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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Water Resources Management A thorough and authoritative handbook to the foundations of water resources management In Water Resources Management: Principles, Methods, and Tools, distinguished engineer Dr. Neil S. Grigg delivers a comprehensive guide to the water resources industry, the technical methods and tools that professionals in that industry use, and the concepts and issues that animate the discipline. The author also provides expansive case studies that highlight real-world applications of the ideas discussed within. The book offers practical content, including discussion questions, practice problems, and project examples, while presenting a cross-disciplinary perspective ideal for those studying to be civil or environmental engineers, urban planners, environmental scientists, or professionals in other disciplines. Water Resources Management covers the foundational knowledge required by professionals working in the field alongside practical content that connects readers with how the discipline functions in the real world. It also includes: * A thorough introduction to the framework of the water industry, including discussions of water resources and services for people and the environment * In-depth explorations of technical methods and tools, including hydrology as the science of water accounting * Fulsome discussions of water resources management concepts and issues, including models and data analytics to support decision-making * Expansive treatments of water-related failures, accidents, and malevolent activity Perfect for civil and environmental engineering students studying water resources planning and management, Water Resources Management: Principles, Methods, and Tools will also earn a place in the libraries of practicing engineers, government officials, and consultants working in water management and policy.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of figures
Preface
1 Water Resources Management
Water Resources Management: A Vital and Interdisciplinary Discipline
Defining Water Resources Management
Applications of Water Resources Management
Purposes of Water Resources Management
Questions
2 History of Water Resources Management
Introduction
Water Use Sectors
Dams
Groundwater
Public Health Engineering
Water Quality and Environmental Protection
Flood Control
Government Involvement in Water Resources Management
Water Law
Management Structure in the Water Industry
Science, Engineering, and Technology
Business of Water
Questions
3 Water Infrastructure and Systems
Introduction
Water Infrastructure Overview
Dams, Reservoirs, and Hydropower Systems
Urban Water Systems
Water Supply Infrastructure Systems
Wastewater Systems
Stormwater
Irrigation and Drainage
River and Coastal Works
Canals and Pipelines for Water Conveyance
Natural Water Infrastructure
Small Water Infrastructures
Broad Issues of Water Infrastructure
Questions
Problems
4 Demands for Water and Water Infrastructure
Introduction
Demands and Requirements
Water Demands by Sector
Water Use Data
United States Water Balance
Categories of Water Use
Irrigation
Industrial and Thermoelectric Water Uses
Wastewater Management
Stormwater Management
Flood Control
Environmental Water and Instream Flows
Questions
Problems
5 Hydrologic Principles for Water Management
Hydrology and Water Management
Physical Hydrology and the Water Cycle
Hydrometeorology and Climate
Surface Water Hydrology
Low Flow Hydrology
Water Quality Hydrology
Aquifers and Ground Water Systems
Ecohydrology
Reference
Questions
Problems
6 Water Balances as Tools for Management
Introduction
Concept of the Water Balance
Water Balances in Watersheds and River Basins
Water Budgets for the World, Nations, States, and Cities
Water Accounting in a Small Watershed and with a Reservoir
Irrigation Water Balances
Urban Water Balances
Water Footprint and Embedded Water
References
Questions
Problems
7 Flood Studies: Hydrology, Hydraulics, and Damages
Flood Hazards and Water Management
Hydrologic Causes of Floods
Flood Frequency Analysis
Computation of Storm and Flood Runoff
Hydrographs
Flood Hydraulics and Conveyance
Reservoir Storage‐Routing
Flood Forecasting
Flood Mapping
Flood Damages
Dam Breaks
Environmental Benefits of Floods
References
Questions
Problems
8 Water Quality, Public Health, and Environmental Integrity
Introduction
Water–Health–Environment Nexus
Drivers of Pollution and Threats to Public Health and Ecosystems
Measuring Water Quality
Public Health Impacts of Water Contamination
Global Problem of Safe and Reliable Water
Environmental Integrity
References
Questions
9 Models and Data for Decision Making
Introduction
Model Uses for Water Resources Management
Structure and Functionality of Models
Data Types and Sources
Types of Simulation Models
Example of a Hydrologic Simulation Model
Planning Models and Decision Support Systems
Questions
10 Operations, Maintenance, and Asset Management
Introduction
Organization for O&M and Asset Management
Operations Management
Smart Water Systems
Maintenance Management
Asset Management
Software for Maintenance and Asset Management
Applications to Water Systems
Questions
11 Water Governance and Institutions
Introduction
How Water Governance Works
Water Governance and Management Compared
Scale Factors in Water Governance
Shared Governance
Conclusions about Water Governance
Reference
Questions
12 Water Management Organizations
Introduction
Framework of the Water Industry
Federal and State Water Agencies
Basin and Regional Water Organizations and Authorities
Water Service Providers
Regulators
Support Organizations
Integration Among Water Organizations
Reference
Questions
13 Planning Principles, Tools, and Applications
Introduction
Chronology
Principles and Concepts
Scenarios
Tools for Successful Planning
Questions
14 Planning for Water Infrastructure
Introduction
Planning across the Infrastructure Lifecycle
Infrastructure Planning Process
Project Development Guidelines
Planning Phases from Conceptual to Final Plans
Example: Large Scale Dams and River Works
Urban Water Systems
Questions
15 Water Quality Planning and Management
Introduction
Status of Water Quality
Science and Management of Water Quality
Management Functions
Comprehensive Water Quality Management Program
Water Quality Assessment
Technologies to Enhance Water Quality
Lessons Learned from Experience with the CWA
Questions
16 Planning for Sociopolitical Goals
Introduction
Defining the Arena
Water Management and Social Welfare
Principles and Guidelines
Meeting Social Needs Through Water Management
How Can Water Managers Address Sociopolitical Goals?
