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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
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- Sprache: Englisch
3D PRINTING FOR ENERGY APPLICATIONS Explore current and future perspectives of 3D printing for the fabrication of high value-added complex devices 3D Printing for Energy Applications delivers an insightful and cutting-edge exploration of the applications of 3D printing to the fabrication of complex devices in the energy sector. The book covers aspects related to additive manufacturing of functional materials with applicability in the energy sector. It reviews both the technology of printable materials and 3D printing strategies itself, and its use in energy devices or systems. Split into three sections, the book covers the 3D printing of functional materials before delving into the 3D printing of energy devices. It closes with printing challenges in the production of complex objects. It also presents an interesting perspective on the future of 3D printing of complex devices. Readers will also benefit from the inclusion of: * A thorough introduction to 3D printing of functional materials, including metals, ceramics, and composites * An exploration of 3D printing challenges for production of complex objects, including computational design, multimaterials, tailoring AM components, and volumetric additive manufacturing * Practical discussions of 3D printing of energy devices, including batteries, supercaps, solar panels, fuel cells, turbomachinery, thermoelectrics, and CCUS Perfect for materials scientists, 3D Printing for Energy Applications will also earn a place in the libraries of graduate students in engineering, chemistry, and material sciences seeking a one-stop reference for current and future perspectives on 3D printing of high value-added complex devices.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Contributors
Introduction to 3D Printing Technologies
I.1 3D Printing Technologies
I.2 3D Printing Hierarchical, Material and Functional Complexity
I.3 3D Printing for Energy
I.4 Scope of the Book
References
Part I: 3D printing of functional materials
1 Additive Manufacturing of Functional Metals
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Powder Bed Fusion AM
1.3 Direct Material Deposition
1.4 Solid‐State Additive Manufacturing
1.5 Hybrid AM Through Green Body Sintering
1.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
2 Additive Manufacturing of Functional Ceramics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Ceramics 3D Printing Technologies
References
3 3D Printing of Functional Composites with Strain Sensing and Self‐Heating Capabilities
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Carbon Nanotube Reinforced Functional Polymer Nanocomposites
3.3 Printing Strategies
3.4 Strain Sensing of Printed Nanocomposites
3.5 Electric Heating Performance Analysis
3.6 Electrical Actuation of the CNT/SMP Nanocomposites
3.7 Conclusions
References
Part II: 3D printing challenges for production of complex objects
4 Computational Design of Complex 3D Printed Objects
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Dedicated Computational Design for 3D Printing
4.3 Case Study: Computational Design of a 3D‐Printed Flow Manifold
4.4 Current State and Future Challenges
References
5 Multicomponent and Multimaterials Printing
5.1 Multicomponent Printing: A Short Review
5.2 Multicomponent Printing: A Case Study on Piezoceramic Sensors in Smart Pipes
5.3 Summary and Outlook
Acknowledgments
References
6 Tailoring of AM Component Properties via Laser Powder Bed Fusion
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Machines, Materials, and Sample Preparation
6.3 Sample Preparation and Characterization Techniques
6.4 Material Qualification and Process Development
6.5 Tailoring Grain Size via Adaptive Processing Strategies
6.6 Tailoring Material Properties By Using Powder Blends
6.7 Tailoring Properties By Using Special Geometries Such As Lattice Structures
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
7 3D Printing Challenges and New Concepts for Production of Complex Objects
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Geometrical Complexity
7.3 Material Complexity
7.4 Energy Requirements
7.5 Promising Metal Deposition Approaches
7.6 Multimaterial and Multi‐property SLA
7.7 Temporal Multiplexing
7.8 Resin Formulations with Multiple End‐States
7.9 Associated Processing Considerations
7.10 Bioprinting of Realistic and Vascularized Tissue
7.11 Emerging Volumetric Additive Processes
7.12 Computation for CAL
7.13 Material–Process Interactions in CAL
7.14 Current Challenges in CAL
7.15 Expanding the Capabilities of CAL
7.16 Concluding Remarks and Outlook
Acknowledgments
References
Part III: 3D printing of energy devices
8 Current State of 3D Printing Technologies and Materials
8.1 3D Printing of Energy Devices
References
9 Capacitors
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Capacitors and Their Current Manufacture
9.3 The Promise of Additive Manufacturing
9.4 Additive Manufacturing Technologies: Considerations for Capacitor Fabrication
9.5 Summary and Outlook
References
10 3D‐Printing for Solar Cells
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Examples of 3D‐Printing for PV
10.3 Geometric Light Management
10.4 Conclusions
References
11 3D Printing of Fuel Cells and Electrolyzers
11.1 Introduction
11.2 3D Printing of Solid Oxide Cells Technology
11.3 3D Printing of Polymer Exchange Membranes Cells Technology
11.4 3D Printing of Bio‐Fuel Cells Technology
11.5 Conclusions and Outlook
References
12 DED for Repair and Manufacture of Turbomachinery Components
12.1 Introduction
12.2 DED Based Repair of Turbomachinery Components
12.3 DED Based Hybrid Manufacturing of New Components
12.4 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
13 Thermoelectrics
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Additive Manufacturing Techniques of Thermoelectric Materials
Acknowledgements
References
14 Carbon Capture, Usage, and Storage
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Can 3D Printing Be Used to Fabricate a CO
2
Capture Process at Scale?
14.3 A Brief Note on 3D Printing and CO
2
at Smaller Scales & Research Efforts
14.4 Conclusions
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Introduction to 3D Printing Technologies
Table I.1 Functional ceramics processed in the past with additive manufacturi...
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 An overview of recently representative work on different types of m...
