Universities as Complex Enterprises E-Book

William B. Rouse

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Stevens Institute Series on Complex Systems and Enterprises
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 378

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016

Beschreibung

Explores the nature of academic enterprises, including why they work the way they do and where such enterprises are headed, with the goal of gaining insights into where change can and will happen This book looks at universities from a whole-enterprise perspective. It explores the steady escalation of the costs of higher education and uses a computational economic model of complex academic enterprises. This model includes component models of research, teaching, administration, and brand value. Understanding the relationships among practices, processes, structure, and ecosystem provides the basis for transforming academia, leveraging its strengths and overcoming its limitations. More specifically, this architecture helps the reader understand how various elements of the enterprise system either enable or hinder other elements of the system, all of which are embedded in a complex behavioral and social ecosystem. Each topic is explored in terms of the levels of the architecture at which it primarily functions. Levers of change within each area are discussed, using many experiences of pursuing such issues in a range of academic enterprises. * Provides a new methodology by taking a more systems-oriented approach to education systems as a whole * Shows how various elements of the enterprise system either enable or hinder other elements of the system * Offers alternative strategies for transformation of academic enterprises Universities as Complex Enterprises: How Academia Works, Why It Works These Ways, and Where the University Enterprise Is Headed is a reference for systems scientists and engineers, economists, social scientists, and decision makers. William B. Rouse is the Alexander Crombie Humphreys Chair within the School of Systems & Enterprises and Director of the Center for Complex Systems and Enterprises at Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey. He is also Professor Emeritus, and former Chair, of the School of Industrial and Systems Engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia. Rouse has written hundreds of articles and book chapters, and has authored many books, including most recently Modeling and Visualization of Complex Systems and Enterprises (Wiley, 2015).

Leseprobe

STEVENS INSTITUTE SERIES ON COMPLEX SYSTEMS AND ENTERPRISES

Title: Modeling and Visualization of Complex Systems and Enterprises:Explorations of Physical, Human, Economic, and Social Phenomena

Author: William B. Rouse

ISBN: 9781118954133

Title: Perspectives on Complex Global Challenges: Education, Energy, Healthcare, Security, and Resilience

Editors: Elisabeth Paté-Cornell and William B. Rouse with Charles M. Vest

ISBN: 9781118984093

UNIVERSITIES AS COMPLEX ENTERPRISES

How Academia Works, Why It Works These Ways, and Where the University Enterprise Is Headed

WILLIAM B. ROUSE

Copyright © 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New JerseyPublished simultaneously in Canada

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PREFACE

I first entered academia in 1965, over 50 years ago, as a freshman at the University of Rhode Island. Since then, I have served on the faculties of five universities in the United States and Europe, participated on advisory boards of numerous universities, been a consultant to several universities and, overall, been involved with over 50 universities globally. This has resulted in a wealth of fascinating, enlightening, and sometimes frustrating experiences. The intellectual community is often captivating, while the rigidity and resistance to change are sometimes daunting. This book tells the story of those experiences, woven into more expository material on a thousand years of academic organizations. This book also provides the basis for projecting where this fascinating and frustrating enterprise is headed.

A few years ago, I led a graduate course on “transforming academia.” The class included eight PhD students and four faculty members. We explored the historical roots of universities and contemporary challenges for academia. The students led this exploration. I organized the syllabus and compiled resource materials, but the PhD students each gave two lectures, all of which were followed by a usually intense discussion. The course culminated with the students presenting to the president and provost their recommendations for how Georgia Tech should strategically think about the future. This presentation was scheduled for 1 hour, but the meeting stretched to 2 hours due to the many questions and much discussion. The findings of this semester-long exploration are laced throughout this book.

