A Companion to Roman Architecture E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Serie: Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1161

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

A Companion to Roman Architecture presents a comprehensive review of the critical issues and approaches that have transformed scholarly understanding in recent decades in one easy-to-reference volume.

• Offers a cross-disciplinary approach to Roman architecture, spanning technology, history, art, politics, and archaeology
• Brings together contributions by leading scholars in architectural history
• An essential guide to recent scholarship, covering new archaeological discoveries, lesser known buildings, new technologies and space and construction
• Includes extensive, up-to-date bibliography and glossary of key Roman architectural terms

Leseprobe

Contents

List of Illustrations

Contributors

Maps/General Images

Introduction

CHAPTER ONE: Italic Architecture of the Earlier First Millennium BCE

Introduction

1. Early Domestic Architecture

2. Civic Architecture

3. Defensive Architecture

4. Sacred Architecture

5. Conclusions

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER TWO: Rome and Her Neighbors: Greek Building Practices in Republican Rome

Introduction

1. The Rise of Individualism

2. Engaging in a Hellenistic Koine: The Effects of Greek Conquest

3. 146 BCE and After: The Age of Hermodorus

4. The Slow Triumph of Monarchism

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER THREE: Creating Imperial Architecture

Introduction

1. Functions Served by the New Architecture

2. Religious Functions: Public Cults and Imperial Cults

3. The Domus Augusti and Augustus’s Buildings on the Campus Martius

4. Entertainment

5. Hygiene, Sport, and Education

6. Conclusion: From Hellenistic and Italic Architecture to Roman Imperial Architecture

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER FOUR: Columns and Concrete: Architecture from Nero to Hadrian

Introduction

1. Structure and Construction

2. Artifice and Reality

3. Designing in Section

4. Columns and Concrete

5. Conclusion

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER FIVE: The Severan Period

Introduction

1. Rome and Ostia

2. Eastern and Western Provinces

3. Architectural Ornament and the “Marble Style”

4. Changing Relations between East and West

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER SIX: The Architecture of Tetrarchy

Introduction

1. Rome and Romans outside Rome

2. Rome away from Rome: New Imperial Cities

3. “The Emperor Builds for his People”: Baths and Circuses

4. Imperial Palaces and Political Communication

5. Palace Architecture

6. Imperial Tombs outside Rome

7. A Retirement Palace

8. An Imperial Villa for a Military Emperor

9. The Tetrarchic Paradigm and Rome

10. Epilogue: Constantine and the TetrarchicTradition

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER SEVEN: Architect and Patron

Introduction

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER EIGHT: Plans, Measurement Systems, and Surveying: The Roman Technology of Pre-Building

Introduction

1. Models and Plans

2. Scale Planning and the Shape of Order

3. Measure and Commensuration

4. The Shaping of Ordered Space

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER NINE: Materials and Techniques

Introduction

1. Geography and Chronology: The Environment of Rome and Italy

2. The Development of Materials in Central Italy

3. Materials by Type: Timber

4. Materials by Type: Brick and Tile

5. Materials by Type: Stone and Marble

6. Materials by Type: Mortar and Concrete

7. Materials by Type: Stucco

8. Materials by Type: Metal

9. Materials by Type: Glass

10. Selecting the Right Material

11. Foundations, Footings, and Substructures

12. Floors: Contignatio and Suspensurae

13. Walls – Special Techniques

14. Spanning Spaces: Trabeated Architecture

15. Spanning Spaces: Arches and Vaulting

16. Integration of Diverse Materials and Structural Components

17. Building Techniques Characteristic of the Roman Provinces: Greece and Asia Minor

18. Building Techniques Characteristic of the Roman Provinces: Egypt

19. Building Techniques Characteristic of the Roman Provinces: North Africa

20. Building Techniques Characteristic of the Roman Provinces: Europe and Britain

21. Summary: Roman Contributions

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER TEN: Labor Force and Execution

Introduction

1. Off-Site Labor

2. On-Site Labor

3. Process

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER ELEVEN: Urban Sanctuaries: The Early Republic to Augustus

Introduction

1. The Temple of Capitoline Jupiter and Its Influence

2. Hellenistic Influences in the Second Century BCE: The Ionic Order

3. Hellenistic Influences in the First Century BCE: The Corinthian Order

4. The Temple and Forum in First-Century-BCE Rome

5. Urban Sanctuaries in the Time of Augustus

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER TWELVE: Monumental Architecture of Non-Urban Cult Places in Roman Italy

Introduction

1. From Sacred Natural Places to Monumentality

2. Monumental Building between Global and Local

3. The Relationship between Cult Place and Community

4. Latium: The Sanctuary of Hercules Victor at Tibur

5. Samnium: The Sanctuaries of Pietrabbondante and S. Giovanni in Galdo, Colle Rimontato

6. Lucania: The Sanctuaries of Serra Lustrante d’Armento and Rossano di Vaglio

7. Conclusion

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER THIRTEEN: Fora

Introduction

1. The Forum as Considered by Vitruvius

2. The Development of the Western Forum

3. The Forum Romanum as Symbolic Space

4. Forum Plazas in the West: Case Studies of Architectural Experience

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER FOURTEEN: Funerary Cult and Architecture

Introduction

1. A Landscape of Tombs

2. Funerary Cult

3. Why Build a Tomb?

4. The Necropolis of Isola Sacra

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER FIFTEEN: Building for an Audience: The Architecture of Roman Spectacle

Introduction: Forms of Entertainment Buildings

1. Locating Spectacle: The Structure and Context of Venues

2. Designing for an Audience: Structure, Materials, and Amenities

3. Entertaining the Roman World: Hierarchy, Patronage, and Display

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER SIXTEEN: Roman Imperial Baths and Thermae

Introduction

1.Thermae and Balneae

2. Popularity and Importance of Bathing

3. The Nature and Planning of Balnea and Thermae

4. Water Needs of Thermae

5. Administration and Services of Thermae

6. Thermae as Educational and Intellectual Institutions

7. High Costs of Building the Thermae

8. Thermae of Rome

9. Display of Art in Thermae

10. Thermae in North Africa

11. Bath-Gymnasia in Asia Minor

12. Baths and Thermae in Antioch and Roman Syria

13. Baths and Thermae in Late Antique and Christian Worlds

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN: Courtyard Architecture in the Insulae of Ostia Antica

Introduction

1. Representative Examples

2. Distribution of Insulae by Time and Place

3. Notes on the Origin of the Insula with a Cortile Porticato

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN: Domus/Single Family House

Introduction

1. Form and Function in the Traditional Domus (ca. 300–150 BC)

2. Form and Function in the Domus-with-Peristyle (ca. 150 BC–350 CE)

3. Systems of Decoration

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER NINETEEN: Private Villas: Italy and the Provinces

