A Companion to U.S. Foreign Relations E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Serie: Blackwell Companions to American History
- Sprache: Englisch
Covers the entire range of the history of U.S. foreign relations from the colonial period to the beginning of the 21st century.
A Companion to U.S. Foreign Relations is an authoritative guide to past and present scholarship on the history of American diplomacy and foreign relations from its seventeenth century origins to the modern day. This two-volume reference work presents a collection of historiographical essays by prominent scholars. The essays explore three centuries of America’s global interactions and the ways U.S. foreign policies have been analyzed and interpreted over time. Scholars offer fresh perspectives on the history of U.S. foreign relations; analyze the causes, influences, and consequences of major foreign policy decisions; and address contemporary debates surrounding the practice of American power.
The Companion covers a wide variety of methodologies, integrating political, military, economic, social and cultural history to explore the ideas and events that shaped U.S. diplomacy and foreign relations and continue to influence national identity. The essays discuss topics such as the links between U.S. foreign relations and the study of ideology, race, gender, and religion; Native American history, expansion, and imperialism; industrialization and modernization; domestic and international politics; and the United States’ role in decolonization, globalization, and the Cold War. A comprehensive approach to understanding the history, influences, and drivers of U.S. foreign relation, this indispensable resource:
- Examines significant foreign policy events and their subsequent interpretations
- Places key figures and policies in their historical, national, and international contexts
- Provides background on recent and current debates in U.S. foreign policy
- Explores the historiography and primary sources for each topic
- Covers the development of diverse themes and methodologies in histories of U.S. foreign policy
Offering scholars, teachers, and students unmatched chronological breadth and analytical depth, A Companion to U.S. Foreign Relations: Colonial Era to the Present is an important contribution to scholarship on the history of America’s interactions with the world.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Volume I
Notes on Contributors
About the Editor
Preface
Acknowledgements
Chapter One: Imperial Crisis, Revolution, and a New Nation, 1763–1803
The Imperial Crisis (1763–1775)
Revolution and War (1775–1783)
Postwar Struggles under the Articles of Confederation (1783–1788)
The Evolution of National Policy Under the Presidencies of Washington, Adams, and Jefferson (1789–1803)
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Chapter Two: The Early Republic in a World of Empire, 1787–1848
Empire by Another Name?
A Postcolonial Empire?
Expansion as Settler Colonialism
Colonization and Empire
Missionaries and Empire
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Chapter Three: Time, Talent, and Treasure: Philanthropy in the Early Republic
The Boundaries of Philanthropic Historiography
Conceptions of Philanthropy in the Early Republic
The Origins of Distant Caring
How was Philanthropy Raced and Gendered?
Where Next?
References
Chapter Four: The Articles of Confederation State System, Early American International Systems, and Antebellum Foreign Policy Analytical Frameworks
“General” Political Interpretive Histories of the Confederation and the “Critical‐Period” Debate
“Traditional” Foreign Policy History Accounts of the Early Republic
Atlantic History, Borderland, and Global Analytical Constructs and Early American Foreign Affairs
The International State System Analytical Approach to Antebellum Foreign Relations
The American Confederation State System, 1781–1789
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Chapter Five: Natural Rights: Haitian–American Diplomacy in the Age of Atlantic Revolutions
Race and Diplomacy in the American Revolution
Revolution and Counterrevolution in Saint‐Domingue
The Revolutionary Diplomacy of John Adams
Counterrevolutionary Diplomacy in the Nineteenth Century
The Slavocracy and Its Foreign Policies
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Chapter Six: Toward a “New Indian History” of Foreign Relations: U.S.–American Indian Diplomacy from Greenville to Wounded Knee, 1795–1890
U.S. Indian Policy as Imperial Policy
The Lessons of Native American and Borderlands History
Diplomacy in an Imperial Context
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Chapter Seven: Many Manifest Destinies
