3D Printing of Concrete E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 201

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2019

Beschreibung

The introduction of digital manufacturing techniques, such as 3D printing applied to concrete material, opens up new perspectives on the way in which buildings are designed. Research on this theme is thriving and there is a high rate of innovation related to concrete. At the same time, the first life-size constructions made from printed concrete are emerging from the ground. This book presents state-of-the-art knowledge on the different printing processes as well as on the concrete material that must adapt to these new manufacturing techniques, such as new hardware and new printers for concrete. The possibilities in terms of architectural design are discussed as well as the pathways that remain to be uncovered. The book also explores the challenges that researchers and companies expect to overcome as they get closer to democratizing this potential revolution that is the digital manufacturing of concrete.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Introduction

1 3D Printing in Concrete: General Considerations and Technologies

1.1. Introduction

1.2. General considerations for 3D printing and additive fabrication

1.3. The digital and additive fabrication of cement materials

1.4. A classification of 3D printing methods for concrete

1.5. References

2 3D Printing in Concrete: Techniques for Extrusion/Casting

2.1. Introduction

2.2. Breakdown of the process into stages

2.3. Behavior during the fresh state and the printing stage

2.4. Other problems occurring during concrete extrusion printing

2.5. Conclusion

2.6. References

3 3D Printing by Selective Binding in a Particle Bed: Principles and Challenges

3.1. Introduction

3.2. Classification of selective printing processes and strategies

3.3. State of the art of selective printing and major achievements

3.4. Scientific challenges

3.5. Conclusion

3.6. References

4 Mechanical Behavior of 3D Printed Cement Materials

4.1. Introduction

4.2. Mechanical performance of the cement materials printed using the extrusion/deposition method

4.3 Effects of the additive fabrication method on the mechanical behavior of cement-based materials

4.4. Mechanical behavior obtained with other methods of 3D printing of cement-based materials

4.5. Conclusion

4.6. References

5 3D Printing with Concrete: Impact and Designs of Structures

5.1. Introduction

5.2. Freedom of forms: architectural liberation and topological optimization

5.3. Design of structures: reinforcement strategies and design codes

5.4. Impacts of 3D printing

5.5. Conclusion

5.6. References

List of Authors

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1. Classification of printing processes based on [DUB 17]. Parameters to...

Chapter 2

Table 2.1. Interaction between mechanical, physical and chemical characteristics...

Chapter 4

Table 4.1. Compressive resistances of cast and printed test samples after differ...

Table 4.2. Compressive strength of cast and printed test samples after different...

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1. Visualization of different 3D printing methods (based on [DIL 17])

Figure 1.2. Classification of printing methods proposed by Lim et al. [LIM 12]

Figure 1.3. Example of a printing head with a feeder screw [KEA 13]

Figure 1.4. Schematic representation of the printing of building components usin...

Figure 1.5. Deposition of layers of mortar during printing via extrusion/deposit...

Figure 1.6. A robotic arm used for the 3D printing of cement-based materials

Figure 1.7. 3D printing of concrete parts using a printer with bridge cranes [LI...

Figure 1.8. A delta robot used for the 3D printing of mortar-based elements of b...

Figure 1.9. A fixed robotic arm used for the construction of vertical carriers f...

Figure 1.10. A mobile robotic arm used for the implementation of walls made of f...

Figure 1.11. A mobile robotic arm used for the construction of vertical walls fo...

Figure 1.12. An automated overhead bridge on rollers for the construction of a s...

Figure 1.13. Principle of the use of cable robots in concrete 3D printing (based...

Figure 1.14. Use of a cable robot for the production of structures from mud-bric...

Figure 1.15. Use of a robot truck for the production of structures (based on [NE...

Figure 1.16. Use of a crane equipped with a gyroscope and tracking system, and a...

Figure 1.17. Execution sequence of 3D printing by injection into a particle bed:...

Figure 1.18. Surface condition obtained as a function of a particle bed with gra...

Figure 1.19. Example of small components and the printer used [PIE 18]

Figure 1.20. A D-Shape printer and an injection system [LOW 18]

Figure 1.21. Example of objects created with the D-Shape printer [ALL 16, 44]

Figure 1.22. Principle of the Smart Dynamic Casting process [LLO 15]: A) a large...

Figure 1.23. Example of elements produced using the Smart Dynamic Casting techni...

Figure 1.24. Production of the formwork screen by the welding robot [HAC 17]

Figure 1.25. Structure obtained after the casting of the concrete and scraping t...

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1. 3D printing of mortar by extrusion/deposition done in a laboratory –...

Figure 2.2. Breakdown of the essential steps of the 3D printing of cement materi...

Figure 2.3. Shear stress–shear rate for a Bingham fluid (linear relationship ind...

Figure 2.4. Example of applications of linear and exponential models describing ...