Introduction

1. What is a Roman Villa?

2. Designing the Villa

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER TWENTY: Romanization

Introduction: Interpreting Cultural Change and Material Culture

1. The Evidence: Potentials and Problems

2. The Development of Roman Architecture in the Western Provinces

3. Regionality in Provincial Architecture

4. A Different Approach to Provincial Architecture

5. Conclusions

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE: Streets and Facades

Introduction

1. The Layout of Streets

2. The Surface and the Width of Streets

3. Facades of Buildings and Streets

4. Crossroads, Street Furniture, and Signage

5. The Monument and the Street

6. Changing Streets or the Architecture of Movement in the Roman City

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO: Vitruvius and his Influence

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE: Ideological Applications: Roman Architecture and Fascist Romanità

Introduction

1. Forging a Fascist Style: The Theoretical Debate

2. Il Stile Littorio in Practice: The Via dell’Impero 1931–1938

3. Conclusions

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR: Visualizing Architecture Then and Now: Mimesis and the Capitoline Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus

Introduction: Theorizing Architectural Representation

1. Analyzing Ancient Images of Temple Facades

2. Debating Plans

3. Reconstructing Urban Contexts

4. Visualizing Possibilities

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE: Conservation

Introduction

1. The Aesthetics of Roman Architectural Conservation

2. Time, Fidelity, and Identity

3. Conclusion

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

Glossary

References

Index

BLACKWELL COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLD

This series provides sophisticated and authoritative overviews of periods of ancient history, genres of classical literature, and the most important themes in ancient culture. Each volume comprises approximately twenty-five to forty concise essays written by individual scholars within their area of specialization.The essays are written in a clear, provocative, and lively manner, designed for an international audience of scholars, students, and general readers.

ANCIENT HISTORY

Published

A Companion to the Roman ArmyEdited by Paul Erdkamp

A Companion to the Roman RepublicEdited by Nathan Rosenstein and Robert Morstein-Marx

A Companion to the Roman EmpireEdited by David S. Potter

A Companion to the Classical Greek WorldEdited by Konrad H. Kinzl

A Companion to the Ancient Near EastEdited by Daniel C. Snell

A Companion to the Hellenistic WorldEdited by Andrew Erskine

A Companion to Late AntiquityEdited by Philip Rousseau

A Companion to Ancient HistoryEdited by Andrew Erskine

A Companion to Archaic GreeceEdited by Kurt A. Raaflaub and Hans van Wees

A Companion to Julius CaesarEdited by Miriam Griffin

A Companion to ByzantiumEdited by Liz James

A Companion to Ancient EgyptEdited by Alan B. Lloyd

A Companion to Ancient MacedoniaEdited by Joseph Roisman and Ian Worthington

A Companion to the Punic WarsEdited by Dexter Hoyos

A Companion to AugustineEdited by Mark Vessey

A Companion to Marcus AureliusEdited by Marcel van Ackeren

A Companion to Ancient Greek GovernmentEdited by Hans Beck

A Companion to the Neronian AgeEdited by Emma Buckley and Martin T. Dinter

LITERATURE AND CULTURE

Published

A Companion to Classical ReceptionsEdited by Lorna Hardwick and Christopher Stray

A Companion to Greek and Roman HistoriographyEdited by John Marincola

A Companion to CatullusEdited by Marilyn B. Skinner

A Companion to Roman ReligionEdited by Jörg Rüpke

A Companion to Greek ReligionEdited by Daniel Ogden

A Companion to the Classical TraditionEdited by Craig W. Kallendorf

A Companion to Roman RhetoricEdited by William Dominik and Jon Hall

A Companion to Greek RhetoricEdited by Ian Worthington

A Companion to Ancient EpicEdited by John Miles Foley

A Companion to Greek TragedyEdited by Justina Gregory

A Companion to Latin LiteratureEdited by Stephen Harrison

A Companion to Greek and Roman Political ThoughtEdited by Ryan K. Balot

A Companion to OvidEdited by Peter E. Knox

A Companion to the Ancient Greek LanguageEdited by Egbert Bakker

A Companion to Hellenistic LiteratureEdited by Martine Cuypers and James J. Clauss

A Companion to Vergil’s Aeneid and its TraditionEdited by Joseph Farrell and Michael C. J. Putnam

A Companion to HoraceEdited by Gregson Davis

A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman WorldsEdited by Beryl Rawson

A Companion to Greek MythologyEdited by Ken Dowden and Niall Livingstone

A Companion to the Latin LanguageEdited by James Clackson

A Companion to TacitusEdited by Victoria Emma Pagán

A Companion to Women in the Ancient WorldEdited by Sharon L. James and Sheila Dillon

A Companion to SophoclesEdited by Kirk Ormand

A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near EastEdited by Daniel Potts

A Companion to Roman Love ElegyEdited by Barbara K. Gold

A Companion to Greek ArtEdited by Tyler Jo Smith and Dimitris Plantzos

A Companion to Persius and JuvenalEdited by Susanna Braund and Josiah Osgood

A Companion to the Archaeology of the Roman RepublicEdited by Jane DeRose Evans

A Companion to TerenceEdited by Antony Augoustakis and Ariana Traill

A Companion to Roman ArchitectureEdited by Roger B. Ulrich and Caroline K. Quenemoen

This edition first published 2014© 2014 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A companion to Roman architecture / edited by Roger B. Ulrich and Caroline K. Quenemoen.        pages cm    Includes bibliographical references and index.

    ISBN 978-1-4051-9964-3 (hardback)1. Architecture, Roman. I. Ulrich, Roger Bradley, editor of compilation. II. Quenemoen, Caroline K., editor of compilation.     NA310.C58 2013    720.37–dc23

2013025418

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Cover image: View of the Roman amphitheater at Pula (ancient Pola), Croatia, dating to the first century.Source: Ulrich Cover design by Workhaus

List of Illustrations

Maps and Models

Map 1

Map of the Roman Empire

Map 2

Provinces of the Roman Empire

Map 3

Map of Italy

Map 4

Schematic Plan of Rome showing the location of major monuments

Model 1

Model of the Capitoline Hill and the Roman Forum

Model 2

Model of the Campus Martius

Figures

1.1

Reconstruction of an Iron Age hut

1.2

Iron Age hut urns

1.3

Drawing of the scene from the Verucchio throne

1.4

Archaic rural architecture in central Italy

1.5

Plan of the Temple of

Jupiter

Optimus Maximus

2.1

Scale comparison of temple plans, with interaxials

2.2

Plan of the N

avalia

, Rome

3.1

Plan of the

Forum Romanum

and the

Forum Iulium

3.2

Plan of the Palatine with the House of Augustus

3.3

Plan of the House of Augustus according to Carettoni

3.4

Plan of the House of Augustus in the last phase according to Iacopi and Tedone

4.1

View of the Octagonal Room, Domus Aurea

4.2

Axonometric drawing of the Octagonal Room, Domus Aurea

4.3

Section of Great Hall, Trajan’s Markets

4.4

View of the Facade of the Great Hemicycle, Trajan’s Markets

4.5

Perspective drawing of the street view of the Great Hemicycle in antiquity

4.6

Interior detail of the Pantheon

5.1

The Arch of Septimius Severus, Forum Romanum

5.2

The Propylaea at Baalbek

5.3

The “Round Temple” at Ostia

5.4

The

quadrifrons

arch

at Lepcis Magna

5.5

The Severan basilica at Lepcis Magna

5.6

Nymphaeum at Perge

5.7

Nymphaeum at Umm Qais (Gadara)