Questions
17 Environmental Planning and Assessment
Introduction
Environmental Indicators and Biological Diversity
Global Level Focus on Biodiversity
NEPA Background and Process
Guidelines for Environmental Assessment
Tools for Environmental Assessment
Questions
18 Economics of Water Resources Management
Introduction
Economic Concepts Applied to Water Resources Management
Public and Private Economic Goods
Economic Assessment
Multiple Objectives for Water Infrastructure Investments
Economic Assessment Considering the Time Value of Money
Benefit–Cost Analysis
Questions
Problems
19 Financing Water Systems and Programs
Introduction
Financial Framework for Water Management
Plans and Budgets
Model of Utility Finance
Rate‐Setting
Connection Charges for System Expansion
Debt Financing
Financial Assistance Programs for Utilities
Accounting and Financial Analysis
Financing Water Systems, Services, and Projects
Private Water Companies
Affordability of Water Services for Individuals and Communities
Questions
Problems
20 Water Laws, Conflicts, Litigation, and Regulation
Introduction
Legal Concepts
Regulatory and Administrative Law
Types of Water‐Related Law
Law and Water Management
Water Allocation Law
Health and Environmental Law
Instream Flow Laws
Transboundary Water Law
Justice System and Water Litigation
Questions
Problems
21 Flooding, Stormwater, and Dam Safety: Risks and Laws
Introduction
Flood Threat Causes and Effects
Flood‐Related Law
Stormwater
Dam Safety
Questions
22 Water Security: Natural and Human‐Caused Hazards
Introduction
Water Security as a Concept
Threats and Impacts by Category
Drought and Climate Shifts
Risk Management and Disaster Preparedness
Terminology of Risk Management
Vulnerability Assessment
Mitigating Risk
Questions
23 Integrated Water Resources Management
Introduction
How IWRM Works
Situations Requiring IWRM
Case Studies of IWRM in Action
Chesapeake Bay
Pecos River Compact
Virginia Beach Pipeline
Missouri River Master Manual
Chancay–Lambayeque Watershed in Peru
Red Fox Meadows Stormwater Project
Green Mountain Reservoir
Analysis and Discussion
References
Questions
24 Careers in Water Resources Management
Introduction
Water Industry Employers
Water Industry Work
Water Industry Jobs
Career Paths in the Water Industry
Appendix A: Appendix AUnits, Conversion Factors, and Water Properties
Introduction
Water Management Units in English and SI Systems
Abbreviations
Conversion Factors
Basic Water Properties
Appendix B: Appendix BAcronyms and Abbreviations
Appendix C: Appendix CAssociations, Federal Agencies, and Other Stakeholders of the Water Industry
Associations and Interest Groups
Federal Agencies with Roles in Water Management
Other Stakeholder Groups
Appendix D: Appendix DWater Journals
Appendix E: Appendix EGlossary of Water Management Terms
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Purposes of water resources management.
Table 1.2 Common scenarios of water resources management.
Table 1.3 Management variables of water resources management.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Estimated water use in the United States (MGD).
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Classification of watersheds and river basins.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 SDG goals.
Table 8.2 Water pathways, exposure mechanisms, and diseases.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Publicly available models used in water resources management.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Sample layout of a TBL report.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Management and control functions in water systems.
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Human needs for water.
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Example of MCDA with weighting factors.
Chapter 23
Table 23.1 Comparison of IWRM case studies.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Water resources management steps.
Figure 1.2 DPSIR depiction of a drought scenario.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Water infrastructure systems.
Figure 3.2 Dam configuration.
Figure 3.3 A simple reservoir guide curve.
Figure 3.4 Dam cross section with hydropower generation.
Figure 3.5 Urban water system.
Figure 3.6 Stormwater system.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Demands for water management along a regulated stream.
Figure 4.2 Distribution of water withdrawals and consumption in the United S...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Hydrologic processes.
Figure 5.2 A hydrologic time series showing weekly averaging.
Figure 5.3 Types of aquifers.
Figure 5.4 Rain gages in a triangular region.
Figure 5.5 Channel cross section and profile.
Figure 5.6 Pumping well by a stream.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Inputs and outputs for a water balance.
Figure 6.2 Water balance along a reservoir‐stream system.
Figure 6.3 A farm irrigation layout.
Figure 6.4 Water balance used to study losses in a distribution system.
Figure 6.5 Sequence of water rights on a stream.
Figure 6.6 Stream‐reservoir system.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Flood hydrograph parameters.
Figure 7.2 Triangular hydrograph.
Figure 7.3 Channel floodway.
Figure 7.4 Hydrographs of flood routing through a reservoir.
Figure 7.5 Inflows and outflows from a stormwater detention pond.
Figure 7.6 Inflow and outflow of detention pond.
Figure 7.7 Typical depth–damage curve for single family residential structur...
Figure 7.8 Converging watersheds.
Figure 7.9 Flood hydrograph for conversion to unit hydrograph.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 SDG goals linked to One Health framework.
Figure 8.2 Water‐related pathways to contamination and disease.
Figure 8.3 Community water supply showing access to sources.
Figure 8.4 Threats to water supply and pathways to consumers.
Figure 8.5 Definitions relating to water resources assessment.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Models for analysis and to comprise a decision support system.
Figure 9.2 Block diagram of a typical hydrologic model.
Figure 9.3 Information and knowledge hierarchy.
Figure 9.4 DSS acting as a digital twin.