New Directions
New Histories in Practice
Settler Colonialism
Extraterritorial Expansion
Conclusion
References
Chapter Eight: New Research Avenues in the Foreign Relations of the Late Antebellum and Civil War Era
A Republic of Commerce
From Commerce to Migration
A Contest for American Empire
Exploring the Diplomacy of War
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Chapter Nine: Ideology and Interest: The Civil War, U.S. Foreign Affairs, and the World
Great Britain, Wartime Diplomacy, and the Traditional School
Revisionism and Its Critics
The International Politics of the American Civil War
The Transnational Turn
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Chapter Ten: The United States:
Imperium in Imperio
in an Age of Imperialism, 1865–1886
The Aftermath of an Internationalized Civil War
References
Chapter Eleven: New Frontiers beyond the Seas: The Culture of American Empire and Expansion at the Turn of the Twentieth Century
The Historiography of U.S. Foreign Relations
The Origins of the Cultural Turn
Culture Ascendant
New Directions
Conclusion
References
Chapter Twelve: Connection and Disruption: American Industrialization and the World, 1865–1917
American Industrialization, Looking Outward
The Transformation of Trade
Energy and National Security
International Infrastructure: When Impossibilities No Longer Stood in the Way
Conclusion
References
Chapter Thirteen: The Open Door Empire
The Open Door with a Beard: Agrarian Statecraft versus Industrial Statecraft
The Wisconsin School's Reframing: Bipartisan Consensus
The Open Door and the Cold War
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Chapter Fourteen: Theodore Roosevelt's Statecraft and the American Rise to World Power
The Politics of Power
Roosevelt Revisionism
Civilization, Race and Empire
Roosevelt as a Foreign Policy President
Internationalism and World Order
References
Chapter Fifteen: Wilson's Wartime Diplomacy: The United States and the First World War, 1914–1918
The Neutrality Period
The Decision for War
Wartime Diplomacy, 1917–1918
Going Forward
References
Further Reading
Chapter Sixteen: Responding to a Revolution: The “Mexican Question” in the United States
Mexicanist Interpretations
The Politics of Diplomacy and History
Economic Interpretations
Social and Cultural Interpretations, and New Directions
Conclusion
References
Chapter Seventeen: Chrysalis of Power: U.S. Foreign Policy and the Retreat from Isolationism, 1919–1941
The Limits of Wilsonian Diplomacy
Limited Participation: Power and Diplomacy in the 1920s
Retreat to Isolationism
FDR and the Constraints of Isolationism
War and the End of Isolationism
Conclusion
References
Chapter Eighteen: Insulation: The Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt During the Years 1933–1941
Historiographic Survey
Insulating America: U.S. Foreign Relations, 1933–1941
Future Agendas
References
Further Reading
Chapter Nineteen: The United States and International Law, 1776–1939
The Law of Nations and the Early Republic
International Law and Expansion
Arbitration and Peace
Law, Civilization, and Empire
International Law and World Order, 1914–1939
References
Chapter Twenty: U.S. Foreign Relations During World War II
Franklin Roosevelt's War: Studies of Diplomacy and Military Strategy
Controversies, Themes, and New International Approaches
The War at Home: Ideas, Culture, and Memory
Histories of the War in the Future: Some Concluding Thoughts
References
Chapter Twenty-one: Rival and Parallel Missions: America and Soviet Russia, 1917–1945
Revolutions and Interventions, 1917–1920
Nonrecognition, Aid, and Trade, 1921–1933
Recognition and Strained Relations, 1933–1941
Wartime Cooperation
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Chapter Twenty-two: The United States, Transnationalism, and the Jewish Question, 1917–1948
Wilson and the Jews
Zionism in the United States from Wilson to FDR: An Overview
Hoover and the Jews
FDR and the Jews
Truman and the Jews
Conclusion
References
Chapter Twenty-three: Migrants and Transnational Networks in Sino‐American Relations in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries
Gold Mountain, 1850–1882
The Age of Exclusion, 1882–1943
Cold Warriors, 1943–1965
The Model Minority, 1965–Present
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Chapter Twenty-Four: The Burden of Empire: The United States in the Philippines, 1898–1965
1898, National Exceptionalism, and U.S. Imperial Culture
Sovereignty, War, and a Colonial Archive
State‐ and Nation‐Building
Transnational and Global Imperial Terrains
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Chapter Twenty-five: A History of U.S. International Policing