6.1

Thessaloniki, palace buildings on the Dimitrios Gounari Street

6.2

Split, reconstruction of the sea wall

6.3

Split, reconstruction of the mausoleum and the main residential wing

6.4

Gamzigrad

6.5

Gamzigrad, reconstruction of the main residential wing

8.1

Blueprints and geometric underpinnings at the Didymaion

8.2

Circular and radial designs

8.3

Sanctuary of Juno, Gabii, ca. 160 BCE

8.4

Sighting instruments for ancient surveying

9.1

Framing materials in wood

9.2

Masonry styles from pre-Roman and Roman Italy

9.3

Spanning horizontal spaces

9.4

Common forms of wall facing for

opus caementicium

9.5

Spanning spaces with wood

9.6

Foundation methods

9.7

Analytical drawing of bath and wall construction

9.8

Brick vaults

11.1

Temple of Capitoline Jupiter, Rome, ca. 525–509 BCE; axonometric view of alternate reconstruction

11.2

Temple of Capitoline Jupiter, Rome, plan of alternate reconstruction

11.3

Porticus Metelli (Octaviae), Rome, 187–131 BCE

11.4

Forum of Julius Caesar, Rome, plan

11.5

Roman temples, plans at the same scale

12.1

Reconstruction of the sanctuary of Hercules Victor near Tivoli

12.2

Reconstruction of the north elevation of the sanctuary of Hercules Victor near Tivoli

12.3

Plan of the sanctuary of Pietrabbondante

12.4

Plan of the sanctuary of S. Giovanni in Galdo, Colle Rimontato

12.5

Plan of the sanctuary of Serra Lustrante d’Armento

12.6

Plan of the sanctuary of Rossano di Vaglio

13.1

The forum of Ostia

13.2

The forum of Nîmes

13.3

The forum of Dougga

14.1

Isola Sacra: plan of the necropolis

14.2

Isola Sacra: area view showing typical tomb types

14.3

Tomb 29, Isola Sacra. The facade of Tomb 29 created in the second phase of the tomb

14.4

Tomb 94, Isola Sacra. Exterior view and plan

14.5

Tomb 99, Isola Sacra

14.6

Tomb 83, Isola Sacra

15.1

Comparative plans of Roman entertainment buildings based on (a) the theater at Orange, (b) the Colosseum, (c) the Stadium of Domitian, and (d) the Circus Maximus

15.2

View of the Amphitheater, Corinth

15.3

View of the Amphitheater, Pergamum

15.4

Colosseum, Rome. View of the arena showing the substructures

15.5

Circus, Lepcis Magna, second century CE

16.1

North Baths, East Baths, and West Baths, Cemenelum, plan

16.2

Thermae of Caracalla, Rome. Plan of the bath block

16.3

Frigidarium

of the Hadrianic Baths, Lepcis Magna. Restored perspective

16.4

Imperial Bath-Gymnasium, Sardis

16.5

Imperial Bath-Gymnasium, Sardis. Restored axonometric study of the structural system

16.6

Marble Court, Imperial Bath-Gymnasium, Sardis. Restored perspective

17.1

Reconstruction of the street facade of the Caseggiato di Diana, Ostia

17.2

Axial view and plan of the Caseggiato dei Triclini, Ostia

17.3

The arcaded courtyard in the House of the Muses, Ostia

17.4

Horrea Epagathiana et Epaphroditiana, Ostia

17.5

Plan of the House of the Trident, Delos, with column placement restored

18.1

The patrician

domus

of the third century BCE reconstructed in plan and axonometric view

18.2

Pompeii, House of the Menander (I, 10, 1), plan

18.3

Ostia, House of the Muses (III, IX, 22), plan with mosaics indicated

18.4

Pompeii, House of Sallust (VI, 2, 4), drawing of First-Style scheme of south wall of atrium

18.5

Rome, House of the Griffins,

cubiculum

II, drawing of perspective scheme

18.6

Torre Annunziata, Villa of Oplontis,

triclinium

14, west wall

19.1

Villa at Settefinestre (Etruria), plan

19.2

Villa of the Papyri (Herculaneum), bird’s eye view of digital reconstruction

19.3

Villa Oplontis A (Torre Annunziata), plan

19.4

Villa at Nennig (Rhineland), plan

19.5

Villa at Piazza Armerina (Sicily), plan

20.1

Plan of house 12, Druten

20.2

Plan of the forum, Wroxeter

20.3

Plan of the Casa de los Pájaros, Italica

20.4

Plan of the Maison au Dauphin, Vaison-la-Romaine, second century CE

21.1

Pompeii, street intersection

21.2

Italica (Spain), the extension of the grid of streets under Hadrian

21.3

Pompeii, House of the Ceii. Plaster creates the image of a facade made out of stone

23.1

Marcello Piacentini, Administration building of the Città Universitaria in Rome with the statue of Minerva by Arturo Martini (1932–1935)

23.2

Section drawing of the Velia between the Villa Rivaldi and the Basilica of Maxentius (1932)

23.3

Antonio Muñoz and Cesare Valle, retaining wall for the Villa Rivaldi on the Via dell’Impero (1932)

23.4

Giuseppe Terragni, Luigi Vietti

et al

., Project A for the Palazzo del Littorio on the Via dell’Impero (1934)

24.1

Panel relief of Marcus Aurelius sacrificing. Detail of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus (circa 176–180 CE)

24.2

As

of Domitian. Reverse, sacrifice at a temple during the

Ludi Saeculares

(88 CE)

24.3

Denarius of Volteius. Reverse, Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus (circa 78 BCE)

24.4

Denarius of Petillius Capitolinus. Obverse, eagle with thunderbolt; reverse, Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus (circa 43 BCE)

24.5

Denarius of Petillius Capitolinus. Reverse, Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus (circa 43 BCE)

24.6

Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus

25.1

Temple of Vesta. Denarius of Q. Cassius Longinus, consul in 55 BCE

25.2

Neues Museum, Berlin. Staircase Hall, presumably a short time after the bombing of November 23/24, 1943