Figure 9.5 Reservoir performance for (a) 50 TAF and (b) 150 TAF.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Maintenance and renewal in the facility lifecycle.
Figure 10.2 A basic water department organization.
Figure 10.3 SCADA operating environment.
Figure 10.4 Systems control and information interfaces in a smart water syst...
Figure 10.5 Data‐centered management of physical assets.
Figure 10.6 A basic five‐step asset management process
Figure 10.7 Data and information elements in asset management.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Institutional arrangements for water management.
Figure 11.2 Scopes of water governance and water management.
Figure 11.3 Complexity as a function of water management scale.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Map of water sector players.
Figure 12.2 Management functions of water sector players.
Figure 12.3 Coordination of federal agency roles in water management.
Figure 12.4 River basins of the United States with USACE and USBR areas show...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 General process of water resources planning.
Figure 13.2 Feedbacks and iterations in water planning process.
Figure 13.3 Levels and types of water resources planning.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Infrastructure life cycle.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 DPSIR depiction of water quality changes and responses.
Figure 15.2 Water management influences on water quality.
Figure 15.3 Human and natural determinants of water quality.
Figure 15.4 How the Water Quality Act works.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Hierarchy of needs for water.
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Scope of water resources economics.
Figure 18.2 Classification of public goods related to water.
Figure 18.3 Methods and tools of water resources economics.
Figure 18.4 Cash flow diagram showing annual payments equivalent to present ...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 A water utility financial model.
Figure 19.2 Water use rate structures.
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 How laws affect water management.
Figure 20.2 Surface water rights allocation in a watershed.
Figure 20.3 How the SDWA works.
Figure 20.4 Drainage in pre‐ and post‐development situations.
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 Different types of flooding and flood risk.
Figure 21.2 A DPSIR of flood risk.
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 Buildup of water risks.
Figure 22.2 Risk management in a water organization.
Chapter 23
Figure 23.1 Water resources management process with descriptions.
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of figures
Preface
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Appendix A Units, Conversion Factors, and Water Properties
Appendix B Acronyms and Abbreviations
Appendix C Associations, Federal Agencies, and Other Stakeholders of the Water Industry
Appendix D Water Journals
Appendix E Glossary of Water Management Terms
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Water Resources Management: Principles, Methods, and Tools
Neil Grigg
Copyright © 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.Published simultaneously in Canada.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per‐copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750‐8400, fax (978) 750‐4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748‐6011, fax (201) 748‐6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.
Trademarks: Wiley and the Wiley logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/or its affiliates in the United States and other countries and may not be used without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data applied forHardback ISBN: 9781119885962