I have been involved in many strategic planning activities at numerous universities, either as a faculty member or as a paid consultant. In my most recent engagement, several senior administrators asked, “What shall we assume about the future?” Discussing this question quickly led to the conclusion that any specific prediction would likely be wrong. Consequently, I developed four scenarios for the future of academia that are discussed in this book. The faculty embraced these scenarios as good portrayals of alternative futures. Subsequently, all the planning teams were asked to assess the merits of their plans relative to each of the four scenarios. They struggled with this assignment and invariably ended up focusing on what could be called “business as usual on steroids.” When asked why they ignored the other three scenarios, they responded that they did not know how to think about such different views of academia. They were stuck.

Academic enterprises do seem to be stuck. Increases in the costs of higher education have completely outstripped inflation. Academia has become the poster child for runaway costs, replacing healthcare, which now seems more or less under control. This book explores the nature of academic enterprises, including why they work the way they do and where such enterprises are headed. The goal, however, is not prediction. Instead, the objective is insights into where change can and will happen.

Many people have helped me in my exploration of academia over many decades. My experience at MIT was and continues to be mentored by Dick Larson, Joel Moses, and Tom Sheridan and the late Chuck Vest. My brief experience at Tufts was benefited by the expertise of Percy Hill. My mentors at Illinois were B.T. Chao, Bob Chien, Dan Drucker, and Helmut Korst. My one year in Delft changed my life—I am indebted to Henk Stassen and more recently Theo Toonen. Two stops at Georgia Tech provided many mentors—Jean-Lou Chameau, Wayne Clough, Steve Cross, Rich DeMillo, Don Giddens, Paul Griffin, John Jarvis, Leon McGinnis, Mike Thomas, and John White. Mentors at Stevens have included Tony Barrese, Michael Bruno, Ralph Giffin, Nariman Farvardin, George Korfiatis, and Dinesh Verma. Other colleagues related to singular experiences rather than long-term appointments. These included Berkeley (Lee Schruben), Carnegie Mellon (Duane Adams), Case Western Reserve (Simon Ostrach), George Mason (Andy Sage), Georgetown (Spiros Dimolitsas), Kassel (Gunnar Johannsen), North Carolina State (Paul Cohen and Ed Fitts), Penn State (Paul Griffin), Stanford (Elisabeth Pate-Cornell), Tsinghua (Gavriel Salvendy), Tokyo Institute of Technology (Kinji Mori), and the University of California at San Diego (Hal Sorenson). Opportunities are required to create experiences, and I am indebted to these many colleagues for providing me such a rich set of experiences.

William B. RouseWeehawken, NJNovember 2015

1INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

Higher education has become the “poster child” for out-of-control costs, replacing healthcare, which now seems more or less under control. Tuition increases have far outpaced increases of the overall cost of living. This is due to the relative decline of public support for higher education, while administrative costs have been steadily growing much faster than the costs of teaching and research. A primary enabler and consequence of this cost growth has been student debt levels that exceed the total credit card debt in the United States.

We need to get a grip on the economics of higher education, with a goal of transforming the system to improve the overall value proposition. Academia provides a wide variety of offerings that serve a diverse mix of constituencies. Delivery processes for these offerings can be quite creative but are often burdened with inefficiencies. This is complicated by academic governance processes, which can be overwhelming, more so when the university is also a public sector agency. Yet, universities are basically well-intentioned, creative, and committed. There is much to build on but nevertheless much to overcome.

Figure 1.1 depicts a multilevel architecture of academic enterprises (Rouse, 2015). The practices of education, research, and service occur in the context of processes, structure, and ecosystem. Understanding the relationships among practices, processes, structure, and ecosystem provides the basis for transforming academia, leveraging its strengths, and overcoming its limitations. In this book, I explicitly address these relationships in terms of both conceptual and computational models of academic enterprises.

FIGURE 1.1 Multilevel architecture of academic enterprises.

The architecture in Figure 1.1 helps us to understand how various elements of the enterprise system either enable or hinder other elements of the system, all of which are embedded in a complex behavioral and social ecosystem. Practices are much more efficient and effective when enabled by well-articulated and supported processes for delivering capabilities and associated information, as well as capturing and disseminating outcomes.