25.3

Neues Museum, Berlin. Staircase Hall, 2009

G1

Roman column capitals

Contributors

James C. Anderson, jr. is Josiah Meigs Distinguished Teaching Professor of Classics at the University of Georgia. He is the author of The Historical Topography of the Imperial Fora (1984), Roman Brickstamps: The Thomas Ashby Collection (1991), Roman Architecture and Society (1997), and Roman Architecture in Provence (2013).William Aylward is Professor of Classics at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. His research interests include ancient Greek and Roman architecture and technology; cities and sanctuaries of Asia Minor, Troy and the Trojan War, and Zeugma on the Euphrates. He has participated in the annual campaign to Troy since 1996 with the Universities of Tübingen and Cincinnati.Jeffrey A. Becker is a Mediterranean archaeologist whose research focuses primarily on the archaeology of first millennium BCE Italy. He has held teaching appointments at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, The College of William & Mary, Boston University, McMaster University, and the Artemis A.W. and Martha Sharp Joukowsky Institute for Archaeology and the Ancient World at Brown University. He is ­co-editor of Roman Republican Villas: Architecture, Context, and Ideology (2012).John R. Clarke is Annie Laurie Howard Regents Professor at the University of Texas at Austin. He is author of seven books, most recently Looking at Laughter: Humor, Power, and Transgression in Roman Visual Culture, 100 B.C.-A.D. 250 (2007) and Roman Life: 100 B.C. to A.D. 200 (2007). He directs the Oplontis Project (www.oplontisproject.org), a multidisciplinary study of Villa A (“of Poppaea”) at Torre Annunziata, Italy.Penelope J.E. Davies is an Associate Professor in the Department of Art and Art History at the University of Texas at Austin. Her work focuses primarily on public monuments of Rome and their propagandistic ­functions. Author of Death and the Emperor: Roman Imperial Funerary Monuments from Augustus to Marcus Aurelius(2000) and co-author of Janson’s History of Art, Seventh Edition, she is currently working on a book on the architecture and politics of Republican Rome, to be published by Cambridge University Press.Hazel Dodge is Louis Claude Purser Associate Professor in the Department of Classics at Trinity College Dublin. Her particular research interests are the architecture of ancient spectacle, and the employment and symbolism of decorative stones in ancient ­architecture. She is the author of Spectacle in the Roman World (2010); joint author, with Peter Connolly, of The Ancient City (1998); and editor, with Jon Coulston, of Ancient Rome. The Archaeology of the Eternal City (2000). She has also published widely on building materials and techniques in Roman architecture.James F.D. Frakes is Associate Professor of Art History at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. He is the author of Framing Public Life: The Portico in Roman Gaul (2008) and is currently working on a book project titled Imagined Empire: Roman Visual Culture in the Severan Age.Genevieve S. Gessert is Associate Professor of Art and Archaeology at Hood College. She is the director of the Domus del Tempio Rotondo ­project, an excavation of a late antique house near the forum of Ostia Antica.She is currently developing two book projects, Excavating Empire: Archaeology and Exhibition Culture under Mussolini and a currently-­untitled volume on the history and archaeology of Ostia with Margaret Laird.Lynne C. Lancaster is a Professor in the Department of Classics and World Religions at Ohio University. She specializes in ancient Roman construction and has published a book, Concrete Vaulted Construction in Imperial Rome: Innovations in Context (2005) and numerous articles on monuments in Rome including the Colosseum, Trajan’s Column and Markets, and the Pantheon. She is currently working on a book entitled, Innovative Vaulted Construction in the Roman Imperial Provinces, 1st-4th c. AD.Ray Laurence is Professor of Roman History and Archaeology at the University of Kent (UK). He is the author of Roman Pompeii: Space and Society (2nd ed., 2007) and The Roads of Roman Italy: Mobility and Cultural Change (1999); as well as co-author of The City in the Roman West (2011) and co-editor of Rome, Ostia, Pompeii: Movement and Space (2011).Emanuel Mayer is an Assistant Professor of Classics at the University of Chicago. He is the author of Rome is where the Emperor is: State Monuments in the Decentralized Roman Empire (2002; in German) and The Ancient Middle Classes: Urban Life and Aesthetics in the Roman Empire (2012). In his work, Mayer focuses on aspects of ­architecture and society.Kathryn J. McDonnell is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Classics at the University of California, Los Angeles.Her research focuses on the social dynamics of Roman tombs, and she is working on a monograph on the necropoleis of Pompeii, Isola Sacra, and Aquileia.Inge Nielsen is Professor of Classical Archaeology at the University of Hamburg. She is the author of Thermae et Balnea (1991, 2nd ed. 1993), Hellenistic Palaces (1994, 2nd ed. 1999), Cultic Theatres and Ritual Drama, 2002, and a contributor to Der Neue Pauly (1996–2003).Caroline K. Quenemoen is Professor in the Practice and Director of Fellowships and Undergraduate Research at Rice University. She is the author of The House of Augustus and the Foundation of Empire (forthcoming) as well as articles on the same subject.Louise Revell is Lecturer in Roman Archaeology at the University of Southampton. She specializes in the public buildings of Roman Britain and the Iberian peninsula, and the question of identity in the western provinces. She is author of Roman Imperialism and Local Identities (2009) and is currently working on a book on identity in the western provinces. She has published papers on the architecture of Roman Britain, and gender and the family.Ingrid D. Rowland lives in Rome, where she teaches at the University of Notre Dame School of Architecture and writes for The New York Review of Books and The New Republic. Her books include The Culture of the High Renaissance (1998), The Scarith of Scornello: A Tale of Renaissance Forgery (2004), and Giordano Bruno, Philosopher/Heretic (2008). In 1999, she and Thomas Howe published an annotated, illustrated translation of Vitruvius, Vitruvius: Ten Books on Architecture.John R. Senseney is Assistant Professor of the History of Ancient Architecture in the School of Architecture at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. He is the author of The Art of Building in the Classical World: Vision, Craftsmanship, and Linear Perspective in Greek and Roman Architecture (2011).Melanie Grunow Sobocinski, Ph.D. is an independent scholar. In addition to a dissertation and two previous articles on ancient architectural images, her publications includeDetroit and Rome: Building on the Past (2005). She has taught art history at the University of Michigan–Dearborn.John W. Stamper, Professor and Associate Dean in the School of Architecture at the University of Notre Dame, is an architect and ­architectural historian who teaches architectural ­history and fifth-year design studios. He served as Director of the School’s Rome Studies Program from 1990 to 1999. In 2005 he publishedThe Architecture of Roman Temples: The Republic to the Middle Empire.Tesse D. Stek is Assistant Professor in Classical and Mediterranean Archaeology at the Faculty of Archaeology of Leiden University. He is the author of Cult Places and Cultural Change in Republican Italy (2009) and directs archaeological excavations at the temple of S. Giovanni in Galdo, Colle Rimontato, as well as field surveys in the territory of the ancient colony of Aesernia, both in Molise, ancient Samnium. He would like to thank Brasenose College, where he worked on this chapter as Golding Junior Research Fellow, and the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO).Rabun Taylor is Associate Professor of Classics at the University of Texas at Austin. His publications include Public Needs and Private Pleasures: Water Distribution, the Tiber River, and the Urban Development of Ancient Rome (2000); Roman Builders: A Study in Architectural Process (2003); and The Moral Mirror of Roman Art (2008).He is currently working on book ­projects on the urban histories of Naples and Rome. His academic interests include ancient Greek and Roman urbanism, architecture, ­material culture, social history, and religion.Edmund V. Thomas is Lecturer in Ancient Visual and Material Culture at Durham University. His main research interest is in classical ­architecture and its relation to social and cultural ideas. He is the author of Monumentality and the Roman Empire: Architecture in the Antonine Age (2007).Roger B. Ulrich holds the Ralph Butterfield Professorship in the Classics Department at Dartmouth College. His research focus has been on Roman architecture and ancient technology. He is the author of The Roman Orator and the Sacred Stage: The Roman Templum Rostratum (1994), Roman Woodworking (2007), and is currently working on a book that examines ancient depictions of Greek and Roman technologies.Fikret K. Yegül is an architect and professor of architectural history at the University of California, Santa Barbara. A scholar of Roman ­architecture, he has been a member of the Harvard Sardis Excavations in Turkey and the Ohio State University Isthmia Excavations in Greece. Specializing on baths and bathing culture of antiquity, Yegül is the author of articles and books on Roman architecture, notably Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity (1992), which received the Alice D. Hitchcock Award from the Society of Architectural Historians in 1994. His most recent book is Bathing in the Roman World (2010). He is working on a book on Roman architecture and urbanism.Mantha Zarmakoupi is a Humboldt Research Fellow at the University of Cologne (Institute of Archaeology). She is the author of Designing for Luxury on the Bay of Naples (2013). She has also developed a VR digital model of the Villa of the Papyri that systematizes and visualizes data from past and ongoing archaeological fieldwork and edited a volume on the Villa: The Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum: Archaeology, Reception, and Digital Reconstruction (2010). She is presently working on book projects on the idea of landscape in Roman luxury villas and on the urban growth of late Hellenistic Delos.