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © zombiu26/Shutterstock
List of figures
1.1 Water resources management steps.
1.2 DPSIR depiction of a drought scenario.
3.1 Water infrastructure systems.
3.2 Dam configuration.
3.3 A simple reservoir guide curve.
3.4 Dam cross section with hydropower generation.
3.5 Urban water system.
3.6 Stormwater system.
4.1 Demands for water management along a regulated stream.
4.2 Distribution of water withdrawals and consumption in the United States.
5.1 Hydrologic processes.
5.2 A hydrologic time series showing weekly averaging.
5.3 Types of aquifers.
5.4 Rain gages in a triangular region.
5.5 Channel cross section and profile.
5.6 Pumping well by a stream.
6.1 Inputs and outputs for a water balance.
6.2 Water balance along a reservoir‐stream system.
6.3 A farm irrigation layout.
6.4 Water balance used to study losses in a distribution system.
6.5 Sequence of water rights on a stream.
6.6 Stream‐reservoir system.
7.1 Flood hydrograph parameters.
7.2 Triangular hydrograph.
7.3 Channel floodway.
7.4 Hydrographs of flood routing through a reservoir.
7.5 Inflows and outflows from a stormwater detention pond.
7.6 Inflow and outflow of detention pond.
7.7 Typical depth–damage curve for single family residential structure.
7.8 Converging watersheds.
7.9 Flood hydrograph for conversion to unit hydrograph.
8.1 SDG goals linked to One Health framework.
8.2 Water‐related pathways to contamination and disease.
8.3 Community water supply showing access to sources.
8.4 Threats to water supply and pathways to consumers.
8.5 Definitions relating to water resources assessment.
9.1 Models for analysis and to comprise a decision support system.
9.2 Block diagram of a typical hydrologic model.
9.3 Information and knowledge hierarchy.
9.4 DSS acting as a digital twin.
9.5 Reservoir performance for (a) 50 TAF and (b) 150 TAF.
10.1 Maintenance and renewal in the facility lifecycle.
10.2 A basic water department organization.
10.3 SCADA operating environment.
10.4 Systems control and information interfaces in a smart water system.
10.5 Data‐centered management of physical assets.
10.6 A basic five‐step asset management process.
10.7 Data and information elements in asset management.
11.1 Institutional arrangements for water management.
11.2 Scopes of water governance and water management.
11.3 Complexity as a function of water management scale.
12.1 Map of water sector players.
12.2 Management functions of water sector players.
12.3 Coordination of federal agency roles in water management.
12.4 River basins of the United States with USACE and USBR areas shown.
13.1 General process of water resources planning.
13.2 Feedbacks and iterations in water planning process.
13.3 Levels and types of water resources planning.
14.1 Infrastructure life cycle.
15.1 DPSIR depiction of water quality changes and responses.
15.2 Water management influences on water quality.
15.3 Human and natural determinants of water quality.
15.4 How the Water Quality Act works.
16.1 Hierarchy of needs for water.
18.1 Scope of water resources economics.
18.2 Classification of public goods related to water.
18.3 Methods and tools of water resources economics.
18.4 Cash flow diagram showing annual payments equivalent to present value.
19.1 A water utility financial model.
19.2 Water use rate structures.
20.1 How laws affect water management.
20.2 Surface water rights allocation in a watershed.
20.3 How the SDWA works.
20.4 Drainage in pre‐ and post‐development situations.
21.1 Different types of flooding and flood risk.
21.2 A DPSIR of flood risk.
22.1 Buildup of water risks.
22.2 Risk management in a water organization.
23.1 Water resources management process with descriptions.
Preface
Water resources management is a field of work where you can “do well while doing good.” You can work on problems like water shortages, pollution, and flooding, and you can have an interesting, satisfying, and remunerative career. This work still excites me after more than 50 years, and this is an attempt to share what I’ve learned. The book is for students, professionals, and policy leaders involved with water in public agencies, consulting firms, law firms, and public interest groups.
Water problems require you to stretch your imagination beyond a narrow disciplinary focus. They are complex, but the starting point is at the practical level where water resources managers work. This requires application of solid principles and methods, along with awareness of real‐world situations.
Today, you can find practically any information you might need on the Internet, but you must know what to look for and how to apply it. Usually, this involves searching with key words and phrases, rather than to hunt for references which change continuously. In that sense, the chapters list some key references, which are usually government sites that are not expected to change, but it does not include long lists of sources like in a research article. Not every statistic is referenced, but they all have definite sources. By the same token, many free technical resources are available on the Internet. Their addresses may change so they are usually not listed, but you can normally find the current sites with searches.
In teaching water resources management for several decades, it has been my experience that awareness of facts is important, but the way that students should demonstrate understanding is in answers to questions and solutions to problems. This leads to a dual approach to teaching water resources management, one part about facts and principles and the other with questions, problems, and case studies. This led to the design of the book with explanatory material and comprehensive sets of definitions, questions, and problem‐solving methods. These apply across disciplines, and the book also includes a set of quantitative problems that are distributed among the chapters. Most questions and problems are simple because the intent is to illustrate basic concepts and computations for water resources management and not to explain details of water resources engineering or scientific hydrology. Not every question is answered in the text, but assignments to look up answers can be given. Sometimes this might involve research, and the question provides an entry portal to explore the concept.
The questions, problems, and case studies comprise academic material, and they are grounded in real world situations where I have personal experience. These include consulting, conflict management, policy development, and management of public water management agencies. They also include material provided by other experienced water managers and engineers.
The sequence of the book begins with an explanation of the elements and inputs to water resources management decisions and actions. This includes presentations of water demands, hydrology, and the links with environment and health. This is followed by a discussion of how water infrastructure systems are operated and managed. Then, the institutional arrangements for water management are explained, to include law, economics, and finance. These provide the underpinnings of water resources planning as a comprehensive approach to addressing problems and issues. Finally, ways to create integrative solutions to involving water, society, and nature are presented.
An appendix is provided for units and conversion factors. Both English and SI units are used on the chapters, but not all are converted because it would make for tedious reading. Also, an appendix is provided for acronyms, which are defined in the chapters as well. A glossary is provided to define the many phrases and words that are common in water resources management practice.
The book is dedicated to Victor Koelzer, who was an accomplished engineer and water resources planner. Vic created the graduate course in water resources planning and management at Colorado State University and mentored me to take it over. Now, more than 500 students have completed my course, and many have gone on to very successful careers. Vic focused on infrastructure planning, and the course has evolved over the years to include broader topics that align with the current water management environment with many social, legal, and financial challenges.
Neil S. Grigg19 October 2022
1Water Resources Management
Water Resources Management: A Vital and Interdisciplinary Discipline
The stewardship of water is, without doubt, one of our most important responsibilities because life would simply not exist without water supplies for the environment and society. Water can also be destructive when flood waters ravage rivers and coastal zones, while at the same time shaping the Earth and renewing natural systems. These aspects of water as an essential resource and a powerful natural force create the problem space where water resources managers work.
Water resources management has the core purpose of managing water in all necessary ways to serve society and the environment. This requires water resources managers to apply scientific and management knowledge to make important decisions in the broad public interest. They address a diverse range of problems and can enter the field from different disciplinary backgrounds, such as engineering, law, hydrology, ecology, chemistry, finance, and others.
The problem space for water resources management includes situations with different types, levels, and complexities. Just as water must be shared, problems about managing it involve multiple people and must be addressed collectively. In studying water resources management, we consider problems in the abstract, like “global water problems,” and in specific situations, like “find the best way to expand our city’s water treatment plant.” So, problem identification depends on the situation involving your needs or those of another person or group. After the unmet needs are identified, then a problem statement will specify what the problem or unmet need is, who is responsible, and why it is important to solve the problem or meet the need.
Water resources management involves solution of analytical problems, synthesis of solutions, and coordinating among diverse interests. The issues are compelling, and the bar is high. They were summed up by President John F. Kennedy, who said “Anyone who solves the problem of water deserves not one Nobel Prize, but two – one for science and the other for peace.” The quote captures the challenge: water resources management involves science and requires conflict resolution to help with peace.
This chapter defines water resources management and introduces problem identification and solution approaches. It explains why water resources management is important and how it works by applying knowledge from engineering and science, as well as diverse disciplines focused on governance, planning, law, and finance, among other topics. A shared understanding of these is needed, and the book seeks to explain and illustrate this knowledge in the form of principles, tools, methods, and common situations faced by water resources managers.