Figure 2.5. Location of the lubricating layer when concrete flows through a pipe

Figure 2.6. Force distribution for an axisymmetric extrusion using a ram. D is t...

Figure 2.7. Typical extrusion force progression as a function of the length of t...

Figure 2.8. View of the surface of cement materials in the case of a drained or ...

Figure 2.9. Cross-section of the layers before and after deposition, and view of...

Figure 2.10. View of the deformation of cantilevered mortar. The material subjec...

Figure 2.11. Comparative changes in the resistance of the first layer compared w...

Figure 2.12. Straight structure printed before and after buckling

Figure 2.13. Settling predicted at the top of the wall for a mortar with an incr...

Figure 2.14. Mortar cracking while undergoing flexing. Increase in the width of ...

Figure 2.15. Printed materials demonstrating good and bad interface qualities an...

Figure 2.16. View of the stress acting on the bottom layer and its resilience as...

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1. Schematic breakdown of the fields considered for printing building m...

Figure 3.2. Schematic breakdown of 3D printing techniques by selective manufactu...

Figure 3.3. Schematic of the method of selective cement activation by elevation

Figure 3.4. Photograph of the D-Shape 3D Printer using the cement activation met...

Figure 3.5. Schematic breakdown of the selective paste intrusion method

Figure 3.6. Photograph of tests of parts produced by selective bonding. From lef...

Figure 3.7. Sand-based mold made by the injection of a binding agent by VoxelJet...

Figure 3.8. Schematic of the D-Shape printer for on-site use, and an element of ...

Figure 3.9. Smart beam made by topological optimization at ETH Zurich (©Andrei J...

Figure 3.10. Samples fabricated at the Technological University of Munich (TUM) ...

Figure 3.11. Vertical cross-sections of the final liquid distribution in the sim...

Figure 3.12. Contribution of the effects of surface tension in a porous network ...

Figure 3.13. Schematic of cement paste penetration: a) complete penetration; b) ...

Figure 3.14. Photographs of the surfaces of elements printed using the selective...

Figure 3.15. Comparison of the penetration depths measured and penetration predi...

Figure 3.16. Tracking a cement paste's penetration into a granular mixture obtai...

Figure 3.17. Device used to verify the nature of the downward flow due to gravit...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1. Visualization of the three planes of symmetry in a sample of printed...

Figure 4.2. View showing the reduction in the amount of entrapped air achieved t...

Figure 4.3. Mechanical tests of flexural strength parallel to the layers and com...

Figure 4.4. The mechanical strength a) under bending and b) under compression of...

Figure 4.5. Change in the strengths of a sample of nine layers: a) and b) flexur...

Figure 4.6. Cubic samples cut into the printed structure [SON 18]

Figure 4.7. Surfacing of cubes extracted from the printed structures [SON 18]

Figure 4.8. Flexural test on a printed sample [SON 18]

Figure 4.9. Test of direct tensile strength to study the mechanical quality of t...

Figure 4.10. Effect of the fiber and silica fume on the compressive strength of ...

Figure 4.11. Effect of the fiber dosage on the tensile and flexural strengths of...

Figure 4.12. Breakage of printed test samples under bending with different waiti...

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1. Example of complex structures made by the 3D printing of concrete: a...

Figure 5.2. The Dfab House: a building that demonstrates a concrete application ...

Figure 5.3. Example of the application of topological optimization on a beam wit...

Figure 5.4. Support column with porous structures produced by the company XtreeE...

Figure 5.5. Structures made by minimizing tensile forces in concrete [EEV 14]

Figure 5.6. Production of concrete walls (gray)/insulation (glued blocks) with t...

Figure 5.7. Example of external reinforcements: (a) a 3D printed concrete segmen...

Figure 5.8. Bridge made from printed voussoirs and assembled using the post-tens...

Figure 5.9. Visualization of the reduction in quantities of materials using topo...

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

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Series Editor

Gilles Pijaudier-Cabot

3D Printing of Concrete

State of the Art and Challenges of the Digital Construction Revolution

Edited by

Arnaud Perrot

First published 2019 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:

ISTE Ltd

27-37 St George’s Road

London SW19 4EU

UK

www.iste.co.uk

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Hoboken, NJ 07030

USA

www.wiley.com

© ISTE Ltd 2019

The rights of Arnaud Perrot to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019930612

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-1-78630-341-7

Introduction

I.1. Context of the book

The ability to generate a three-dimensional (3D) object from a single image would seem like an idea pulled from a work of fantasy or science fiction. Nevertheless, starting from the mid-1980s, with the first patents on additive manufacturing and 3D printing, this future possibility has become a reality. Initially limited to polymers, additive manufacturing has now expanded to an ever-increasing number of materials [HUL 86, AND 84]. In the 2000s, the development of fused deposition modeling, or the rapid prototyping through the deposition of polymer strands, led to a rapid democratization of the process and gave the general public a glimpse of the ample possibilities offered by 3D printing, in terms of economic and industrial development. In addition, this technology is perfectly suited to the societal environmental issues currently faced: in that it first enables us to save materials for the manufacturing of parts with complex geometry, and second, to consider the “on demand” manufacturing of spare parts.