Table 1.2 Overview of functional UAM applications.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Measured relative densities of the chosen set of process parameters...
Table 6.2 Nominal chemical compositions and calculated SFE of the investigate...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Summary of capacitor types showing schematics of device architectur...
Table 9.2 Functional components in different types of capacitor devices.
Table 9.3 Examples of AM technologies, split by process categories, used for ...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 List of solid oxide fuel cells reported in the literature includin...
List of Illustrations
Introduction to 3D Printing Technologies
Figure I.1 An overview of the basic components and materials used on the mos...
Figure I.2 Classification of commercially available additive manufacturing m...
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Overview of physical and digital links of an AM process chain.
Figure 1.2 Schematic overview of functional AM components.
Figure 1.3 Working schematic of the L‐PBF equipment, and functionally graded...
Figure 1.4 Schematic of powder feedstock based Direct Energy Deposition (DED...
Figure 1.5 Schematic of the UAM process. FBG's are high‐temperature optical ...
Figure 1.6 Schematic of the hybrid metal AM process chain through sintering....
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Evolution in number of research articles in materials 3D printing...
Figure 2.2 Total market forecast for ceramics additive manufacturing for the...
Figure 2.3 Additive manufacturing technologies as a function of the physical...
Figure 2.4 Schematic representation of a LOM system.
Figure 2.5 Schematic representation of extrusion‐based systems.
Figure 2.6 Schematic representation of a photopolymerization‐based 3D printi...
Figure 2.7 Schematic representation on a laser‐powder bed system.
Figure 2.8 Schematic representation of a jetting‐powder bed system.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Schematic of a typical (a) thermal jet nozzle setup (b) FDM print...
Figure 3.2 Schematic of the digital fabrication of composite strain sensors ...
Figure 3.3 Schematic of the digital fabrication of CNT/SMP nanocomposites.
Figure 3.4 (a) Optical images of CNT layers printed with 10, 20, 30, 40 cycl...
Figure 3.5 (a) Resistance change–strain relationship of composite sensors wi...
Figure 3.6 (a) Photographs of the rosette‐type strain sensor attached to tes...
Figure 3.7 (a) Left: CNT/SMP composites that have (I) rectangular, (II) hemi...
Figure 3.8 (a) Time‐dependent temperature of CS50 composites. (b) Steady‐sta...
Figure 3.9 (a) Picture of “L”‐shaped CNT/SMP composites. (b) Snapshots of sh...
Figure 3.10 Snapshots of shape recovery process and temperature distribution...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Topology optimization flowchart. FEA: Finite element analysis, MM...
Figure 4.2 Sequence of design evolution of a bracket (selected snapshots). T...
Figure 4.3 Overhang angle definition.
Figure 4.4 Various overhang angle control approaches. (a) Limits the angle o...
Figure 4.5 Overhang angle control approach based on inclusion of a simplifie...
Figure 4.6 Conceptual sketches and TO results in case of three design scenar...
Figure 4.7 Topology optimization of a pipe bend. (a) Design domain with inle...
Figure 4.8 Topology optimization of a pipe bend. (a) Initial geometry. (b) P...
Figure 4.9 Topology optimization of a pipe bend with an overhang filter. (a)...
Figure 4.10 Topology optimization of a simple manifold. (a) Design domain wi...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Schematic diagram of EBM technology.
Figure 5.2 Setup for fabrication of smart coupling using EPBF AM.
Figure 5.3 Exploded (a) and assembled (b) schematic view of the “smart coupl...
Figure 5.4 Machined alumina sensor housing used to prevent metallization of ...
Figure 5.5 Smart coupling after fabrication of the metallic structure with e...
Figure 5.6 Setup of compression–compression test of the smart coupling. An a...
Figure 5.7 Schematic of temperature variation experiment on the smart coupli...
Figure 5.8 Compression–compression cyclic testing results for three differen...
Figure 5.9 Temperature values (a) occurring at the inlet of the smart coupli...
Figure 5.10 Temperature comparison between the embedded sensor and the therm...
Figure 5.11 XRD plots for the PZT sensor embedded in the smart‐part (darker)...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Schematic overview of the correlations between the used factors t...
Figure 6.2 Deformation mechanism and SFE map of steel with 0.3 wt%C and at 2...
Figure 6.3 Heat map of the investigated process parameter combinations with ...
Figure 6.4 Color‐coded relative densities dependent on the different process...
Figure 6.5 Actual resulting strut diameter depending on the track width comp...
Figure 6.6 Block diagram showing the mean value of the grain area depending ...
Figure 6.7 (a) HV 0.1 hardness map depending on the preheating temperature (...
Figure 6.8 (a) Fracture surface of the tensile test samples are fracture of ...
Figure 6.9 (a) Photo of the BASE and BASE+1Al at 40% compression during a la...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 CAL volumetric fabrication. (a) Underlying concept: patterned ill...
Figure 7.2 Performance of CAL. (a) Beer–Lambert model of light propagation t...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Schematic illustration [4] of 3D printed interdigitated microbatt...
Figure 8.2 Schematic of battery preparation using a LiMn
0.21
Fe
0.79
PO
4
‐based ...
Figure 8.3 Schematics and SEM images of 3D‐printed hierarchical porous frame...
Figure 8.4 Schematics and SEM images of four types of 3D‐printed hierarchica...
Figure 8.5 Schematic illustration and optical images of 3D‐printed self‐supp...
Figure 8.6 Schematic and SEM images of three types of 3D‐printed LFP electro...
Figure 8.7 Schematic of the fabrication of 3D micro‐architected battery elec...
Figure 8.8 Schematic illustration and SEM images of 3D‐printed Ni/r‐GO frame...