The First Century of Policing
The Global Expansion of U.S. Policing
The Rise of Federal Agencies, 1908–1945
The Americanization of International Policing
International Policing in the Twenty‐First Century
Directions for Future Research
References
Volume II
Notes on Contributors
About the Editor
Preface
Acknowledgements
Chapter Twenty-six: Black Internationalism from Berlin to Black Lives Matter
Racial Capitalism and Black Internationalism
The Age of Imperialism and Jim Crow
New Negroes
Cold War, Civil Rights, and Black Power
Black Lives Matter
References
Chapter Twenty-seven: Drugs, Empire, and U.S. Foreign Policy
Colonialism and the Global Drug Trade
The Shift toward Drug Control
The Cold War and its Hot Legacies
Conclusion
References
Chapter Twenty-eight: Military Occupations and Overseas Bases in Twentieth‐Century U.S. Foreign Relations
Occupations and Overseas Military Outposts before World War II
World War II
Postwar Occupations and the Military‐Base Empire
Conclusion
References
Chapter Twenty-Nine: Remaking the World: The United States and International Development, 1898–2015
Development and Imperial Continuity
Development and Modernization Theory
Development as Democracy Short‐Changed
International Development as Liberal Reform Boomerang
Development as Misguided Technopolitics
Development in Crisis and the Neoliberal Turn
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Chapter Thirty: The Early Cold War: Studies of Cold War America in the Twenty‐First Century
Earlier “Cultural Turn” Scholarship
The “Religious Turn” in the Twenty‐First Century
Reexamining Childhood, Gender, and Sexuality
Race and Ethnicity in Cold War America
Reexamining Race and Ethnicity in Cold War America
Reconsidering Anticommunism, Reconceptualizing the Cold War World
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Chapter Thirty-one: U.S. Power in a Material World
Spatial Form
Spatial Practices
Spatial History
The Historical Material of U.S. Empire
Conclusion
References
Chapter Thirty-Two: Propaganda in The Best Sense of the Word? Public Diplomacy and U.S. Diplomatic History Since World War I
The Cultural Turn and After
Defining Propaganda in American Political Culture
The Committee on Public Information and Interwar Progressive Critiques
Progressives, Latin America, Cultural Humanism, and National Power
The United States Information Agency and the Cold War
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter Thirty-Three: Waging War with Words, 1945–1963
The Truman Administration
The Eisenhower Administration
The Kennedy Administration
Cultural Diplomacy in the Cold War
Conclusion
References
Chapter Thirty-Four: Between Two Ages: The United States, Decolonization, and Globalization in the Long 1960s
Ignorance of Whiteness
What Goes Up
No More Water
Conclusion
References
Chapter Thirty-Five: Foreign Policy in the “Backyard”: The Historiography of U.S.–Latin American Relations in the Mid‐Twentieth Century
Where to Start: The Nationalist‐Paternalist School
From National‐Paternalist to Realism
From Realism to Revisionism
Post‐Revisionism and the Case of Guatemala
Post‐Revisionism, the Alliance for Progress, and the Specter of a Communist Cuba
U.S.–Chilean Relations During the Allende Government of 1970–1973
New Subfields: Intellectual History and Latin American Agency
New Directions in Culture and Decolonization
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Further Reading
Chapter Thirty-Six: U.S. Culture and the Cuban Revolution
The Long Cold War Between Havana and Washington, D.C.
Exiles and Refugees
Revolution and a New Global Left
References
Chapter Thirty-Seven: After the Panic: Writing the History of U.S.–Japan Relations Since the Occupation
Historical and Historiographic Bubbles
Cold War Miracles
Restoring Sovereignty and Building Stability
A Japanese Consensus
New Perspectives After the Panic
References
Chapter Thirty-Eight: The Nuclear Revolution in American Foreign Policy during the Cold War
Orthodoxy
Revisionism
Post‐Revisionism
International History and New Categories of Analysis
Conclusion
References
Chapter Thirty-Nine: Against the Bomb: Nuclear Disarmament and Domestic Politics
The Origins of Nuclear Weapons and Nuclear Protest
Early Movements Against the Bomb, 1945–1949
Nuclear Fallout and Arms Control, 1949–1963
The Antinuclear Movement in an Age of Activism, 1964–1978
Nuclear Protest Revives, 1979–1991
Conclusion
References
Chapter Forty: Interminable: The Historiography of the Vietnam War, 1945–1975
The United States and the First Indochina War
The Origins of the Insurgency
From Kennedy to Johnson
Wrong War, Better War, Etc.