Processes exist to the extent that organizations (i.e., campuses, colleges, schools, and departments) invest in them. These investments are influenced by economic models and incentive structures and are made in pursuit of competitive positions and economic returns. These forces hopefully coalesce to create an educated and productive population, at an acceptable cost.

When we employ Figure 1.1 to understand relationships among universities, the interesting phenomenon in Figure 1.2 emerges. The hierarchical structure of Figure 1.1 dovetails with the heterarchical nature of academic disciplines. The dotted rectangle in Figure 1.2 represents how faculty disciplines both compete and define standards across universities.

FIGURE 1.2 Hybrid multilevel architecture of academia.

The disciplines define the agenda for “normal” science and technology, including valued sponsors of this agenda and valued outlets for research results. Members of faculty disciplines at other universities have an enormous impact on promotion and tenure processes at any particular university. Such professional affiliations also affect other types of enterprises (e.g., healthcare). However, universities seem to be the only enterprise that allows external parties to largely determine who gets promoted and tenured internally. This has substantial impacts on understanding and modeling the performance of any particular university.

More specifically, the standards set at the discipline level determine:

Agenda for “normal” science and technology

Valued sponsors of this agenda

Valued outlets for research results

Consequently, almost everyone chases the same sponsors and journals, leading to decreasing probabilities of success with either. In addition, each faculty member produces another faculty member every year or so, swelling the ranks of the competitors. Recently, retirements are being delayed to refill individuals’ retirement coffers, which decrease numbers of open faculty slots.

As probabilities of success decrease, faculty members write an increasing number of proposals and submit an increasing number of journal articles, resulting in constantly increasing costs of success and congested pipelines, which foster constantly increasing times until success. Bottom line is less success, greater costs, and longer delays. The models discussed in this book enable exploration of these phenomena.

Universities can hold off these consequences by hiring fewer tenure-track faculty members, that is, using teaching faculty and adjuncts. But this will retard their march up the rankings and hence slow the acquisition of talented students, who will succeed in life and later reward the institution with gifts and endowments. The trade-off between controlling cost and enhancing brand value is explored in this book.

Alternatively, universities can pursue “niche dominance” and only hire tenure-track faculty in areas where they can leapfrog to excellence. This will, unfortunately, result in two classes of faculty—those on the fast track to excellence and those destined to teach a lot. The first class will be paid a lot more because of the great risks of their being attracted away to enhance other universities’ brands.

OVERALL APPROACH

Many contemporary commentators have made similar observations to those offered in this introduction, although with less emphasis on the structure and processes of the enterprise. For example, Lombardi (2013) provides an exposition of the basic blocking and tackling of academia, primarily from a more general perspective than science and technology. This is relevant in terms of the nature of academic guilds portrayed and the multilevel nature of governance. He also provides a useful discussion of performance and quality management. However, his book does not articulate an overall enterprise perspective.

Christenson and Eyring (2011) explore how universities can find innovative, less costly ways of performing their uniquely valuable functions and thereby save themselves from decline. The authors outline the history of Harvard University and how various aspects of academia were defined by Harvard leadership in response to issues and opportunities of the times. They explore the strategic choices and alternative ways in which traditional universities can change to ensure their ongoing economic vitality. They emphasize the need for universities to address key trade-offs and make essential choices as they decide how to compete.

DeMillo (2011) addresses the challenges faced by “the middle,” the 2000 universities that are not part of the “elite”—those with $1 billion plus endowments—and also face stiff competition from for-profit online universities. Computer-based and online technologies, such as MOOCs, and new student-centric business models are discussed. The book culminates in 10 rules for twenty-first-century universities, expressed in terms of defining value and becoming an architect of how this value is delivered. Some of the ideas presented are very relevant to the issues addressed in this book.

