New Testament.
The term “Old Testament” is used by Christian writers to refer to those books of the Christian Bible which were (and still are) regarded as sacred by Judaism. Christians understand and value the Old Testament as setting the scene for the coming of Jesus Christ, who brings its leading themes and institutions to fulfillment. This collection of texts is sometimes also referred to as “the Hebrew Bible” or the “Tanakh” – an acronym of the Hebrew words for “law, prophets, and writings (torah, nevi'im, ketuvim).”
The theological term “testament” is to be understood as meaning a “covenant” or “dispensation.” The basic idea is that the same God who once entered into a covenant with the people of Israel (the “old covenant”) has now entered into a “new covenant” with all of humanity, leading to the emergence of the Christian church. The basic points here are:
The same God who called the people of Israel also called the Christian church. Both are “chosen peoples,” to use the biblical language.
A new phase in God's dealings with humanity came about in Jesus Christ. This is usually referred to as a “new covenant” or “new dispensation.”
This has important implications for the way in which Christians read the Old Testament. For Christians, the Old Testament anticipates the coming of Christ. This idea is regularly developed in the New Testament. If you would like to explore this briefly, read the first two chapters of the gospel according to Matthew, the first book of the New Testament, and try answering these two questions:
How many times does a phrase like “this took place to fulfill the prophecy of …” occur in these two chapters?
Why do you think that Matthew regards it as so important that Jesus Christ fulfills Old Testament prophecy?
There is widespread agreement within Christianity that the Bible has a place of especial importance in theological debate and personal devotion. All the Protestant confessions of faith stress the centrality of the Bible in relation to Christian thought and life. More recently, the Second Vatican Council (1962–5) reaffirmed its importance for Catholic theology and preaching. The authority of the Bible is seen as linked with the idea of “inspiration” – in other words, that in some way, the words of the Bible convey the words of God. This is stated clearly by most Protestant confessions of faith, such as the “Gallic Confession of Faith” (1559), which includes the following declaration:
We believe that the Word contained in these books has proceeded from God, and receives its authority from him alone, and not from human beings.
The Catechism of the Catholic Church (1992) sets out a similar position:
God is the author of Sacred Scripture. The divine revealed realities, which are contained and presented in the text of Sacred Scripture, have been written down under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. For Holy Mother Church, relying on the faith of the apostolic age, accepts as sacred and canonical the books of the Old and the New Testaments, whole and entire, with all their parts, on the grounds that, written under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, they have God as their author and have been handed on as such to the Church herself. God inspired the human authors of the sacred books.
There are some disagreements within Christianity over exactly what is included in the Bible. The most important of these concerns a group of works usually referred to as “the Apocrypha” (from the Greek word for “hidden”) or as “Deuterocanonical works.” This includes books such as the Wisdom of Solomon and the book of Judith. These books, though dating from the period of the Old Testament, were not originally written in the Hebrew language, and are thus not included in Jewish or Hebrew Bibles.
Protestants tend to regard these “apocryphal” books as interesting and informative, but not as being of doctrinal importance. Catholics and Orthodox Christians, on the other hand, regard them as part of the text of the Bible. This difference is reflected in the way in which Protestant and Catholic Bibles are laid out. Protestant Bibles – such as the famous King James Bible of 1611 or the New International Version – include these texts as a third section of the Bible, known as the “Apocrypha.” Catholic Bibles – such as the Jerusalem Bible – include them within the Old Testament section of the Bible.
Tradition
A series of controversies in the early church brought home the importance of the concept of “tradition.” The word “tradition” comes from the Latin term traditio which means “handing over,” “handing down,” or “handing on.” It is a thoroughly biblical idea; for example, St. Paul reminded his readers that he was handing on to them core teachings of the Christian faith which had been handed on to him by other people (1 Corinthians 15:1–4).
The term “tradition” can refer to both the action of passing teachings on to others – something which Paul insists must be done within the church – and to the body of teachings which are passed on in this way. Tradition can thus be understood as a process as well as a body of teaching. The Pastoral Epistles (three New Testament letters that are particularly concerned with questions of church structure, and the passing on of Christian teaching: 1 Timothy; 2 Timothy; Titus) in particular stress the importance of “guarding the good deposit which was entrusted to you” (2 Timothy 1:14). The New Testament also uses the notion of “tradition” in a negative sense, meaning something like “human ideas and practices which are not divinely authorized.” Thus Jesus Christ was openly critical of certain human traditions within Judaism (e.g., see Matthew 15:1–6; Mark 7:13).
The importance of the idea of tradition first became obvious in a controversy which broke out during the second century. The “Gnostic controversy” centered on a number of questions, including how salvation was to be achieved. (The word “Gnostic” derives from the Greek word gnosis, “knowledge,” and refers to the movement's belief in certain secret ideas that had to be known in order to secure salvation.) Christian writers found themselves having to deal with some highly unusual and creative interpretations of the Bible. How were they to deal with these? If the Bible was to be regarded as authoritative, was every interpretation of the Bible to be regarded as of equal value?
Irenaeus of Lyons (ca. 130–ca. 200), one of the church's greatest early theologians, did not think so. Heretics, he argued, interpreted the Bible according to their own taste. Orthodox believers, in contrast, interpreted the Bible in ways that their apostolic authors would have approved. What was handed down from the apostles through the church was not merely the biblical texts themselves, but a certain way of reading and understanding those texts.
Everyone who wishes to perceive the truth should consider the apostolic tradition, which has been made known in every church in the entire world. We are able to number those who are bishops appointed by the apostles, and their successors in the churches to the present day, who taught and knew nothing of such things as these people imagine.
Irenaeus's point is that a continuous stream of Christian teaching, life, and interpretation can be traced from the time of the apostles to his own period. The church is able to point to those who have maintained the teaching of the church, and to certain public standard creeds which set out the main lines of Christian belief. Tradition is thus the guarantor of faithfulness to the original apostolic teaching, a safeguard against the innovations and misrepresentations of biblical texts on the part of the Gnostics.
This important development underlies the emergence of “creeds” – public, authoritative statements of the basic points of the Christian faith, which are based upon the Bible, but avoid maverick interpretations of biblical material. This point was further developed in the early fifth century by Vincent of Lérins (died before 450), who was concerned that certain doctrinal innovations were being introduced without good reason. There was a need to have public standards by which such doctrines could be judged. So what standard was available, by which the church could be safeguarded from such errors? For Vincent, the answer was clear – tradition. For Vincent, tradition was “a rule for the interpretation of the prophets and the apostles in such a way that is directed by the rule of the universal church.”
Creeds
Having noted the importance of creeds, we may explore how they came about in their present forms. Their emergence was stimulated by two factors of especial importance:
The need for public statements of faith which could be used in teaching, and defense of the Christian faith against misrepresentations.
The need for personal “confessions of faith” at the time of baptism.
We have already touched on the first point; the second needs further exploration. It is known that the early church attached especial importance to the baptism of new members. In the third and fourth centuries, a definite pattern of instruction and baptism developed: new members of the church were instructed in the basics of the Christian faith during the period of Lent, and baptized on Easter Day. These new members of the church were asked to confirm their faith by assenting to key statements of Christian belief.
According to the Apostolic Tradition, a work written by Hippolytus of Rome (died ca. 236) in the early years of the third century, three questions were put to each baptismal candidate: “Do you believe in God, the Father Almighty? Do you believe in Jesus Christ, our Savior? Do you believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy church, and the forgiveness of sins?” As time went on, the answers to these questions were gradually enlarged into a statement of faith, which each candidate was asked to affirm.