Figure 8.9 Schematic of the 3D‐printed interdigitated LTO and LFP electrodes...
Figure 8.10 SEM images of the annealed LFP/rGO electrodes.
Figure 8.11 Optical images of a 3D‐printed interdigitated full cell battery ...
Figure 8.12 Schematic of a process to 3D‐print solid electrolyte structures....
Figure 8.13 Conceptual illustration and optical images of the 3D printing of...
Figure 8.14 Three‐dimensional printed glasses with an electronic darkening L...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Charge/discharge profiles for ideal electrostatic capacitors, pse...
Figure 9.2 Complete capacitor devices fabricated only by
additive
methods: (...
Figure 9.3 Schematic overview of capacitor configurations in 2D and next‐gen...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 (a) Schematic illustration of direct‐write assembly. (b) microgr...
Figure 10.2 Inkjet printing. (a) Schematic illustration of the inkjet printi...
Figure 10.3 The complete 14‐layer tandem stack (upper left) along with struc...
Figure 10.4 Temperatures of DSC module without and with water cooling under ...
Figure 10.5 (a) Schematic illustration of the external light trap. By concen...
Figure 10.6 (a) A 3D‐printed compound parabolic concentrator (CPC) before an...
Figure 10.7 (a)
J
–
V
characteristics of the bare solar cell (with the cage us...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 (a) Scheme of a 5‐cells SOFC stack, (b) components of a SOFC sin...
Figure 11.2 (a) Hybridization of SLA and robocasting technologies within the...
Figure 11.3 Design of a fully 3D printed stack of Cell3Ditor project. From r...
Figure 11.4 Schematics of a PEM fuel cell stack operation and components whe...
Figure 11.5 Representation of the flow fields design for PEMFC inspired by t...
Figure 11.6 A schematic of a microbial electrolysis cell (MEC) [114].
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Characteristics of DED and LPBF processes [1].
Figure 12.2 Exemplary process chains (top: repair of turbine blades, bottom:...
Figure 12.3 Process chain A: defect areas (left, [6]) must be machined (midd...
Figure 12.4 Defect areas are digitized by optical metrology (left). The resu...
Figure 12.5 In parallel the original CAD data (left) have to be prepared (mi...
Figure 12.6 With the stl file of captured data and master (left) best fit an...
Figure 12.7 Volumes to be restored are deposited by using a coaxial powder n...
Figure 12.8 Approaches of DED based hybrid AM [17].
Figure 12.9 Position of the nozzle ring inside of the turbocharger and furth...
Figure 12.10 Overview of components and additional hardware within the hybri...
Figure 12.11 Influence of laser beam diameter on geometrical accuracy.
Figure 12.12 Procedure of joining the top ring on top of the vanes.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 (a) ZT for common TE materials as a function of working temperat...
Figure 13.2
Figure 13.3 (a) Schematic illustration of fabrication of SLA 3D printed samp...
Figure 13.4 (a) Schematic illustration of fabrication of 3D printed samples....
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Flowsheet of a commercial CO
2
capture plant [4].
Figure 14.2 Photograph of concrete absorber (left) at TCM [11].
Figure 14.3 (a) Design of contactor surface [12]. (b) 3D printed sacrifi...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
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3D Printing for Energy Applications
Edited by
Albert Tarancón
Catalonia Institute for Energy Research and ICREABarcelona, Spain
and
Vincenzo Esposito
Department of Energy Conversion and StorageTechnical University of DenmarkFysikvejLyngby, Denmark
Copyright © 2021 by The American Ceramic Society. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.Published simultaneously in Canada.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per‐copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750‐8400, fax (978) 750‐4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748‐6011, fax (201) 748‐6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data:
Names: Taranco´n, Albert, editor. | Esposito, Vincenzo, editor.Title: 3D printing for energy applications / edited by Albert Tarancón and Vincenzo Esposito.Description: First edition. | Hoboken, New Jersey : Wiley‐American Ceramic Society, [2021] | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2020031685 (print) | LCCN 2020031686 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119560753 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119560760 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119560784 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Three‐dimensional printing. | Energy industries–Technological innovations.Classification: LCC TS171.95 .A165 2021 (print) | LCC TS171.95 (ebook) | DDC 621.9/88–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020031685LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020031686
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © Used with permission with IREC
This book is dedicated to the memory of our friend Juan Carlos Ruiz Morales, who was a great maker in the broad sense, and to our first creations, Emma and Elsa and Sofia and Cecilia
Contributors
Venkata Karthik NadimpalliDepartment of Mechanical Engineering,Technical University of Denmark, Kgs.Lyngby, Denmark
David Bue PedersenDepartment of Mechanical Engineering,Technical University of Denmark, Kgs.Lyngby, Denmark
José Fernando Valera-Jiménez3D‐ENERMAT, Materials for Energy & 3D Printing Lab, Renewable EnergyResearch Institute, Universidad deCastilla‐La Mancha, Albacete, Spain
Juan Ramón Marín-Rueda3D‐ENERMAT, Materials for Energy & 3D Printing Lab, Renewable EnergyResearch Institute, Universidad deCastilla‐La Mancha, Albacete, SpainAndPrint3D Solutions, Albacete, Spain