Map 1 Map of the Roman Empire.

Map 2 Provinces of the Roman Empire.

Map 3 Map of Italy.

Map 4 Schematic Plan of Rome showing the location of major monuments.

Model 1 Model of the Capitoline Hill and the Roman Forum. Source: Model of Rome, Roman Forum between Capitoline and Colosseum. Fototeca Unione neg. no. 11763 (F).

Model 2 Model of the Campus Martius. Source: Museo della Civiltà Romana / E. Richter, Roma.

Introduction

The architecture of Rome’s great Empire has long captured our imagination. The Romans themselves were enamored with their built environment. Ancient authors were just as likely to celebrate the grandeur and beauty of ancient buildings as they were to decry their excess, Nero’s Domus Aurea being a notable example of the latter. Within Roman literature the emphasis on space – from Ovid’s fascination with the lascivious activity sheltered within Augustan porticoes to Statius’s awe at the soaring heights of the imperial palace – more broadly demonstrates a keen desire to explore its symbolic import. Since antiquity, the ruins of Rome’s storied past have appealed to a broad spectrum of society, at once inspiring emulation and, like the slave who accompanied the emperor in his triumph, reminding viewers of the transience of human accomplishment. Roman architecture has provided the formal templates for reimagining western architecture over the past 500 years, yielding architec­tural treatises ranging from Leon Battista Alberti’s Ten Books of Architecture to Robert Venturi’s Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture and monumental realizations from Palladio’s Villa Capra (“La Rotonda”) to James Stirling’s Neue Staatsgalerie. Its iconic structures have fueled a thriving economy in entertainment and tourism that once drew the aristocratic gentry and now caters to a global consumer market. Yet, for all its glory, Roman architecture also stands as a sober testament to a fallen empire and as such has become the conceptual space for contemplating time, mortality, and hubris in a range of media, from the writings of Edward Gibbon and Marguerite Yourcenar to the films of Federico Fellini and the poetry of John Keats.

The ubiquity of Roman architecture and the scale and sheer human effort represented by its enduring physical traces account for its longstanding fascination. Growing from its prehistoric and republican roots, Roman building spread throughout the Italic peninsula and made its mark across a sprawling empire spanning modern-day Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. The extant structures have preserved a full spectrum of spaces that accommodated every aspect of Roman life – public to private, secular to sacred, high to low. Whether highlights on a bus tour or overgrown ruins known only to the specialist, their forms are equally important in manifesting complex negotiations between the historically contingent categories of Romans and non-Romans, free and servile, Rome and her environs, and the past and present.

While Roman architecture was the self-conscious product of particular ­historical moments, critical to its development throughout history was interaction among diverse cultures of the Italic peninsula and the broader Mediterranean world. During the earliest phases of this process, Latin tribes were receptive to ideas learned from their non-Latin neighbors; they drew upon their own ingenuity and the natural resources around them, discovering the properties of materials and developing along the way principles of form and spatial organization that would ultimately become deeply rooted traditions for their descendents, those peoples who were to become “Romans.” New structural and decorative forms were soon introduced by colonists arriving in Italy from Greece, and eventually direct contact with the Greek cities of the eastern Mediterranean through trade and warfare exposed the growing city of Rome to new materials and design principles that were adapted and absorbed to the prescripts of more ancient Italic traditions. Over time, the physical structure of these buildings, the spaces they enclosed, and the views they framed, succeeded in accommodating and imparting a sense of what it was to be “Roman,” an identity always subject to experience, time, and place. Familial hierarchies, civic administration, ritual and sacrifice, leisure, entertainment, simple routines of movement throughout the day, and finally death itself were accommodated, regulated, and codified through the built environment.

From an early stage, the development of Roman architecture and the forms that it took were shaped by its association with the socio-political authority of individuals and communities. The Roman patron seemed to understand intuitively the power of the built environment to proclaim superiority over his competitors, and to enforce social hierarchies that favored the status quo. By the dawn of the imperial period, architecture in Rome declared the city’s far-reaching authority, through its display of imported marble and colored stones, looted sculpture and other valuables seized from conquered lands that adorned its surfaces and interiors, and enslaved labor that made building on a grand scale possible. At the same time, the design, construction, and decoration of provincial architecture addressed the oft-conflicting demands of imperial, regional, and local identities. Just as local potentates curried favor with the Capital through construction projects designed to echo through design, materials, and eponymous dedication the signature buildings of Rome, they raised buildings that responded to the needs of their local context and identity.