Naturally, the possibility of transferring these technologies into the field of construction, including concrete, was initially studied by Pegna in 1997 [PEG 97] and then by Professor B. Khoshevnis of the University of Southern California in the first half of the 2000s [KHO 04]. At the same time, the computer-aided design of structures has undergone significant advances with the introduction of the first digital models (building information modeling – BIM) [HEG 01].

As a result, traditional building methods may now find themselves overthrown by the Third Industrial Revolution and by the introduction of computerization and digital technologies. In this context, the design and monitoring of projects have already been influenced by the use of BIM: the creation of complete digital models of buildings compelled further action to be taken in the period leading up to the execution of a construction project, allowing for further steps towards both an optimization of the execution methods and optimal construction quality (referred to as lean building).

Nevertheless, the use of digital technologies in production methods is still in its infancy (prototypes, feasibility and reliability in the laboratory). However, the opportunity to take advantage of the complete digitization of construction projects, starting from the time they are designed, enables us to envision the automation of construction methods and to make greater progress towards the objectives of lean building.

Thus, the application of additive manufacturing methods, originally developed for plastics, to concrete is now the subject of numerous academic studies and private initiatives around the world. As a result, the number of initiatives and projects related to the 3D printing of concrete has grown exponentially since 2015. For example, Figure I.1 shows the growth of the number of publications on the topic of concrete additive manufacturing in the 10 most influential scientific journals in the field of civil engineering (source: Google Scholar, date: July 1, 2018). The late 2000s and early 2010s saw the publication of pioneering works by Professor Khoshnevis of the University of Southern California and the team of Professor Buswell of Loughborough University in England [KHO 04, KHO 06, BUS 07, LE 12, LEA 12]. Since 2016, there has been an explosion in the number of publications that show the current nature of this research area and the need for knowledge related to the area of concrete 3D printing in construction works. While there were four such publications in 2016, 16 were found in 2017 and 33 in the first six months of 2018.

The motivation for these studies can be found in:

– the economic advantage offered by 3D printing, which could offer the potential of avoiding the use of concrete forms, representing up to 50% of the cost of cast concrete;

– unprecedented freedom for architects in the shapes they can create;

– a reduction in environmental impacts – the ability to place the material exclusively where it is needed (known as the concept of topological optimization);

– improvements in working conditions – elimination of heavy handling tasks and the vibration of concrete.

These initial works have made it possible to validate the technical feasibility of the process of 3D printing with concrete, and small-scale demonstrators have been carried out around the world (individual homes, walkways).

Figure I.1.Number of publications in the top 10 most influential science journals in civil engineering (source: Google Scholar, as of July 1, 2018) over the past 15 years

The market for printed concrete is now worth nearly €30 million, and is now growing at a rate of 15% per year. The exponential growth in the number of projects has made it possible to imagine an extremely rapid increase in the revenue of this market.

As a result, the application of printed concrete in structural material no longer looks like a utopian vision, and it is now important to lay the foundations for these new manufacturing techniques by carrying out a comprehensive compendium of the knowledge and technologies developed in the field.

I.2. Current research topics and scientific challenges

Currently, the research topics related to 3D printing are:

– Shift towards a 100% digital construction industry

The design of a construction project involves the production of a digital mock-up, which leads to both the anticipation of construction problems and the optimization of the interactions between the different professional occupations and stages of construction. This anticipation tool enables us to improve the quality of the constructions and to optimize the methods of execution.

In addition, these digital models make up a raw material that can be implemented using robots and automation schemes, allowing construction projects to be carried out faster, more accurately and more reliably. The construction of concrete structures using 3D printing fits perfectly within this framework. An efficient transfer interface between the digital model and the trajectory of the robot placing the concrete is expected to be achieved while taking into account the configuration of the construction site and its constraints.

– Processes: optimization and mastery of the rheology of the concrete for the purpose of using it for printing

To be able to be printed, the concrete must not only be fluid enough to be transferred (pumpable concrete) but also rigid enough to hold up under its own weight once extruded, without deforming. Similarly, it must “quickly” bear the weight of the layers placed on top of it. The competition between the rate of mechanical structural build-up and that of the elevation of the printed structure is therefore a critical parameter to be controlled in order to ensure that the process is carried out smoothly. This involves controlling not only the behavior of concrete in the state of being freshly placed but also the changes it undergoes over time. It is also important to gain control over the additives used, which allows the material to be put in place “on demand” (many processes involve the addition of an accelerator in the nozzle of the printer). Works on the mechanical behavior of concrete at a very early age will be necessary to describe the behavior of the material up to the end of its placement, and thus to allow its transition with the initial rheological behavior. It is important not only to work on experimental methods for describing the evolution of the rheological behavior (shear yield stress) of concrete over time in a simple and reliable way, but also to be able to control and follow the process inline.