Juan Carlos Pérez-Flores3D‐ENERMAT, Materials for Energy & 3D Printing Lab, Renewable EnergyResearch Institute, Universidad deCastilla‐La Mancha, Albacete, Spain
Miguel Castro‐García3D‐ENERMAT, Materials for Energy & 3D Printing Lab,Renewable Energy Research Institute,Universidad deCastilla‐La Mancha, Albacete, Spain
Jesús Canales-Vázquez3D‐ENERMAT, Materials for Energy & 3D Printing Lab,Renewable Energy Research Institute,Universidad deCastilla‐La Mancha, Albacete, Spain
Xin WangComposite Materials and StructuresLaboratory, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering,University of Central Florida,Orlando, FL, USA
Jihua GouComposite Materials and StructuresLaboratory, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering,University of Central Florida,Orlando, FL, USA
Emiel van de VenII Optomechatronics Group,Netherlands Organisation for AppliedScientific Research TNO, Delft, TheNetherlands
Can AyasI Structural Optimization andMechanics Group, Delft University ofTechnology, Delft, The Netherlands
Matthijs LangelaarI Structural Optimization andMechanics Group, Delft University ofTechnology, Delft, The Netherlands
Cesar A. TerrazasW.M. Keck Center for 3D Innovation,The University of Texas at El Paso,El Paso, TX, USA
Yirong LinW.M. Keck Center for 3D Innovation,The University of Texas at El Paso,El Paso, TX, USA
Ryan B. WickerW.M. Keck Center for 3D Innovation,The University of Texas at El Paso,El Paso, TX, USA
Mohammad S. HossainW.M. Keck Center for 3D Innovation,The University of Texas at El Paso,El Paso, TX, USA
Simon EwaldDigital Additive Production, RWTHAachen University, Aachen, Germany
Maximilian VoshageDigital Additive Production, RWTHAachen University, Aachen, Germany
Steffen HermsenDigital Additive Production, RWTHAachen University, Aachen, Germany
Max SchaukellisDigital Additive Production, RWTHAachen University, Aachen, Germany
Patrick KöhnenSteel Institute, RWTH AachenUniversity, Aachen, Germany
Christian HaaseSteel Institute, RWTH AachenUniversity, Aachen, Germany
Johannes Henrich SchleifenbaumDigital Additive Production,RWTH Aachen University,Aachen, GermanyAndFraunhofer Institute for LaserTechnology ILT, Aachen, Germany
Hayden TaylorDepartment of MechanicalEngineering, University of California,Berkeley, CA, USA
Hossein HeidariDepartment of MechanicalEngineering, University of California,Berkeley, CA, USA
Chi Chung LiDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, University of California,Berkeley, CA, USA
Joseph ToombsDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, University of California,Berkeley, CA, USA
Sui Man LukDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, University of California,Berkeley, CA, USA
Poul NorbyDepartment of Energy Conversion and Storage, Technical University ofDenmark, Lyngby, Denmark
Lukas FieberDepartment of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Patrick S. GrantDepartment of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Marcel Di VeceInterdisciplinary Centre for Nanostructured Materials and Interfaces (CIMaINa) and PhysicsDepartment “Aldo Pontremoli”,University of Milan, Milan, Italy
Lourens van DijkSoluxa B.V., Nijmegen, The Netherlands
Ruud E.I. SchroppDepartment of Physics and Astronomy, University of the WesternCape, Belville, South Africa
A. HornésDepartment of Advanced Materials for Energy, Catalonia Institute for EnergyResearch (IREC), Barcelona, Spain
A. PesceDepartment of Advanced Materials for Energy, Catalonia Institute for EnergyResearch (IREC), Barcelona, Spain
L. Hernández-AfonsoDepartment of Chemistry, University of La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
A. Morata,Department of Advanced Materials for Energy, Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC),Barcelona, Spain
M. TorrellDepartment of Advanced Materials forEnergy, Catalonia Institute for EnergyResearch (IREC), Barcelona, Spain
Albert TarancónDepartment of Advanced Materials forEnergy, Catalonia Institute for EnergyResearch (IREC), Barcelona, SpainandCatalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA),Barcelona, Spain
S. LinnenbrinkFraunhofer Institute for LaserTechnology (ILT), Aachen, Germany
M. AlkhayatFraunhofer Institute for LaserTechnology (ILT), Aachen, Germany
N. PirchFraunhofer Institute for LaserTechnology (ILT), Aachen, Germany
A. GasserFraunhofer Institute for LaserTechnology (ILT), Aachen, GermanyandChair for Laser Technology (LLT),Aachen, Germany
H. SchleifenbaumFraunhofer Institute for LaserTechnology (ILT), Aachen, GermanyandDigital Additive Production (DAP),Aachen, Germany
Fredrick KimSchool of Materials Science and Engineering, Ulsan NationalInstitute of Science and Technology (UNIST),Ulsan, Republic of Korea
Seungjun ChooSchool of Materials Science and Engineering, Ulsan NationalInstitute of Science and Technology (UNIST),Ulsan, Republic of Korea
Jae Sung SonSchool of Materials Science and Engineering, Ulsan NationalInstitute of Science and Technology (UNIST),Ulsan, Republic of Korea
Jason E. BaraUniversity of Alabama,Tuscaloosa, AL, USA
Introduction to 3D Printing Technologies
Albert Tarancón1,2, Kyriakos Didilis3, and Vincenzo Esposito3
1 Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC), Barcelona, Spain
2 Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain
3 Technical University of Denmark, Department of Energy Conversion and Storage, Fysikvej, Lyngby, Denmark
3D printing is considered one of the technologies that will change the world in the next future. The capability of producing series of free‐shape customized objects using almost all relevant families of materials (plastics, metals, and ceramics) is considered a revolution in the field of manufacturing, especially because it can be done even by individuals. The low investment required for simple 3D printers and the open availability of design files make this technology an entire change in the way of understanding product fabrication and prototyping.