Today Roman architecture is a rich field of study, its interests and debates enlivened and largely reframed by the intensive scholarly inquiry of the past 20 years. New archaeological discoveries, both in Rome and in the provinces, have significantly expanded the corpus of Roman architecture, and technological advances have provided new tools for the recovery of archaeological data and for the examination and analysis of ancient spaces, from isolated buildings to entire city plans. As a result, scholars have been able to reassess traditional historical accounts and broaden our understanding of historically neglected or elusive periods, lesser-known sites in provincial settings, and canonical building types. While formalism continues to play an important role in Roman architectural studies both in comprehensive treatments and more focused works (i.e., on single building types), the past 20 years reveal a desire to understand form as one factor in a complex nexus of Rome’s cultural production and reception. Rather than treat architecture as an image of static monumentality, scholars have increasingly drawn attention to the dynamics of its form, from the numerous studies on the design and construction process made possible by new technologies to those examining ancient and modern reception of these spaces. In the process, the longstanding structural and monumental definition of Roman architecture has yielded to a more expansive understanding that highlights the interplay of space and ornament, especially in domestic architecture, the role of landscape within and beyond Rome’s built environments, the interaction among inscriptions, facades, and streets, and the importance of ephemeral materials and temporary structures.

The desire to understand Roman architecture as an integrated cultural practice, encompassing a range of factors from design to reception, has resulted in interdisciplinary approaches that examine the dynamic interplay among aesthetics, social structure, politics, and geography in the production and use of Roman architecture. In particular, scholars have highlighted the relation among design, artifacts, and social ritual in the Roman house, patronage and design, the gaze and social control, the permeability of public and private aesthetics, the social dimensions of the urban environment, and the role of architecture in negotiating provincial identity. Even Vitruvius, whose classification system has long underpinned the modern historiographic narrative, has been the subject of contextualized readings that draw attention to the political and philosophical significance of his text.

Despite the wealth of new work, the most recent comprehensive treatments of Roman architecture for English speakers, ranging from handbooks to more encyclopedic studies, appeared primarily in a roughly 20-year period from 1960 through the early 1980s. These include the works of Frank Brown, Mortimer Wheeler, Axel Boëthius, John Bryan Ward-Perkins, Frank Sear, and William MacDonald. Although the chronological and geographic scope of these reviews vary, and the depth of treatment is necessarily limited, they share a formalist approach to Roman architecture and urban planning organized according to chronological and typological narratives. The most influential among them has been Etruscan and Roman Architecture, a collaboration between Boëthius and Ward-Perkins first published in 1970 and still in print (now in two volumes). The single most comprehensive treatment of the subject ever undertaken, this book examines the chronological development of Roman architecture in Rome and Italy from the Etruscans through Late Antiquity and offers the first serious overview of Roman provincial architecture in any language. Of course, if we were to include important books on the topic of Roman architecture in other languages, this list would be greatly expanded. Some of these, such as Jean-Pierre Adam’s La construction romaine: Matériaux et techniques, have been translated into English; others, such as the influential overviews written by Pierre Gros or, for the city of Rome specifically, Filippo Coarelli, remain in their original languages.

Rather than attempt an encyclopedic review of Roman architecture, this volume highlights new discoveries and approaches by updating the longstanding historiographic attention to periodization and typology and by addressing the dynamic processes of architectural creation and reception. The volume begins with a six-chapter overview of Roman architectural design from the Iron Age to the early fourth century. Divided according to the traditional periodization of the field, the chapters examine distinctive architectural design features within a specific historical context while identifying continuities among them. Chapters 7–10 consider the underlying processes of Roman building – planning, construction techniques, the supply of building materials, and organization of the labor force – in order to shed light on the social, economic, and logistical negotiations and choices that shaped the final works. The overview of design and process sets the stage for a more focused study of canonical building types and spaces (both urban and rural, public and private) that structured and reflected the social practices of the Roman world. Each of the chapters 11–20 draws attention to the origin and development of a given typology within changing geographical, political, and social contexts. The ­volume closes with five chapters that selectively address the reception of Roman architecture from antiquity to the present day, reflecting on ancient representations and contemporary archaeological practices as dynamic media continually reassessing the relationships between the past, present, and future. By selectively focusing on the major issues, and approaches that have transformed scholarly understanding of Roman architecture over the last two decades, it is hoped that this volume will not only serve as a useful teaching and reference work for those interested in beginning a systematic program, but also a source of inspiration to explore the field and the broader questions that it raises.

The editors of this volume are grateful for the participation of colleagues working on both sides of the Atlantic whose contributions have made this project possible. Many of the essays represent a kind of summary statement from an individual scholar who has devoted many years, if not decades, of study to the particular topic at hand. Others are written by those who represent the new generation of academics who will move the study of Roman architecture forward in the decades to come. Every contributor has active research projects and associated commitments; the editors wish to express their appreciation for the time taken by each to help bring this project to its conclusion. A brief biographical sketch of each contributor is included. Abbreviations of ancient sources follow the convention of theOxford Classical Dictionary, while journal abbreviations adhere to that ofL’Année Philologique.

CHAPTER ONE

Italic Architecture of the Earlier First Millennium BCE

Jeffrey A. Becker

Introduction

The origins of Roman architecture have long been sought, as its iconic and widespread form exerts influence even in the post-modern world. Recent scholarship has addressed the role played by social processes in the generation of a recognizably Roman material culture and places this phenomenon toward the end of the first millennium BCE (Elsner 1995b; Hölscher 2004; Stewart 2008). These studies are immensely valuable for examining the material culture of the Roman Republic and the ensuing imperial period, yet this same culture may be set in an even sharper focus by situating it against the background of deeply rooted Italic traditions that inform, at least in part, the aspects that make it “Roman.” This chapter will examine the underpinnings of Roman architecture by exploring some critical issues related to the architecture of central Italy primarily during the first half of the first millennium BCE. Four categories of buildings will be considered, namely domestic structures, civic buildings, fortifications, and sacred architecture. It can be shown that over the first half of the first millennium BCE, a tradition of indigenous construction emerged with characteristics of material and form that would continue to have a marked influence on architectural design throughout Roman history.

Roman authors in the Late Republic also sought to explain the origins of their society. Notions about the origins of architectural design received their due, especially from Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (d. after 15 BCE), whose De Architectura outlines numerous conventions that recommend (if not dictate) the way in which buildings of his time should be constructed. These writers of the late republic were, in most cases, speculating on an ancient past for which they had relatively little source material, especially in the case of scholars like Varro. One question that perhaps escaped – or did not even occur to – the minds of these writers was the degree to which the remote Italo-Roman past, a time prior to the direct contact Romans had with the Greek world from the third century BCE onwards, had much in common with the Rome of their own day.

In a curious way, archaeologists and architectural historians whose aim it is to trace the trajectory of the architectural forms and built environments of the Roman world often find themselves in a situation akin to that of Vitruvius and his contemporaries – seeking an aetiological explanation but having only fragmentary source material representative of diverse cultures occupying the Italic peninsula and spanning several centuries. It was both trade and Italy’s first wave of urbanism that brought regional pockets of culture into sustained contact with one another and with a wider Mediterranean world through the agency of Punic and Greek traders. From a certain point of view, the identity question begins as early as the Orientalizing period when attractive eastern imports flooded into Italy; from that point on, separating the indigenous from the imported becomes a challenge, one that carries forward into the Roman culture of the later first millennium BCE and beyond.