These three books are representative of a vast literature on higher education. Many other sources are referenced throughout this book as specific issues are discussed. This book leverages and integrates this material in the following ways:

The university is viewed as an enterprise system competing in a complex economic, political, and social environment where both competition and collaboration are prevalent

Examples are drawn from a broad range of experiences with over 50 university enterprises in the United States, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin America

A multilevel architectural view of universities as enterprises enables identifying interactions and opportunities across levels of this architecture, including both avenues and barriers to fundamental change

I address university enterprises both qualitatively and quantitatively. Qualitative expositions draw from history, public policy, economics, etc. Many, but not all, of these expositions set the stage for quantitative models of the phenomena of interest. The quantitative models are valuable for addressing various “what-if” questions discussed in this book.

Examples of such models include use of the enterprise architecture in Figures 1.1 and 1.2 for computational modeling of enterprise performance and economic models of key trade-offs such as the mix of tenure-track versus nontenure-track faculty members. Discounted cash flow models are employed to reflect the time value of money involved in such decades-long investments.

Another example is statistical models of the dynamics of the US News & World Report ranking system, in particular time series models of the lags in ranking changes following university investments in faculty, facilities, and other strategic investments. There is a frequently expanding range of university ranking systems, for example, Financial Times World University Rankings and Shanghai Jiao Tong University Academic Ranking of World Universities. The various ranking schemes are contrasted in terms of purpose and attributes.

UNIVERSITIES AS COMPLEX SYSTEMS

Universities certainly seem complex—so many stakeholders, agendas, and often conflicting priorities. What type of complex system is a university or, more broadly, universities collectively? They certainly are not similar to airplanes, factories, and process plants, all of which were engineered to achieve specified objectives. They are a subset of the society in general, but they do not seem as complex as the overall society.

Snowden and Boone’s (2007) Cynefin Framework includes simple, complicated, complex, and chaotic systems. Simple systems can be addressed with best practices. Complicated systems are the realm of experts. Complex systems represent the domain of emergence, as discussed in the following text. Finally, chaotic systems require rapid responses to stabilize potential negative consequences.

The key distinction with regard to the discussions in this book is complex versus complicated systems—simple certainly is not warranted and we hope to avoid chaotic. There is a tendency, Snowden and Boone contend, for experts in complicated systems to perceive that their expertise, methods, and tools are much more applicable to complex systems than is generally reasonable.

Poli (2013) also elaborates the distinctions between complicated and complex systems. Complicated systems can be structurally decomposed. Relationships can be identified, either by decomposition or in some cases via blueprints. “Complicated systems can be, at least in principle, fully understood and modeled.” Complex systems, in contrast, cannot be completely understood or definitively modeled. He argues that biology and all the human and social sciences address complex systems.

Poli also notes that problems in complicated systems can, in principle, be solved. The blueprints, or equivalent, allow one to troubleshoot problems in complicated systems. In contrast, problems in complex systems cannot be solved in the same way. Instead, problems can be influenced so that unacceptable situations are at least partially ameliorated.

These distinctions are well taken. Complicated systems have often been designed or engineered. There are plans and blueprints. There may be many humans in these systems, but they are typically playing prescribed roles. In contrast, complex systems, as they define them, typically emerge from years of practice and precedent. There are no plans and blueprints. Indeed, much research is often focused on figuring out how such systems work. Good examples are human biology and large cities.