Defining Water Resources Management
While there is no consensus definition of water resources management, in a broad sense it is a process to allocate and control water resources and water infrastructure to achieve economic, social, and environmental goals. Allocating water resources means to divide up wet water among competing users and to distribute its resource benefits, like hydroelectric energy or water for navigation, among stakeholders. Controlling water resources also involves infrastructure, such as dams, as well as non‐structural problem‐solving, such as through regulatory programs.
The apparent reason for lack of consensus about the definition of water resources management is that practitioners have different perspectives that depend on their responsibilities, and academics have different disciplinary perspectives. Types of responsibilities might include supplying water, regulating wastewater, or controlling floods, for example. Levels of responsibilities might range from specific tasks like turning a valve to comprehensive government policy‐setting about water. Academic perspectives include engineering, earth science, law, and economics, among others. For purposes here, water resources management is considered as a general concept that includes the full range of perspectives of both practitioners and academics. Examples are provided throughout the book to illustrate them.
With this broad range of perspectives and applications, the concept of water resources management might seem too general. However, the connectivity of water issues among many situations demands such a general approach to serve collective needs. The need to address connectivity drives a continuing search for an integrative way to apply water resources management. Several names are used for this integrative approach, especially Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), which builds on basic steps to provide tools to plan systems and solve problems. IWRM is explained in more detail in Chapter 23.
It is useful to view water resources management as occurring at three levels. The lowest or operator level involves basic operations of equipment like pumps and valves. The intermediate level extends to making decisions about water allocation, diversion, treatment, and other processes. At the highest level, it focuses more on stakeholder views, political issues, regulatory and legal constraints, and relationships with other sectors and may be called IWRM or by similar names. The three levels might be labelled water management, water resources management, and integrated water resources management, but consensus about such names is unlikely to occur.
The focus here is on a generic approach that can be adapted to any of the levels, but mainly to the intermediate and higher levels. The lower level involves more structured situations with fewer variables. Figure 1.1 shows a conceptual model of the basic steps of this generic approach of water resources management to different types of problem scenarios and actions.
In a water resources situation requiring management, some issues will require attention. Common situations recur in different contexts, such as supplying water, managing water quality, reducing flood risk, or resolving conflicts. Sometimes the problem at hand is clear, but other times it is bundled with other issues. For example, a food shortage may be exacerbated by water scarcity, which stems from poor water resources management. The managers working on the food shortage must work with water managers to address the problem jointly.
In the process, stakeholders must decide to initiate action and determine what to do. This can involve a planning phase that can take on different forms. This phase is important because it is where stakeholders work out conflicts, determine strategies, assemble resources, and develop plans of implementation. Once a course of action is determined, different interventions may be involved, like construction or modification of infrastructure, regulatory actions, operational changes, or development of policy, among other actions. These may involve different roles and stakeholders. Once a situation has been mostly resolved, a period of monitoring and assessment is used to determine if the water resources management mechanisms are successful. If not, a corrective phase will be needed, and this can involve further activities from incremental adaptive changes to litigation and conflict resolution.
Figure 1.1 Water resources management steps.
The actions shown in Figure 1.1 involve a workforce from diverse organizations with different disciplinary backgrounds and varying capacities. The organizations might include a water supply or wastewater authority, an irrigation district or company, a groundwater district, an electric power utility, a river basin authority, or regulator, for example. These involve different stakeholders and support groups, which also offer jobs in water resources management. As examples, consultants, government agencies, and utilities offer different kinds of jobs, and vendors of water management equipment also require skilled workers. Many kinds of water users, such as large farms and industries, also employ water managers.
Applications of Water Resources Management
Water resources management problems can often be understood from a picture of how the media reports them. For example, a story might focus on a drought that is allegedly caused by climate change. This situation can be depicted by use of a DPSIR diagram, which is a construct to show cause‐effect relationships in social‐ecological systems. The DPSIR displays the Drivers that affect water, the Pressures these drivers create, the resulting State of water resources, the Impacts, and the Responses from society.
As an example, Figure 1.2 depicts a basic DPSIR diagram for drought. Drivers like climate change and population growth create pressures, like depleted water storage and increased demands for irrigation water. These lead to declaration of a drought that causes crop failure, income losses, and food shortages. These urgent matters elicit responses such as mobilization of a drought response team, government relief, and new water storage projects.
Purposes of Water Resources Management
As problems like drought are confronted, solutions often have multiple purposes which show the range of applications of water resources management. Table 1.1 summarizes the most common water resources management purposes that occur. Each purpose has a name that will recur in discussions throughout the book.
As these purposes are pursued by water resources managers, a common set of scenarios or problem archetypes evolves. A way to organize these is as shown in Table 1.2.
In these scenarios, different water resources management responsibilities at the three levels mentioned earlier are evident. Combining the definition of water resources management with its purposes and scenarios leads to the set of management variables shown in Table 1.3.
Figure 1.2 DPSIR depiction of a drought scenario.
Table 1.1 Purposes of water resources management.
Water service
Purpose
Water supply
Provide water for the economy, environment, and society.
Wastewater
Collect, treat, and dispose of wastewater.
Stormwater
Provide drainage systems and stormwater quality control.
Flood control
Reduce risk and protect against flood hazards.
Irrigation
Provide water for food production (livestock and aquaculture).
Environmental water quality
Regulate diversions and discharges to manage water quality.
Instream flows (E‐flows)
Water to sustain natural ecosystems.
Hydropower
Manage instream flows for hydroelectric energy production.
Navigation
Control depth of water to support vessels on a waterway.
Recreation
Provide water in streams and lakes for recreation.
Table 1.2 Common scenarios of water resources management.
Scenario
Activities and functions
Policy development
Assess needs for programs, infrastructure, organizations, regulations, or reforms at different governance scales.