At a first stage, 3D printing was mainly developed for structural parts made of plastics but, nowadays, the technology evolved into a complete additive manufacturing chain, covering design, simulation, optimization, fabrication and rapid prototyping of functional objects as well as complete devices made of metals and ceramics. This evolution represents an enormous competitive advantage since the fabrication of high value‐added products such as devices and functional parts will open the use of this technology to the vast majority of application scenarios and industrial sectors, including the energy field.
Moreover, a real deployment of 3D printing of functional materials will benefit in promoting a circular economy by preventing the loss of valuable materials and reducing the energy consumption in the manufacturing process. In general, the uses of additive manufacturing techniques can represent a reduction of up to 80% of waste material and 70% of energy consumption. Besides, 3D printing promotes the simplification of the manufacturing processes as well as reducing the environmental impact of distribution. This decentralized manufacturing approach combined with the open distribution of digital models will represent a technological revolution that might bring marginal costs to near zero, if raw materials are widely available.
I.1 3D Printing Technologies
3D printing allows the fabrication of three‐dimensional objects by deposition of successive layers of material using a digital model. Intensive research on additive manufacturing has been carried out during the last decades to allow the fabrication of three dimensional objects by assembling material without the use of tooling or molds. 3D printing started in 1981 at Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research Institute publishes, where Hideo Kodama reported the first photopolymer system. Based on the Kodama's concept, Charles developed in 1984 the stereolithography (SLA) printer based on photopolymers. The first FDM (fused deposition modeling) machine was developed in the 1990s. FDM is based on the extrusion of melting plastic filaments that is deposit as a thread layers on a print bed. In 1992, SLA evolves into SLS (selective laser sintering) machine, where powder and lasers replace the photopolymers and the UV light, respectively. Further development took place, in 1997, into the first laser additive manufacturing. In 2000, the already consolidated inkjet printing converges toward 3D printing methods, evolving into the first 3D inkjet printer for drop‐by‐drop deposition of complex object and vertical extension. Since those years, the number of technical solution of these methodologies have been multiplied, covering a very large range of technical solutions, including multi‐materials printing by FMD, desktop 3D printers, open source inexpensive solutions, hybridization of deposition methods and development of novel starting materials for the fabrication of ceramics, metals, and composite materials.
The major 3D printing processes commercially available are briefly introduced in the next paragraphs and described in Figure I.1. They can be grouped into different categories according to the dimensional order of the material deposition, namely, point, line, or plane (Figure I.2).
Figure I.1 An overview of the basic components and materials used on the most popular Additive Manufacturing processes: (a) SLA, (b) SLS, (c) FDM, (d) DIP, and (e) IIP.
Figure I.2 Classification of commercially available additive manufacturing methods according to dimensional order, process, and material.
Stereolithography (SLA) is an additive manufacturing process based on the photo‐polymerization of resin material upon exposure to a laser or UV light source. As the name suggests, ‐graphy is a Greek work that means ‐writing, something that is reflected on the way the photocurable material solidifies. The light source passes through the necessary focus lenses for controlling and adjusting the output and is reflected from a movable mirror system onto the photosensitive material surface to cure and solidify the area between the build platform and the liquid surface. The laser beam movement controlled by the mirrors will write the designed pattern on the build platform. When the first layer is formed by the solidified material, the build platform will move down at a distance equal to the layer height, to create the area and form the next layer. Adjusting the laser beam focus and spot size will determine the resulting curing depth and pitch of the solidified material line both in the X/Y plane and the Z axis, offering high vertical and lateral resolution in the order of 10–25 μm [1, 2]. As a result, high surface finish can be achieved with excellent mechanical properties, of porous and dense structures. In terms of material, when using ceramics, photocurable pastes with or without solid loading can be used, normally >50 vol% and grain sizes that range from 0.5 to 5 μm. The high viscosity of the ceramic paste is beneficial for providing support on the structure, however, the nature and the configuration of the process can make it difficult to print multi‐material structures. The chemistry of the formulations consisting of several additives, such as UV absorbers/blockers, stabilizers, and pore formers [3], making recycling and reusing of uncured material challenging. Moreover, post‐processing such as cleaning is required after printing, which adds to the expected de‐binding and sintering that is common in manufacturing of ceramics.
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) is a process based on the same principle, that a laser beam will be reflected and directed by a mirror system, to fuse together powder particles that are placed inside a powder chamber. The fused particles will form a layer at the end of the writing path and the build platform will be lowered at a distance equal to the selected layer thickness of the 3D model. At this point, a leveling roller will transfer powder from an adjacent chamber, to the main build chamber and provides the next powder layer to be fused. In this case, the resolution of the process is controlled by the synergic action of the build chamber and the roller that levels the new powder layer, normally a resolution between 80 and 100 μm [1, 4] can be achieved. The powder that has not been exposed to the laser path will be removed at the end of the process, providing this way support for the proceeding layers with overhang features. The high energy provided by the laser is responsible for the solid state diffusion of the powder particles and the resulting densification, with final parts characterized with good mechanical properties. However, when higher temperatures are required, depending on the material requirements, thermal stresses can be introduced and practices such as preheating of the powder bed can be applied [5]. Surface finish is dependent on the powder grain size that ranges from 0.3 to 10 μm [1] and normally no post processing is required. Overall, the process utilizes several components for defining and handling the material layer therefore the equipment is expensive with increased manufacturing time.