COMPLEX ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS

The nature of human and social phenomena within complex systems is a central consideration. Systems where such phenomena play substantial roles are often considered to belong to a class of systems termed complex adaptive systems. This class of systems includes healthcare delivery (Rouse, 2000, 2008), urban systems (Rouse, 2015), and, as discussed in the following text, universities

Complex adaptive systems have the following characteristics:

They tend to be

nonlinear, dynamic

and do not inherently reach fixed equilibrium points. The resulting system behaviors may appear to be random or chaotic

They are composed of

independent agents

whose behaviors can be described as based on physical, psychological, or social rules rather than being completely dictated by the physical dynamics of the system

Agents’ needs or desires, reflected in their rules, are not homogeneous and, therefore, their

goals and behaviors are likely to differ or even conflict

—these conflicts or competitions tend to lead agents to adapt to each other’s behaviors

Agents are

intelligent and learn

as they experiment and gain experience, perhaps via “meta” rules, and consequently change behaviors. Thus, overall system properties inherently change over time

Adaptation and learning tend to result in

self-organization

and patterns of behavior that emerge rather than having been designed into the system. The nature of such emergent behaviors may range from valuable innovations to unfortunate accidents

There is

no single point(s) of control

—system behaviors are often unpredictable and uncontrollable, and no one is “in charge.” Consequently, the behaviors of complex adaptive systems usually can be influenced more than they can be controlled

As summarized in Table 1.1, understanding and influencing systems having these characteristics creates significant complications. In general, leaders, who have more influence than power, replace managers. These leaders craft incentives and inhibitions to influence behaviors—they cannot employ command and control. The goal is to influence outcomes because activities cannot be controlled and are often unobservable.

TABLE 1.1 Implications of Complex Adaptive Systems

Traditional System

Complex Adaptive System

Roles

Management

Leadership

Methods

Command and control

Incentives and inhibitions

Measurement

Activities

Outcomes

Focus

Efficiency

Agility

Relationships

Contractual

Personal commitments

Network

Hierarchy

Heterarchy

Design

Organizational design

Self-organization

The focus is on organizational agility rather than efficiency. Highly efficient systems are usually very rigid and cannot effectively respond to changing incentives and inhibitions. Personal commitments from independent agents underlie relationships rather than contractual obligations due to the agents’ independence. Heterarchical networks among agents provide the dominant social mechanism despite the typical existence of a nominal hierarchy.

Hierarchical organizations are usually designed in terms of roles, reporting structures, etc. Heterarchical systems are much more likely to self-organize. This is particularly true for organizations of professionals who also have strong affiliations with professional associations. A good example is physicians, whose professional affiliations have strongly driven the evolution of the healthcare system (Rouse & Cortese, 2010).

The characteristics summarized in Table 1.1 have significant impacts on how such organizational systems address fundamental change or transformation. The leaders cannot simply command change. Instead, change has to emerge organically in terms of agents’ responses to new incentives and inhibitions. Transformation will emerge from agents’ collective self-organization.

A useful construct in this regard is the notion of “tipping points,” popularized by Gladwell (2000). Within the context of organizational transformation, the idea is that a small change can propagate and gain momentum across the heterarchical organizational network and lead to bottom-up discussions and desires for fundamental change. In other words, top-down “push” for change is replaced by bottom-up “pull” for change.

In healthcare, for example, there is a pending change from fee for service to payment for health outcomes (Rouse & Serban, 2014). While this is far from fully implemented, it has caused healthcare provider organizations to study carefully how they will need to adapt to such a fundamental change. More specifically, it has caused serious study of what does and does not affect health outcomes.

One approach to understanding possible tipping points involves mathematical and computational modeling of the enterprise (Rouse, 2015). These models can be useful in the exploration of leading indicators of the different tipping points and in assessing potential ways to accelerate desirable outcomes as well as mitigations for undesirable outcomes. Such models can be embodied in interactive visualizations called “policy flight simulators” that enable stakeholders to computationally experiment with alternative futures (Rouse, 2014).

UNIVERSITIES AS COMPLEX ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS

The construct of complex adaptive systems can help to understand and enable fundamental change both within and across universities. As a first step in this direction, it is useful to discuss how the organizational phenomena discussed earlier are manifested in university environments.