Watershed and river basin management
Align goals and plans of stakeholders with common interests in watersheds and river basins.
Infrastructure development
Plan and develop facilities by considering demands, alternatives, feasibilities, trade‐offs, and impacts.
Operations
Analyze scenarios to plan for and operate water systems.
Program development
Develop management programs for utility finance, flood warning, water conservation, and other needs.
Regulation
Plan and implement regulatory controls for water quantity, quality, and land uses such as in flood control.
Conflict management
Mitigate conflicts due to transboundary flows, interbasin transfers, watershed issues, and organizational stovepipes.
Table 1.3 Management variables of water resources management.
Variable
How it characterizes water resources management?
Purposes
Explains water systems according to their purposes.
Methods
Methods such as construction and operation of infrastructure, use management systems, and apply functions such as planning and regulation.
Stakeholders
Groups involved in or impacted by decisions, such as water users associated with sectors and geographic areas.
Authorities
Organizations with roles, responsibilities, and functions such as policy development, management, operation, and regulation.
Sectors
Water‐using groups for health, food, energy, and environment, among other uses. May be represented by authorities such as Ministry of Environment.
Scales
Alignment with watersheds, cities, counties, river basins, states, nations, and governmental units. May involve levels, as operator or director.
Stages
Steps in life‐cycle of projects and programs, as in policy, planning, organization, implementation, operations, and renewal.
Context
Settings such as low‐ or high‐income countries, varying governance effectiveness, urban or rural, growing or shrinking areas, and others.
Perspective
Perspectives differ according to incentives and impacts, such as among disciplines and roles in water management situations.
The benefit of viewing management variables this way is that the categories focus our understanding of different scenarios. Each category of variables has multiple dimensions, such as at micro‐ to macro‐level scales. With an abundance of literature and media reports about water situations, the public and even water resources managers can become confused with so many facts and degrees of freedom, especially when conflicts are involved. With the list of variables, each situation can be described to fit coherently into the universe of problems and help us to draw on the appropriate knowledge bases to test solutions.
Questions
Explain the apparent differences between the levels of water resources management as explained in the chapter.
Formulate an example of a “multipurpose” water project and list at least three purposes.
For this project, list five or more stakeholder categories and their types of water management organizations.
Select a water issue such as lack of safe water, failed pollution control, or flood damage and prepare a DPSIR model to explain it in a general sense.
List five types of water issues that occur frequently around the world and provide examples.
Formulate and describe a scenario for water policy development that might occur at the state government level in the United States.
Why is water resources management fundamentally different as the scales of application go from small to very large?
Describe the level of precision required of water data at different stages of managing a water issue.
2History of Water Resources Management
Introduction
People often express amazement at the rich history and multifaceted nature of water resources management with its different strands with technical, political, legal, and other parts. Many talented and fascinating people have contributed to its practices and lessons along the way. The technologies, infrastructures, and social institutions that emerged continue to evolve and provide useful lessons for today's water managers. While it developed in tandem with its counterparts in other sectors like energy and communications, water resources management has many connections with society that are distinct, especially with the environment and health.
People began to harness water to meet their needs early after the dawn of civilization, and water infrastructure was built as civilization advanced to create more sophisticated problem‐solving methods through social institutions based on collective actions like, for example, development of mutual irrigation companies. Technologies and management tools are still evolving to address emerging problems, but social institutions remain challenging, such as when incentives for cooperation are missing and social institutions pose the greatest challenge to water governance.
The history of water resources management is extensive, and the material presented here is selective and influenced by the experience of the writer. Despite this, the chapter can serve as an outline of main topics and the reader explore them further through Internet searches and other sources.
Water Use Sectors
Water management examples include supplies for cities, farms, energy, the environment, and other purposes. Water supply is the paramount purpose, but management of wastewater and stormwater are also very important in urban water systems. Water‐related public health depends as well on plumbing systems in buildings. Big dams were constructed, and groundwater sources exploited to add to the capacity to store and provide water supplies, and many of the dams also provide flood control services. Programs for water quality and environmental protection depend on the regulatory environment and water laws. The management structure of water utilities and government agencies evolved to embrace these many needs and the private sector supports the public sector in solving water issues.
Development of water supply systems began with primitive facilities to meet the needs of early tribes and villages. Early people often settled near water sources, while powerful nobles and royalty developed supply systems for their castles and fortresses. Ancient settlements had water supply systems, such as the water tunnel for Jerusalem or the Qanats that provided water to Persia by tapping aquifers and transmitting the water through tunnels by gravity over long distances. By its peak, Rome had developed its aqueduct system to operate by gravity and its cities had sophisticated water systems. Some, like in Pompeii, had distribution systems that resemble ours today in many ways.
In Europe, older cities like London and Paris have long histories of water supply development that mirror the growth of the urban areas. Typically, private companies developed systems based on wells, but London began to develop more extensive supply systems by the early 1600s. In Paris, early residents took water from the River Seine, and during the eighteenth century an organized water system was under development. Technologies for water supply were evolving, including small dams, tunnels, wood pipes, and cast iron pipes that date back to the 1600s using technologies developed for making cannons.
In the United States, development of urban water supply systems in East Coast cities mirrored those in Europe, although with later starting dates. The history of many of them be found with Internet searches. For example, Boston's system is generally credited as the first major water works, having evolved in the eighteenth century. Philadelphia initiated a water supply system in 1798 after a yellow fever epidemic. It had pumping facilities driven by horses. New York's water system was developed shortly after 1800 through a venture that involved a banking scheme. Then, during the nineteenth century, more cities developed water supply systems. For example, Denver's system began soon after the 1859 gold rush with major facilities being developed as early as the 1880s.