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) uses thermal energy to melt the filament material that is feed through a heating element with the aid of a roller system and is extruded directly onto the build platform or a substrate. The extruded line of material will adhere to the adjacent and underlying material upon cooling and will form the layered structure. For the deposition of the proceeding layers the build platform will move down as specified by the layer thickness settings which vary between 50 and 200 μm [4], while for the X and Y plane parameters the extruder diameter and the molten material pitch can be adjusted by the process parameters. It is important to mention that parameter settings will affect the resulting quality and performance of the final part. The extrusion nature of the process gives rise to several print defects and makes small features challenging to print. Cooling related issues can be solved with a control temperature build platform, while the extrusion parameters are responsible for structural and geometrical issues [6]. The filament materials used are thermoplastics with solid particle loading above 40% and grain sizes ranging around 1–5 μm [1]. Post processing to remove organic components and sintering is required for densification to occur, however it is a cost effective solution with fairly simple equipment.
Inkjet printing can be divided to two process groups, however, both processes are based on the same principal that is widely known from conventional 2D ink printers, a jetting nozzle controls the amount of material or binder deposited on the substrate/material that is build layer by layer. Direct Inkjet Printing (DIP) utilizes a ceramic suspension to be used as ink, where droplets are deposited onto a substrate to form the material layer, along with the support material that is deposited when overhangs or cavities are printed. Depending on the ink formulation an appropriate drying step has to be introduced before commencing with the next layer, such as cooling or evaporation [5], while several suspensions contain additives to counteract clogging of the nozzle that is a common issue [1]. In this case the jetting parameters, travel speed, and the layer thickness will affect the resulting printing resolution that is higher compared to the previously mentioned processes, ranging from 1 to 10 μm [1]. Several systems have been developed for controlling both material deposition and the build platform movement in order to achieve such low resolutions, in the expense of printing time when 3D structures with high aspect ratios are required. Highly diluted and stable inks containing nanoparticles are used, with a solid concentration less than 5 vol% and grain sizes range from 10–50 nm [1].
Indirect Inkjet Printing (IIP) as the name suggests is similar to DIP, with the difference that liquid binder the jetting material deposited on ceramic powder to form the material layer. It is a powder bed process that can offer several advantages such as structural support during printing, reuse of powder material, increasing shape complexity, and reducing printing time compared to DIP, however print resolution is in the order of 100 μm [1], similar to SLS. In this case the mechanical performance of the printed parts is a significant disadvantage and post‐process hardening is a way to counteract it.
I.2 3D Printing Hierarchical, Material and Functional Complexity
All types of industry will benefit from the introduction of complex geometries generated by additive manufacturing but it will be even more interesting to take advantage of other unique capabilities of additive manufacturing, such as hierarchical, material of functional complexity [7].
The hierarchical complexity involves the fabrication of features with shape complexity across multiple size scales. This multiscale approach can cover up to five orders of magnitude for some of the available 3D printing techniques. For instance, SLA printing scale ranges from tens of micrometres to almost one meter, which allows including small details in high aspect ratio printed parts. This feature is extremely relevant for many applications like energy where the performance of devices is typically proportional to the active area such as in chemical reactors or electrochemical cells.
A high level of material complexity can also be introduced in printed pieces by processing in a different way at different points of the part, for example, introducing different levels of porosity all along the object by changing the laser parameters in SLA or the gray level in inkjet printing. This material complexity can also refer to a more advanced multi‐material printing. This has been traditionally employed in inkjet implementing a matrix of printheads for colorful printing but it is still under development for other types of technologies. This approach allows the deposition of different materials or, eventually, materials of different nature in a single process. The multi‐material capability enables the fabrication of graded compositions or, ultimately, complete devices. Independently on the printing deposition technique, one of the unsolved critical issues in processing of multi‐material parts is the quality of the interfaces between dissimilar materials [8, 9]. This represents one of the most interesting fields of current research on 3D printing.
Finally, 3D printing is able to lend a high level of functional complexity to the parts by design or by direct implementation of functional materials. By design, one can easily imagine the fabrication of specific shapes with certain functionality such as plasmonic patterns or cantilevers for energy harvesting as well as the deposition of thin layers acting as antireflective or water‐proof coatings for photovoltaics. By using functional materials, the conceptual design of 3D printed parts with high level of functional complexity is even more straightforward since the printed material has specific functionalities by itself. Despite the enormous potential of this approach, its implementation is very much limited by the short list of available advanced materials for printing uses [8]. Just to give an example of the low availability of printable functional materials, Table I.1 shows a comprehensive compilation of most of the advanced oxides reported so far (beyond structural materials or bioceramics).
Table I.1 Functional ceramics processed in the past with additive manufacturing technologies
Source: Based on Mueller et al. [8]. © 2017 John Wiley & Sons.
AM technique
Inkjet
SLS
SLA
FDM
LOM
Functional ceramic
BaTiO
3
PZTTiO
2
LSMO/YBCOYSZ/CGOSDC/SSC BaTiO
3
[
10
]BaTiO
3
/P(VDF‐TrFE) [
11
]ZnO ink [
12
]
PZTBaTiO
3
SiCNYSZ
PZTFe
2
O
3
/Fe(C
2
O
4
)SiCN BaTiO
3
/photo‐resin [
2
]PZT@Ag/photo‐resin [
13
]ZnO/photo‐resin [
14
]YSZ [
15
,
16
]
BaTiO
3
PZT, PMNLiFePO
4
/Li
4
Ti
5
O
12
BaZrO
3
, SrTiO
3
BaMn
2
Al
10
O
19−
x
ITO, ZnOLa(Mg
0.5
, Ti
0.5
)O
3
Zr
0.8
Sn
0.2
TiO
4
TiO
2
BaTiO
3
/PVA paste [
15
]
SiO
2
‐Al
2
O
3
‐RO‐glassLZSA‐GlassPZT
This migration from structural to functional materials will result in the fabrication of advanced devices with high value added, which will extend the markets where 3D printing is applied from prototyping to manufacturing. Up to now, most of the 3D printing techniques have been developed and commercialized for the fabrication of polymeric and metallic structural parts but recently the focus has moved to the production of functional‐quality components made of advanced materials including, for instance, composites, ceramics, and nanomaterials.