This chapter offers some comments on the nature of the architecture of the Italian peninsula prior to the Hellenistic period and asks questions about the nature of indigenous architectural forms. Recent scholarly approaches to the archaeology of peninsular Italy have focused on regional (and even micro-regional) approaches that have dealt with settlement typology, economy, and identity, but to this point a similar treatment of architectural morphology has yet to materialize. It will prove constructive to examine the architectural traditions of central Italy across the first millennium BCE, concentrating, in this case, on forms leading up to the beginnings of the Roman conquest in the fourth century BCE and commenting on what connections may be drawn between forms across this broad timeframe. While the architecture of the bulk of first-millennium-BCE Italy is quite different, both in form and conception, from the “Roman” architecture of the first century BCE and later, one can argue that there are nevertheless elements of form that are persistent.

1. Early Domestic Architecture

In peninsular Italy, domestic architecture is the natural place at which to begin this discussion. During the Final Bronze Age (ca. 1150–950 BCE), in population centers connected with the Apennine culture across the Italian peninsula, the most basic form of building is a fairly ephemeral hut constructed of wattle-and-daub and thatch with a beaten earth floor. At Sorgenti della Nova near Viterbo, Italy, several oblong buildings, constructed in wattle-and-daub with thatched roofs, occupy a settlement organized on a system of terraces (Negroni Catacchio 1983; Negroni Catacchio and Cardosa 2007). These buildings, sometimes referred to as “long houses,” are similar to remains from the sites of Luni sul Mignone and Monte Rovello. In all cases the structures are large (15 to 17 m x 8 to 9 m), leading scholars to speculate that they may represent the dwellings of elites who enjoyed higher social standing (Bartoloni 1989: 69–70; on Monte Revello, Biancofiore and Toti 1973; on Luni sul Mignone, Hellström 1975).

Iron Age huts are well attested at the sites of what would become the great urban centers of archaic Italy, and, in a sense, those of Rome’s Palatine Hill settlement have become something of an icon in and of themselves for Iron Age Italy (Figure 1.1). Among these, the so-called tugurium Romuli (hut of Romulus) was even iconic for ancient Romans who maintained it from the first century BCE onward as a reminder of their mythical founder (Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. 1.79; Vitr. De Arch. 2.1.5).

Figure 1.1 Reconstruction of an Iron Age hut. Source: Ulrich 2007: 92, fig. 6.1.

The footprint of these huts could be either rectangular or ovoid with a sunken floor and a superstructure that relied on vertical wooden posts to support a pitched roof covered in thatch; the walls are formed of wattle-and-daub. From a technical point of view this method involves a woven lattice of wooden strips or twigs (wattle) over which a mud plaster (daub) is applied. This plaster is highly variable in its composition, but can include wet soil or clay that can in turn be tempered with animal dung, straw, or sand. Wattle-and-daub is the likely precursor to the later Roman “in-fill” technique (opus craticium), known to Vitruvius (De Arch. 2.8.20) and employed in low-cost buildings, for example, urban insulae of Herculaneum, up to the first century CE. The continuity of this essentially static technique in modern Italy has been well documented (Shaffer 1993; Brandt and Karlsson 2001).

Terracotta cinerary urns modeled to resemble huts, and thus referred to as “hut urns,” provide a significant evidentiary body for the form and decoration of Iron Age huts (Bartoloni et al. 1987). These urns, characteristic of Latium and South Etruria, correspond closely with the archaeological remains of actual huts (Figure 1.2). An urn from Vulci, taken along with others, makes the case for the actual huts having sunken floors, as archaeological remains can confirm (Bartoloni 1989: 113, Figure 5.5). The exterior surfaces of the urns tend to be decorated with linear motifs common in the Geometric period (ninth to eighth centuries BCE) while the stylized roofs include zoomorphic termini, which may reflect the superstructures of actual huts and emphasize the ridgepole. The patterns of geometric decoration tend to emphasize exterior fasciae and to concentrate on framing door and window openings. A domestic scene with two huts carved into the Verucchio Throne, dated to the first half of the seventh century BCE, also depicts the ridge log of the roof carved with birds and monkeys (Haynes 2000: 41) (Figure 1.3). In addition to offering a better understanding of actual huts, the urns also highlight the important social status of hut owners in the Iron Age. The relative infrequency of these urns in the funerary record suggests that those whose remains are contained therein enjoyed a higher than average social position.

The seventh and sixth centuries BCE brought substantial social change to central Italy and revolutionary, concomitant changes in the forms of both structures and settlements. The radical phenomenon that acts as catalyst in this period is urbanism, the emergence of the first true cities in archaic Italy (Gros and Torelli 2010). In Etruria, Latium, and Rome, this process creates large nucleated centers with substantial territorial catchment areas; the social elite and their control of territory is key to the emergence of these cities (Smith 2006; Terrenato 2011). The advent of city centers also results in the differentiation of architectural typologies in that now one can speak of the dichotomy of urban and rural architecture. In addition to the rise of elites and their culture, another key outcome of urbanism is interconnectivity, both of cities within Italy and between Italian cities and the wider Mediterranean world through the agency of Punic and Greek traders and Greek colonists in Sicily and Magna Graecia. The influx of imported goods for elite consumption affected the nature of Italic architecture and material culture.

Figure 1.2 Iron Age hut urns. Source: Bartoloni et al. 1987: fig. 96.

Figure 1.3 Drawing of the scene from the Verucchio throne. Source: Swaddling et al. eds. 1995: 175, fig. 5.

While huts remained popular into the seventh century BCE, more elaborate, multi-roomed houses with rectilinear plans gradually replaced them in central Italy. Although the reasons for this shift in design from circular to rectangular structures continues to be debated (e.g., Hodges 1972), many scholars have suggested that it may be related to the greater suitability of rectangular structures within the framework of urbanized settlements, as well as to technical issues of construction. The emergence of houses with square or rectangular footprints in Etruria occurs across the seventh century BCE (Izzet 2007: 148) and is coincident with the emergence of cities with grid plans, for instance Gabii in Latium and Marzabotto in the Po plain (Govi 2007; Becker, Mogetta, and Terrenato 2009). These early rectilinear houses were built upon a stone socle with walls constructed of a variety of materials, including stone and brick (Izzet 2007: 152). Internal walls, also built from permanent mate­rials, can now be clearly recognized within the nearly square houses. Some of the earliest known houses in Etruria with internal divisions date to seventh-century Acquarossa and sixth-century San Giovenale. These houses had either two or, in some instances, three rooms (Izzet 2007: 158). Houses with increasingly more rooms appear in sixth-century and later contexts, such as a house from Marzabotto (early fifth century) that had 16 “articulated spaces” (Izzet 2007: 158, Figure 5.6; see further discussion below). The appearance of internal articulation suggests a diversification of function within the domestic sphere and an increasing complexity of community life, both surely a byproduct of urbanism. As house plans in Italy develop further, the incorporation of axiality and bilateral symmetry become important, perhaps influenced strongly by Hellenic models (reviewed by Sewell 2010: Chapter 4).