Early water supply systems were not very safe, and this continued until development of water treatment systems that stem from public health discoveries based on microbiology and epidemiology of water‐borne diseases. Water supply utilities became more sophisticated as municipal systems expanded. Also, many private water companies were organized and became important players in the water industry. For example, the corporate conglomerate American Water was created by mergers and acquisitions of private water companies. Such large private water companies operate as business conglomerates across the globe. Meanwhile, water services remain spotty among nations, and billions of people globally lack the levels of service enjoyed by people in high income countries.
Now, the focus is on developing complex water systems for sprawling cities and to extend universal safe water service to the world's population of about eight billion people. Urban systems have massive infrastructures for water storage, treatment, and distribution, but most water supply systems are outside of large cities and range from individual wells to small community systems. The levels of water safety, reliability, and affordability vary considerably, and large numbers of people remain unserved by organized water systems.
Wastewater systems developed along different trajectories than those for water supply. Prior to the 1880s, in‐house toilets could not be connected directly to sewers because odors would waft back into buildings. After development of the P‐trap seal, it became possible to locate bathrooms inside of homes and to send wastewater effluents to storm drains. By the late nineteenth century, the in‐house plumbing systems we know today had begun to emerge. When wastewater was discharged, it quickly overloaded cesspools and privy vaults. This led to development of combined sewers as a solution to carry away domestic waste as well as drainage water.
During the early part of the twentieth century, most U.S. communities discharged wastewater through their sewer collection systems to nearby streams without treatment. Beginning in the 1950s, construction of wastewater treatment plants increased, and with the 1972 Clean Water Act their development accelerated. Impetus for this Act was driven by public impatience with visible pollution in the nation's waterways and rising concern about public health. Most cities now operate their wastewater systems as utilities and their performance is regulated by state agencies.
With more interest in sustainable development, there is a trend toward integrating wastewater systems with other waste streams, mainly food, to create holistic approaches to resource management. Water reuse systems have also advanced, both to extend water supplies and to reduce pollution in receiving waters.
Stormwater systems evolved from simple drainage facilities to the sophisticated multipurpose systems of today. Until the end of World War II, cities in the United States had grown slowly from their urban cores, and there was little attention to stormwater systems other than to provide limited drainage. With rapid urban development of the 1950s, stormwater systems began to attract notice. During the 1960s, the technical field of urban hydrology began to develop and some cities developed “blue‐green” systems with open space along with closed conduits. The 1968 Flood Insurance Act introduced floodplain management to the stormwater mix. After the Clean Water Act in 1972, stormwater quality became a central issue to add to drainage and floodplain management. As a result of tax revolts, cities began to organize stormwater utilities in the 1980s. Current management of stormwater systems focuses on meeting multiple purposes including operation of combined sewer systems.
The earliest irrigation systems date back nearly 6000 years in Asia and the Middle East, such as in the Indus Valley and in Egypt along the Nile Valley. In many parts of the world, irrigation and farming have changed little in recent centuries and some ancient systems are still in operation. The older systems featured simple diversion structures, primitive devices to lift water, canals, and gravity irrigation distribution systems.
As systems developed, farmers banded together in water user and mutual associations to build ditches and shared facilities. Today, giant districts have been organized to provide irrigation water. Some of these districts also provide electric power and operate with large budgets and responsibilities. An example is the Imperial Irrigation District in California, which is the largest district in the United States and irrigates some 500 000 acres (202 000 ha) of land.
Today's systems have moved toward more automation and efficiency with “smart” irrigation systems. While gravity systems are still use, sprinklers and micro‐systems apply water more efficiently. In smart systems, microprocessors control the flow of precise quantities of irrigation water.
Water‐power has been utilized by people for thousands of years and ancient examples include water wheels to grind wheat more than 2000 years ago and water screws to lift irrigation water. Modern turbines were developed beginning in the mid‐1700s to create more possibilities for harnessing the power of water. They were combined with generators beginning in the 1880s to enable businesses to provide street lighting and streetcar operation using direct current technology. Later, development of alternating current methods enabled the transmission of energy over long distances to initiate the electric power industry. By the early 1900s, hydropower furnished more than 40% of US electric power. A well‐known example is at Niagara Falls, where power production began in 1895.
After World War I, electric power development focused on thermal plants, and hydropower declined as a percentage to less than 10% of US production now. However, hydropower is still important because it can be switched on and off quickly to provide peaking power.
The 1901 Federal Water Power Act was revised in 1930 to create the Federal Power Commission, which is now named the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission or FERC. The Tennessee Valley Authority was authorized in 1933, the same year that construction by the USBR began on Grand Coulee Dam, which has an installed capacity of 6.8 GW. In 1983, the Itaipú powerplant in Brazil and Paraguay became the largest plant in the world at 12.6 installed gigawatts. This has been supplanted now by China's Three Gorges Dam with 22.5 GW installed.
The Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act was passed in 1978 to encourage small‐scale power production. In 1986, the Electric Consumers Protection Act amended the Federal Power Act to consider energy conservation, fish, wildlife, and recreation as well as power values when evaluating license applications. FERC has licensed many hydroelectric projects with dams and impacts on waterways.
Many power installations pre‐date water regulation, and it is now harder to gain permission for hydro facilities and even to renew existing facilities may require litigation. With global warming looming over conventional fossil sources, the nation's energy future is uncertain. In any case, the interdependencies between water and energy will continue to be important drivers in water management decisions.