In the case of composites, enhanced properties are expected from the fabrication of complex shapes using inorganic‐polymer matrix based materials [8]. The most evident application is probably the printing of fibre‐reinforced polymeric composites for improving mechanical properties of structural parts [17] but also other applications in which the inorganic loading has functional properties are envisaged, for example, 3D‐printed dielectric/plastic composites [18]. Beyond polymer‐based materials, it is of great interest the printing of metal–ceramic or ceramic–ceramic composites since they can have a strong impact in strategic fields such as electronics or energy [19].
The relevance of the recent progress on 3D printing of ceramics lies in the broadest spectrum of functional properties of this type of materials compared to all other classes, such as metals or polymers. The unique functional properties of advanced ceramics (electrical, optical, or magnetic) make them of critical importance to face upcoming technological challenges especially in the fields of electronics, information and communication technologies (ICT), and energy and environment. In this regard, recent advances in printing piezoelectric materials [20], dielectrics [21] or ionic conductors [22, 23] represent the beginning of a big revolution.
The use of nanomaterials for 3D printing will also bring interesting advantages, especially if they are functional nanomaterials, because they will enable the increase of complexity in shape (fine surface finishing, high vertical resolution, or improved layer assembly), hierarchy (multi‐length‐scale structures or graded porosity), materials (low sintering temperature in ceramics and metals or multi‐material deposition in suspension), and functionality (use of nanocomposites or nanomaterials with high surface area or core‐shell structures).
I.3 3D Printing for Energy
The possibility of printing functional materials with applications in energy has been attracting a growing attention since 3D printing technologies represent a new paradigm for the manufacture of energy conversion and storage technologies [13]. Among other advantages, additive manufacturing offers unique capabilities for increasing the specific performance per unit mass and volume of energy devices by implementing high levels of hierarchical and shape complexity. While the implementation of multiscale features can be of great interest for chemical reactors or batteries, a high level of shape flexibility becomes crucial in harvesting applications where the efficiency of the generators strongly depends on their capability to properly couple to variable scenarios, for example, for a good adaptability of thermoelectric generators to the source of waste heat. Complementary, the opportunity to implement fully controlled graded compositions or tuneable porosity, that is, a certain level of materials complexity, also represents a big advantage for those energy devices with multiple interfaces or porous electrodes, such are fuel cells, gas separation membranes, or electrochemical capacitors. Despite this potential, the fabrication of highly complex devices for the energy sector by using 3D printing is just an emerging field [17]. This is probably due to the complexity of the devices usually employed. However, since the complexity adds cost to traditional processes, the more complex the final part, the more likely that AM will be of benefit for the sector [16].
This emerging application of 3D printing already end up with remarkable examples of the fabrication of components for solid oxide fuel cells [14, 24, 25], batteries [15, 26], or photovoltaic systems [27, 28]. Despite most of the existing examples in energy applications correspond to low‐aspect ratio deposition of functional layers (mainly by inkjet), increasing activity is devoted to proper 3D printing of complex shape multi‐material parts and devices. In this direction, the most inspiring examples were reported by Kim et al. [21] and Pesce et al. [29] who were able to fabricate high‐aspect ratio interdigitated Li‐ion microbatteries by inkjet printing of concentrated viscoelastic inks of complex lithium oxides and solid oxide cells based on corrugated oxide‐ion YSZ electrolytes by SLA, respectively. More activity in complex shapes has been recorded in the field of heterogeneous catalysis or solar systems. Different authors have reported 3D fabrication of catalyst supports based on alumina [] and plastic‐made light concentrators [23]. Although in these cases the 3D printing techniques were employed to fabricate the structural but functional parts of the systems, they proved the interest of 3D printing for resolving problems related to limitations in the classical fabrication of relevant parts. Regarding chemical engineering, internally structured reactors available by 3D printing can play a very important role allowing solutions that were not reachable previously [33]. The main goal is a balanced integration of mass, heat, and momentum transfer in the 3D printed reactor [34] by generating an internal structure by design rather than chance, like in packed bed, monolithic‐ or foam‐type reactors. In the case of solar concentration, 3D‐printed traps made of smoothened silver‐coated thermoplastic resulted in a relevant improvement of the external quantum efficiency of crystalline silicon, thin film nanocrystalline silicon and organic solar cells [23].
With the expected increase of such successful experiences in printing relevant parts for the energy industry, it will progressively start adopting 3D printed devices and systems. The energy manufacturing sector is expected to be more reluctant to adopt the printing technology than end‐users to integrate printed objects (if their performance is kept similar or is improved). On the other hand, more inconveniences are foreseen for end‐users regarding required standards and certifications of their products. These standardization efforts should go together with quantitative Life Cycle Assessment studies on the reduction of waste material and energy consumption as well as the evaluation of the recyclability and ecological impacts of these alternative products. Moreover, a full deployment of the 3D printing technologies for a huge market as the energy requires an industry laying on a robust value chain. Currently, there is an absence of redundant big players in almost all the steps of this value chain and a lack of skilled workforce (from designers to operators), more noticeably for functional materials such as ceramics.
Another important point to cover to reach the energy market, is the development of big size and high speed 3D printing processes able to cover a high and increasing demand. This evolution from a prototyping to a manufacturing approach will be driven by increasing the complexity of the printed parts (extending capabilities to fabricate high value‐added parts such are devices) and ultimately pointing the upcoming mass customization of energy products. Mass customization refers the fabrication of custom‐made products at a competitive price. In this regard, developing “tabletop factories” such as 3D printers will generate a competitive manufacturing process in terms of product flexibility and short time‐to‐market for energy devices boosting the idea of an industry 4.0 based on mass customization by 3D printing.