At Lago dell’Accesa, a mining settlement in the territory of Vetulonia, there is also substantial evidence for houses of the early sixth century BCE. Clusters of domestic architecture were discovered wherein each cluster of approximately 10 houses had its own corresponding necropolis (Steingräber 2001: 299). These houses are characterized by a ground plan that incorporated two or three rooms accessed by means of a vestibule. The houses at Lago dell’Accesa are of great interest from the morphological point of view as they have moved away from the ovoid ground plan of huts like those at San Giovenale to a more rectilinear plan, albeit still quite irregular. The adoption of this new building practice becomes more pervasive across the sixth century BCE, and it is evident in various forms in the farm at Podere Tartuchino (Attolini and Perkins 1992) and also in the area known as Zone F at Acquarossa (Östenberg 1975). In some cases, the settlements of this time period tend to be quite densely occupied and without any regular plan or organization. At Acquarossa there is evidence for a fairly dense occupation with some 70 “longhouses” and “broadhouses” discovered in a 1 hectare area of the site (Steingräber 2001: 297).

Given the relative scarcity of archaeological evidence for houses, especially those in urban contexts, during the seventh and sixth centuries BCE, Etruscan rock-cut tomb architecture has long provided another source of surrogate evidence. The chamber tombs of the Banditaccia necropolis at Caere, to cite a famous example, began in the Orientalizing period and included early tombs such as the Tomba della Capanna (early seventh century BCE) whose interior styling seems to take its cue from the interior architecture of Etruscan houses (Prayon 1975; 1986; 2010). From the seventh to the sixth centuries BCE, the interior architecture of Etruscan tombs at Caere becomes increasingly more elaborate, providing further evidence not only of interior décor, but also of interior architectural details, including roof beams and moldings, which are often used to reconstruct visions of the interiors of actual Etruscan houses. While the tumuli of Caere are circular in plan, the interior tomb plans are typically rectilinear. They tend to include key elements like a dromos, vestibule, main hall, and tomb chambers with funeral biers, all organized in a linear arrangement. At Caere and Tarquinia the tomb chamber is often carved directly from the bedrock.

Connected to the issue of Etruscan tombs as surrogate evidence for domestic architecture is the debate over the development of the internal articulation of domestic buildings in the archaic period. Since many tomb chambers have both vestibules and main halls, the question of the origins of the Italic atrium naturally arises (see Chapter 18). While some scholars look to the Greek world for models that inspired the development of the classic atrium in Italy (Torelli 2012), during the sixth century, we find spaces in both urban and rural houses that may be identified as precursors to this central organizing feature of the later Roman house. The “House of the Impluvium” at Rusellae, built in the middle of the sixth century BCE over an earlier structure, features a tetrastyle courtyard (ca. 300 m2) that contains a well. Donati connects this layout with the atrium tetrastylium discussed by Vitruvius and reconstructs a roofing system akin to those of late republican impluviate houses (Donati 1994). A portico framed the entry to the structure, and there was a sort of banqueting room, as well as a dedicated space for food preparation as indicated by the presence of a grinding stone, fireplace, and a small larder. At Gonfienti (Comune di Prato) the recent discovery of an Etruscan house dating to the late sixth to early fifth century BCE and with a footprint of 1,270 m2 serves to reinvigorate the discussion about archaic houses in central Italy (Poggesi 2004; Cifani 2008: 275; Poggesi et al. 2010). This structure has a quadrangular plan centered on an internal, impluviate courtyard; at the back is a series of rooms.

The houses at Marzabotto, situated in the Po Plain, offer nearly unique evidence for domestic architecture of the late sixth to early fifth centuries BCE (Govi 2007; Bentz and Reusser 2008). The site’s status as the only purported Etruscan colonial foundation marks it as something of an unusual example of Italic urbanism, for the most part because it remains without adequate comparanda. While Marzabotto’s regularized layout continues to be a topic of scholarly debate, the recently discovered grid plan in the Latin city of Gabii provides a possible near chronological parallel for the evidence at Marzabotto (Becker, Mogetta, and Terrenato 2009). Regardless of the origins or rationale of the site’s plan, the blocks (insulae) contain up to eight houses each and measure 150 m in length; the houses in turn share a common facade along the street. These houses, like Gonfienti and Rusellae, are internally articulated and include a large courtyard (Cifani 2008: 277). Part of this discussion, but resting on less secure evidence, are the domus excavated by Carandini on the north slope of the Palatine Hill in Rome (Carandini and Carafa 1995). Here the structure labeled as “house 3” is advanced as a proto-typical atrium house of the late sixth and early fifth centuries BCE, although this hypothesis has been put forth on the basis of insubstantial structural remains (Cifani 2008: 273–274).

In this period, roofs covered with terracotta roof tiles begin to replace the earlier tradition of thatched roofs. The advent of terracotta roof tiles is an important one, and their arrival demands a more substantial and sophisticated domestic architecture. Further, the practice of using terracotta revetment plaques to sheath the wooden superstructures of Etruscan sacred and ­domestic buildings emerges in this period; Izzet points out that there is scant evidence for the manufacture of molded and painted terracotta frieze plaques and antefixes after the sixth century BCE (Izzet 2007: 163). Acquarossa provides important, early evidence for the advent of architectural terracottas. An open work terracotta acroterion with quadrupeds from Zone B at Acquarossa (third quarter of the seventh century BCE) demonstrates the ornamental function these terracottas assumed in the domestic context (Haynes 2000: 138–139, Figure 117). There is also evidence for the more practical use of these terracottas, including an example that serves to allow smoke to escape from the house interior (Stopponi 1985: 43, Figure 1.2).

Rural architecture also offers important evidence for construction technique and building layout in the archaic period (Figure 1.4). Particularly important are those sites investigated by Bedini, including Torrino and Acqua Acetosa Laurentina (Bedini 1978; 1979; 1980; 1981; 1984; 1990). These rural structures, for the most part, demonstrate a shared morphological tendency, namely a proto-courtyard that tends to progress from being a partially bounded corral-type enclosure to a completely englobed area within the ground plan of the structure. The phenomenon of the courtyard is ­evident quite early in the Via Laurentina sites, such that by the end of the archaic period one can begin to argue for the emergence of the atrium in Italic architecture (Bedini 1990). The origins of the atrium remain fairly troublesome, yet the tendency in archaic architecture strongly suggests that the atrium’s origins are latent in the indigenous tradition and that it is not an imported form.

Directly related to the discussion of the courtyard house in central Italy is the issue of exclusively elite villa structures that become prominent in suburban and peri-urban contexts during the sixth century BCE. A group of these sites has been identified, chief among them the Auditorium site in Rome, discovered in 1997 (Carandini et al