Nonlinear, Dynamic Behavior

Linear behavior means a system responds proportionately to stimuli. Nonlinear behavior means disproportionate responses. University communities typically underrespond in the sense that, for the most part, they ignore stimuli. Faculty members tend to be oblivious to most things external to their specialty. Occasionally, they overrespond, for instance, to offhand comments by the administration that can be interpreted as being less than fully committed to some faculty initiative. A typical result is a barrage of emails from all corners of the community.

Independent Agents

Faculty members embrace academic freedom in a broad sense. This includes freedom in what they research and how they research it. Some faculty members simply go in their office, close the door, and immerse themselves in their scholarly pursuits. More broadly, faculty members feel free to openly oppose organizational endeavors. I have experienced many instances of faculty members investing significant energy to undermine initiatives of senior administrators. Occasionally cabals of faculty members emerge to support or oppose a cause.

Goals and Behaviors That Differ or Conflict

Faculty disagreements are common and occasionally heated. Disrespect across disciplines is a good example. A portion of the faculty will assert that the only fundamental research is that which involves axioms and theorems. A different portion of the faculty will assert that theory and experimentation are the essence of science. If these two groups are in the same academic department, there can be much conflict, for example, about requirements for the Ph.D. degree. I have occasionally defused such conflicts, at least temporarily, by noting that we not only need Newtons and Einsteins; we also need Darwins.

Intelligent and Learning Agents

Most faculty members were good students. They were bright, did their homework, and got top grades. Thus, they are intellectually intelligent, although not always emotionally intelligent. They learn how their university system works and they learn how to work the system to achieve their desired ends. Of course, as indicated earlier, there is seldom universal agreement on the ends. The result is a lot of smart, usually well-intended, people working at odds with each other. University administrators call this situation “herding cats.” It often results in creative but hopefully not destructive chaos and substantially impedes progress.

Self-Organization

There are two types of organization of interest. As shown in Figure 1.1, there are colleges, schools, and departments that invest in processes to support practices. There are also self-organized interest groups within and sometimes across departments. In addition, as depicted in Figure 1.2, there are discipline-specific organizations across universities that, as discussed earlier, define research agendas and vet sources of funding and publication outlets. These groups self-organize independent of the hierarchies of the universities shown in Figure 1.1.

No Single Point(s) of Control

The president and board of trustees (or board of regents) are nominally in control of a university. They approve hiring, promoting, and tenuring of faculty members. They are the authority that grants degrees. They decide about operating and capital budgets. However, they have little control over the daily activities of the many independent agents in the university community. In this sense, the president has much more influence than power. If, for instance, a subset of the faculty disagrees with the president’s vision for the university, they can drag their heels and wait until he or she leaves office.

Implications

Referring to Table 1.1, universities are better led than managed. The leadership needs to articulate and gain support for a vision of the university’s future. They also need to create and sustain a set of incentives and inhibitions that motivate the independent agents to personally commit to pursuit of the vision. There need to be agreed-upon outcomes that successful pursuit of the vision will yield.

The organization needs to be sufficiently agile to pursue the vision and create the desired outcomes. Both the hierarchy and heterarchy need to be agile in the sense of having the orientation and resources needed to make the changes necessary to successfully pursue the vision. To some extent, the requisite agility can be designed into the organization. However, inclinations to self-organize can yield creative and highly effective modifications to any initial design.

OVERVIEW OF CHAPTERS

Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview

This chapter begins by providing a characterization of the overall architecture of a university enterprise and its relationship to other university enterprises. These diagrams provide a framework for discussing the overall approach of this book as contrasted with the enormous body of literature on higher education. The nature of complex enterprises is then considered, with emphasis on complex adaptive systems. The specific attributes of universities that reflect the characteristics of complex adaptive systems are elaborated. Finally, an overview of the book is provided.