I.4 Scope of the Book
Large scientific and technical production in the field of 3D printing has risen in the last years. The fame of 3D printing comes from the actual power of the technique combined with its coverage in a broad range of applications. Such a potential is also boosted by the current viability of affordable 3D printers for consumers and prosumers, where the market often escorts the actual possibilities with the promise of revolutionizing the way we consume and create. This combination of factors has indeed created great expectations. However, for the advanced uses, 3D printing firmly refers to a complex chain of additive manufacturing procedures and, besides some exceptions, it relies on boundary interdisciplinary research. Form the scientific and technical point of views, the variety of the topics and the possibilities appear endless and often it results difficult to identify the real possibility.
In view of such preliminary considerations, in this book, we try to shade light on the real possibilities of 3D printing in one of the most charming opportunities opened by additive manufacturing methods: the energy field. To construct a critical discussion around this fascinating topic, we define in Part I the link between most recent advances in the field of additive manufacturing with functional materials to be used in the energy systems. Under such a frame, selected contributions with the typical material science approach, we introduce the three classes of materials used in 3D printing: polymers, metals, and ceramics. We also highlight the need of use combinations of materials; multi‐materials manufacturing is the key in energy systems and the actual potential and limits of manufacturing multifunctional materials. Such an approach is reviewed in Part II, with key contributions about consolidated techniques, hybrid printing technologies, and new opportunities in the field. We especially focus on 3D printing challenges for production of complex objects, suiting a wide range of energy systems devices, not only for functional parts but also for accessory components. Finally, elements of interdisciplinary and consideration on consolidated trends in the energy research field are reported in Part III, with key‐examples of 3D printing of energy devices. In this last section, we have selected some important cases covering both consolidated energy technologies, such as turbines, batteries, capacitors, solar and nuclear as well as emerging technologies (piezoelectric energy harvesting, electrochemical fuel cells, and thermoelectric energy generation), and environmental solutions (chemical conversion and CO2 capture) that bring the promise of clean and sustainable solutions for the environment.
We edited the book to address readers with different backgrounds and aims, including graduated students in the materials science and engineering, chemists, mechanical engineers interested in manufacturing methods but also for a wider readership, seeking in 3D new opportunities of research and business.
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Part I3D printing of functional materials
1Additive Manufacturing of Functional Metals
Venkata Karthik Nadimpalli and David Bue Pedersen
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
1.1 Introduction
Additive manufacturing (AM) technologies [1, 2] comprise a family of manufacturing methods that colloquially are known by the common appellation of “3D Printing.” AM has created a strong linkage between digital and physical manufacturing, thus nourishing by its nature, a wider trend, digitization, and the automation of the manufacturing industry. For this reason, the increasing adoption of AM within the manufacturing industry is pushing companies to research new ways of adapting their manufacturing models and optimize their manufacturing strategies by integrating these manufacturing technologies of tomorrow into existing production and bolster their strategies toward a digital to physical conversion [3]. To illustrate the digital to the physical linkage of AM, Figure 1.1 serves as an overview of the gross elements for a generic AM process.
The digital nature of AM processes lends itself to the possibility of adding functionality to the components across the process chain, herein functionality relates to the form or geometry, as the geometry of the workpiece is built up from digital data, so does the functionality as relates to the material placement and material composition. Hofmann et al. [4] and Sobczak and Drenchev [5] explored the various classes of functionally graded metal components. It is useful to classify the functional gradients in AM components according to different kinds of material and geometric gradation. Figure 1.2 shows a schematic of four types of material gradients in AM technologies. Type‐I is with a single material, and the functionality comes from the design and geometry of the structure. Type‐II deals with at least two materials used during the AM process, forming a discrete interface with an abrupt transition between the two materials. Type‐III involves at least two materials with a gradient interface between them. The material gradient can be introduced by process parameter change (microstructural control) or by in‐situ physical addition of multiple materials. Type‐IV refers to any hybrid functionality that is introduced by a combination of Types I−III or by the addition of sensors/other functional mechanisms. Functionality can also be achieved by integrating several AM processes into a hybrid process chain [6]. While the geometric gradients apply to most AM components (single/multi‐material), the material gradients are process dependent. Specifically, AM machine tools can change the material either at the voxel, layer, or part level. The capabilities of the process thus determine the kinds of functional gradients in AM components, which can be classified into geometric and material gradation.
Figure 1.1 Overview of physical and digital links of an AM process chain.
Figure 1.2 Schematic overview of functional AM components.
1.1.1 Industrial Application of Metal AM in the Energy Sector
Industrial applications of functional metal AM components can be found across various sectors including nuclear power, oil & gas, turbine components, wind & tidal energy, fuel cell components, and electromagnetic energy to name a few. Some such applications are discussed in this subsection. The GE Leap fuel nozzle was one of the first certified metal AM components to undergo high‐critical testing and deployment into production [7]. Siemens has been at the forefront of metal AM applications with replacement parts for nuclear plants, sealing rings for steam turbine blades and high‐efficiency gas turbine burners [8]. Oerlikon has showcased topology optimized turbine blades and drill bits for oil & gas applications with integrated sensors [9]. Biome renewables has designed and retrofitted an AM part to increase efficiency of existing wind and tidal turbine installations [10]. Aidro has manufactured high‐pressure hydraulic manifolds and heat exchangers for oil & gas applications [11