Inland navigation on rivers and dug canals has ancient roots, and in early civilizations, it could be easier to travel by water than over land. England had an impressive inland waterway system by the 1800s. In the United States, development of the Erie Canal was a pivotal event. Built between 1817 and 1825, the canal was successful. The Erie Canal company built the longest canal in the world, 364 miles (586 km), through largely unsettled wilderness. It had large economic impacts, both in opening trade with to the west and in making New York's harbor the most important in the nation.
The Suez Canal, developed in the 1860s as a private enterprise, was the first major constructed canal to link maritime navigation between seas. It has no locks because it connects the Mediterranean and Red Seas. It was followed by the Panama Canal, which opened in 1914. This canal was constructed under direction of the USACE and includes a lock system to lift vessels across the Isthmus of Panama. The makes the canal dependent on water management because floods and droughts can affect its water supplies.
The United States initiated its programs to manage inland navigation during the nineteenth century, with much of the emphasis on national defense as well as commerce. Today the United States has an extensive system of inland waterways, and most are maintained and operated by the USACE.
Dams
Early people understood the benefits of water storage, and began to build dams in the Middle East as early as 3000 BCE. As the Romans made advances in hydraulic engineering and dam construction technologies, they built gravity dams and the world's first arch dam in the southwest of France in the first century BCE. The Romans also built buttress dams on the Iberian Peninsula. One Roman gravity dam built about the first or second century AD still supplies water to Meriden, Spain. Asian people also developed dam engineering technologies, and by 400 BCE earth dams are built in what is Sri Lanka today. Dam construction resumed in Europe during the Middle Ages, Advances in geotechnical and structural dam engineering were made and concrete dam design technologies improved, especially for gravity dams.
The largest dams were built in the twentieth century with engineering advances like those evident in Hoover Dam on the Colorado River. It was originally named Boulder Dam and built as a public works project during the 1930s Great Depression. The gravity and arch structure is 726 feet (221 m) tall and impounds a reservoir of 28 million acre‐feet (34.5 BCM). Its record height has been exceeded by the tallest dam in the world in Switzerland, the Grande Dixence Dam at 935 feet (285 m), and by California's Oroville Dam at 770 feet (235 m).
During the twentieth century, thousands of dams were built in the United States. Major projects include high dams such as Hoover Dam and Grand Coulee Dam. The Corps of Engineers (USACE) and the Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) are major dam builders, along with private power companies and the Tennessee Valley Authority. Many small dams were also built by local governments, irrigation districts, and private parties for diverse water management purposes.
As the environmental movement dawned, resistance to dam construction increased, and it became more difficult to build them. Dam building declined after the 1960s and now dams are considered to have mixed blessings. On the one hand, they provide economic benefits, but on the other hand, the negative environmental and social effects spur opposition.
Dam safety became a more visible issue after the 1976 failure of the Grand Teton Dam, which was a USBR project in Idaho. Today, removal of dams is being considered in many places. Although it is difficult to construct new dams in the United States, many are under construction in developing nations. The future of large dams in the United States is in question. On the one hand, there is pressure to remove some of them, but on the other hand a deep drought in the West has depleted water storage and called into question the capacity of dams like Hoover and Glen Canyon on the Colorado River to meet future water needs.
Groundwater
Development of groundwater by digging or drilling wells goes back to antiquity as humans learned to exploit underground water supplies. With the development of pumping systems, people could lift water more easily, and with the advent of diesel and electric motors, the modern groundwater development era began. Modern well systems use turbine pumps and can lift large volumes of water from deep below geological strata and make groundwater use feasible to irrigate large areas. In some cases, pumping such large quantities has created problems such as land subsidence and saltwater intrusion.
Public Health Engineering
One of the most important developments in water technology was the development of public health engineering, which is closely related to fields with the names sanitary engineering and environmental engineering. Early people knew about the link between water and infectious disease, but in Europe during the Dark Ages health deteriorated, and water quality links to health were only recognized again during the 1800s when the field of microbiology emerged.
When Dr. John Snow linked an 1854 cholera outbreak to a single source of water in London, the modern era of water quality began to emerge. Treatment systems started with filtration in 1887, with disinfection by chlorination dating back to 1909. The 1912 Public Health Act included controls on drinking water quality, but it was not very enforceable. By then, waterborne infectious diseases were on the decline, but increasing chemical problems became drivers for the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) in 1974. It was amended in 1986 and 1996, and new regulations are issued periodically.
On a smaller scale, the plumbing craft evolved with the earliest pipes and fittings. The word plumbing derives from the Latin for lead, or plumbum. The earliest flush toilet has been identified from the palace of King Minos on the island of Crete, dating back to about 1700 BCE. Rome had advanced systems, but after it fell, western civilization declined during the Dark Ages. While royalty enjoyed more comfortable lives than peasants, even kings and queens died from typhoid and dysentery.
New plumbing devices were invented as civilization advanced. The earliest known flush toilet of modern times was by Sir John Harington, who installed one in a castle of Queen Elizabeth I about 1595. The earliest patent for a flush toilet was in 1775 to Alexander Cumming. Modern plumbing and public health emerged during the latter part of the nineteenth century as venting and drainage procedures helped to make indoor plumbing more acceptable. Plumbers of this era were metal workers who made their own fittings. After 1900 many advances occurred, leading to the modern industry we have today. Plumbing has continued to develop as a trade and a business. While today's tools and methods have improved from the past, plumbing still requires a lot of hard work in dark, cramped spaces.
Water Quality and Environmental Protection
Public health engineering is part of environmental engineering, which includes broader aspects of environmental management. An ecological thread has been added and today's environmental managers deal with fisheries, environmental impacts, and wildlife, was well as public health. The emergence of emphasis on environmental