Chapter 2: Evolution of the Research University

This chapter begins in Europe where universities as independent institutions first emerged almost 1000 years ago, followed by consideration of early universities in America. In the early nineteenth century, Wilhelm von Humboldt transformed German higher education by integrating teaching and research. This leads to discussion of the Morrill Land-Grant Acts in the United States that provided resources that enabled adoption of a version of the Humboldt model, with less hierarchy and more participation.

The central role of World War II in advancing science and engineering is next discussed. The war also prompted the recognition that engineering education needed stronger roots in science and mathematics. Pursuit of engineering science led to great advances but also sometimes led to overemphasis on mathematics and intense specialization. These tendencies have served as both strengths and weaknesses. The many challenges faced by today’s research universities are discussed—they stem in part from these forces.

Chapter 3: Mission and Structure

This chapter begins by reviewing several university mission statements. They typically have much in common with regard to education, research, and service. A substantial problem in recent decades has been mission creep, whereby universities attempt to provide value in varying ways to different constituencies. This inevitably leads to greater costs, which are mostly recouped via tuition increases despite the fact that many of the new activities do not directly benefit those paying tuition.

This chapter next addresses the multilevel structure of universities. Education, research, and service practices occur in the context of processes that provide capabilities that enable practices. These capabilities are created via investments by departments, schools, colleges, and campuses. These investments are motivated by the “rules of the game” created and sustained by the overall ecosystem.

Finally, this chapter discusses how the traditional structure of universities does not align well with the mission and needs of interdisciplinary research centers. There are inherent conflicts between traditional discipline-oriented departments, schools, and colleges and the crosscutting nature of interdisciplinary research centers. This poses challenges for faculty members who are attracted to larger problems but also want to be successful in securing tenure and promotions.

Chapter 4: Leadership and Governance

This chapter considers the role of leadership as enterprises seek to change, including the importance of how leaders spend their time. The negative impacts of stewards of the status quo are elaborated. Experiences of leading research centers are considered. Examples of good and bad leadership are discussed.

Governance is considered in terms of governing boards, administration and faculty, and other players. Numerous vignettes of governance are discussed. Decision making in universities clearly exhibits the characteristics of complex adaptive systems. Many independent agents influence the process and much time is typically consumed getting to a decision.

Chapter 5: Administration

This chapter addresses the nature of administration in terms of managing and sustaining a university. The corporatization of academia has resulted in enormous growth of the number of administrators and administrative staff and costs of these personnel. A relatively simple model is proposed for projecting these costs.

This chapter also considers several core administrative functions, including performance evaluation, conflict management, compliance and abuse, and marketing and communications. The costs of conforming to various administrative practices are discussed.

Chapter 6: Money and Space

This chapter addresses the economics of higher education, including the value of education, the impacts of government subsidies, and the possibilities of a higher education bubble. The costs of higher education are discussed in terms of cost analyses, indirect costs, staffing patterns, and student and institutional debt. Consideration of revenue sources includes discussion of tuition, government dependencies, and philanthropic fundraising. An overall economic model of a university is presented. Finally, the challenging issue of space is addressed.

Chapter 7: Promotion and Tenure

This chapter addresses the nature and process of promoting and tenuring university faculty members. The nature and roles of faculty are discussed in terms of academic disciplines, faculty impact, tenure-track versus nontenure-track positions, availability of positions, and faculty turnover. The nature of tenure decisions is explored. I relate my experiences serving on several promotion and tenure committees. Finally, a model of tenure decision making is introduced that is integrated into an overall model in Chapter 12.

Chapter 8: Education Programs

This chapter addresses the current and future student populations that higher education will serve. Both science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) challenges and evolving student inclinations and preferences are discussed. Challenges to higher education’s value proposition are reviewed. Types of degree programs and the design and delivery of curricula and courses are considered, including alternative approaches to delivery. I relate a variety of my teaching experiences. Finally, a workforce model is introduced and a range of staffing trade-offs is discussed.