It should also be noted that other innovative processes, such as deposition on a support, injection into aggregate beds or through meshes or porous structures and “intelligent” sliding forms, are conceptually similar technologies that will need to be studied.

– Structural design of printed structures

- Characterizing and reinforcing an anisotropic material

Printed concrete set in layers may exhibit anisotropic behavior, induced by its layered structure, which should be qualified. The interface between layers, depending on the process, remains a sensitive area, which may represent the mechanically weak points of the structure. It will therefore be necessary to establish a study methodology to characterize the complex and anisotropic behavior of this type of material.

Furthermore, printed concrete, similar to poured concrete, has a tensile weakness that will have to be compensated for by the addition of steel reinforcements, following the same principles of the reinforcement traditionally used for poured concrete.

Several approaches are currently being tested: the addition of fibers within the layers, the casting of steel bars in dedicated spaces and the addition of a metal wire to the concrete. The effectiveness of these reinforcement methods remains to be evaluated, and strategies for their scaling are to be developed accordingly.

- Topological optimization

Additive manufacturing technologies enable us to envision a new level of freedom in structural design inspired by nature (biomimicry) that optimizes the management of resources by using materials only where they are mechanically necessary. This leads to the possibility of lean manufacturing and mechanically optimized structures that go beyond the design codes of traditional concrete structures. It is therefore necessary to provide a normative framework for the design of structures printed from concrete.

– Sustainability and environmental benefits

An important first step will be to assess the impact of the stratification induced by the implementation of printing techniques on the durability of the printed concrete. Subsequently, the use of 3D printing makes it possible to envision a saving in materials (and the transporting of materials) by means of topological optimization. On the contrary, the rheological properties required for the process require the extensive use of additives. A comparative analysis of the environmental impacts of the two modes of implementation will enable us to measure the environmental benefits achieved by the use of 3D printing, which makes it possible to print a structure with optimal volumes of materials compared with a casted concrete structure.

I.3. Structure of the book

In order to help give readers an idea of the state of the art in the area of digital concrete production and to give them a frame of reference with regard to the current issues listed above, we have organized this book in the following way: after this introduction, all the current technical solutions will be presented. Then, the main families of concrete printers will be presented, as well as the machines that best represent each of the categories. A principle for classifying the printing systems on the basis of the relevant literature will also be presented.

Next, the aspects of the process related to materials will be presented, first by addressing the aspects related to the technique of printing via the successive extrusion/layering of materials. This technique is directly inspired by the fusion/placement technique used by polymer 3D printers that are becoming more democratic today. Second, the material constraints of the process of particle-based 3D printing, that is, injection into a particle bed, will be addressed.

Then, the mechanical behavior of mortar and concrete generated through printing will be addressed, focusing on the peculiar aspects of these materials in comparison with conventional cast concrete.

Finally, the potential impacts of the methods of digital production on structural design and the economics of construction, and the environmental impacts of the sector will be addressed. The reinforcement systems to be put in place, ensuring equivalent mechanical characteristics, will also be described, with the aim of presenting the strategies for the design of printed concrete structures.

This scientific work structure will make it possible to assess the current state of the techniques of additive manufacturing as applied to cement-based materials, addressing both the scientific and technological aspects.

I.4. References

[AND 84] ANDRE J.-C., LE MEHAUTE A., DE WITTE O., “Dispositif pour réaliser un modèle de pièce industrielle”, FR Patent 2,567,668, 1984.

[BUS 07] BUSWELL R.A., SOAR R.C., GIBB A.G. et al., “Freeform construction: Mega-scale rapid manufacturing for construction”, Automation in Construction, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 224–231, 2007.

[HEG 01] HEGAZY T., ZANELDIN E., GRIERSON D., “Improving design coordination for building projects. I: Information model”, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, vol. 127, no. 4, pp. 322–329, 2001.

[HUL 86] HULL C.W., “Apparatus for production of three-dimensional objects by stereolithography”, Google Patents, 1986.

[KHO 04] KHOSHNEVIS B., “Automated construction by contour crafting–related robotics and information technologies”, Best ISARC 2002, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 5–19, January 2004.

[KHO 06] KHOSHNEVIS B., HWANG D., YAO K.-T. et al., “Mega-scale fabrication by contour crafting”, International Journal of Industrial and Systems Engineering