Chapter 9: Research and Intellectual Property

This chapter addresses the challenges of research in terms of the role of peer review of publications and proposals, bibliometrics associated with citations, and difficulties securing funding. A variety of research experiences are related. A model of research is presented that predicts probabilities of articles being accepted, expected citations after publication, and probabilities of research proposals being funded. This model is a central element of the integrated model discussed in Chapter 12.

The last major section of this chapter addresses intellectual property, which is often one of the outcomes of research. In some cases, this takes the form of patents, but more often it is embodied in the know-how of the researchers. Either form of intellectual property may result in spin-off businesses that create jobs, revenue, profit, and perhaps public stock offerings. I relate several of my experiences in launching and growing spin-offs.

Chapter 10: Rankings and Brand Value

This chapter addresses several ranking schemes that emphasize different attributes of a university. Georgia Tech is used as an example to illustrate the types of initiatives needed to improve rankings. Statistical analyses of rankings of one program—industrial/manufacturing/systems engineering—are reported. The best predictors of a program’s ranking are last year’s ranking plus the number of faculty.

The brand value of a university is discussed as a proxy for rankings. An index of brand value is presented that is a weighted sum of number of articles published, number of citations received, and h-index, totaled across all faculty members of an institution. An example is used to illustrate the nuances of the brand value index as affected by research sponsors and publication outlets chosen by faculty members.

Chapter 11: Transformation Scenarios

In this chapter, forces for change are discussed in terms of costs and benefits, globalization, and technology. Organizational change in higher education is then addressed, including concepts and principles drawn from domains other than higher education. Four alternative scenarios for the future of higher education are next elaborated. These scenarios provide the basis for considering transformation of academia. The chapter concludes with a discussion of historical perspectives on how change happens. This sets the stage for exploring the future.

Chapter 12: Exploring the Future

This chapter brings together all the pieces of the puzzle elaborated in this book. The elements of the education and research enterprise are integrated to enable projecting the likely consequences of several rather disparate scenarios of the future of the academic enterprise. We cannot predict what mix of these scenarios will actually emerge. However, we can argue that universities need strategies and investments that enable robust responses to whatever mix emerges.

Fundamental change is in the offing. Higher education cannot remain the poster child for runaway costs. We need a healthy, educated, and productive population that is competitive in the global marketplace. If the population is not educated, it will not be healthy. If the population is not productive, it will not be competitive. The pieces all fit together. We have to make it happen.

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Abelard to Apple: The Fate of American Colleges and Universities

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Gladwell, M. (2000).

The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference

. Boston, MA: Little Brown.

Lombardi, J.V. (2013).

How Universities Work

. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Poli, R. (2013). A note on the difference between complicated and complex social systems.

Cadmus

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2EVOLUTION OF THE RESEARCH UNIVERSITY

This book is about how academia works, why it works these ways, and where the university enterprise is headed. To address these questions in meaningful ways, we must start with a firm understanding of the evolution of research universities. This chapter is intended to provide this understanding.

We begin where universities as independent institutions first emerged—in Europe almost 1000 years ago. These institutions focused on teaching, not research. However, their legacy of organizational structure and governance models has strongly impacted the ways contemporary universities organize and operate.

We next consider early universities in America. For a bit less than the first half of the four centuries of universities in America, teaching was also the focus. People were classically educated to serve in the clergy and government. Science and engineering were not yet seen as central to universities.

This all changed when Wilhelm von Humboldt transformed German education. He integrated teaching and research while insisting that both be based on unbiased knowledge and analysis. The Morrill Acts in the United States provided resources that prompted adoption of a version of the Humboldt model, with less hierarchy and more participation. For the last 150 years, research universities in the United States built on this model have prospered.

World War II played a central role in advancing science and engineering. Vannevar Bush was visionary in how he saw that academia and government should interact. His vision was instrumental in the formation of the National Science Foundation (NSF). The war also prompted the recognition that engineering education needed stronger roots in science and mathematics.