Development, Nation‐Building, and Pacification
Soldiering
Nixon's War
The Scapegoats: The Antiwar Movement, Congress, and the Media
The International and Vietnamese “Turns”
Conclusion
References
Chapter Forty‐One: The Cold War in Sub‐Saharan Africa
U.S. Cold War Relations with Africa by Presidential Administration
Battleground Africa: The Congo
Portuguese Africa: The Azores and War in Angola
South Africa and Apartheid
Rhodesia/Zimbabwe: White Power and Black Nationalism
Ethiopia and the Ogaden War
The Soviet Union and Cold War Africa
Mid‐Level Powers and the Cold War in Africa
Conclusion
References
Chapter Forty‐Two: The United States and Arab–Israeli Conflict, 1948–1982
The Cold War and the Arab–Israeli Conflict
The Flawed Architect
Jimmy Carter and the Missing Palestinians
The “Special Relationship”
References
Chapter Forty‐Three: Mineral Frontiers in the Twentieth Century
Minerals as Magnets and Dynamos of Geopolitics
The Expansion of Extractive Capitalism
Mineral Biographies, Governance, and Modernity
New Horizons
References
Chapter Forty‐Four: Oil and U.S. Foreign Relations
Writing the History of Oil
General Histories of Oil and Energy
U.S. Foreign Policy and the Rise of the Modern Oil Industry
The Postwar Era
The United States and Middle Eastern Oil
The Oil Crisis of the 1970s
Future Directions for Oil History
References
Chapter Forty‐Five: Oil, Empire, and Covert Action: New Directions in the Historiography of U.S.–Iraqi Relations
Iraqi Oil and the Myth of the “Open Door”
Oil and the Cold War
The Kurds and Covert Action
The United States and the Iran–Iraq War
Conclusion
References
Chapter Forty‐Six: Iran and the Academy: Intellectual Paths to and from Revolution in the United States
The Cold War
The Pahlavi State
The Search for Narrative
Multidisciplinary Multiplicity
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Chapter Forty‐Seven: The United States and Afghanistan: Ambiguity and Impasse, 1945–2015
The British Precedent for U.S.–Afghan Relations
The United States, Afghanistan, and the Global Cold War
The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, 1979–1989
The Taliban and the War on Terror
Conclusion
References
Chapter Forty-Eight: Ambivalent Partnerships, Enduring Dilemmas: The United States, India, and Pakistan After Partition
The Literature in Overview
Truman and South Asia
Fateful Choices: The Eisenhower Years
Tilting Toward India
Calamity and Recovery: The 1970s
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Chapter Forty‐Nine: Transnational Activism in U.S.–Central America Relations in the 1980s
The Origins of Turmoil in Central America
The Causes of Early Activism
The Burgeoning Movement of the 1970s
Concern for Refugees in the 1980s
The Turn Toward Nicaragua
Supporters of U.S. Policy
Scholars' Approaches to the Solidarity Movement
Successes, Failures, and Legacies of the Movement
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter Fifty: The Reagan Administration and the World, 1981–1988
Contemporaneous Accounts
Reagan versus the Reagan Administration
“Toward a Neo‐Reaganite Foreign Policy”
Reagan Revisionism
Post‐Reagan Revisionism
9/11, George W. Bush, and Reagan
Trump's National Security Strategy
Further Exploration
References
Chapter Fifty‐One: The Changing History of the End of the Cold War
Periodization
Efficacy
Agency
Legacies
Conclusion
References
Chapter Fifty‐Two: The Obama Era: Retrenchment and the Challenge of a “Post‐American” World, 2009–2017
Mission Failure?
The Obama Doctrine
Continuity and Change
Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
Chapter 34
New World United States Collective Defense Arrangements (Washington, DC, 195...
One World Peace Corps around the world (Washington, DC, 1966).
Global Village Telecommunications and the World (
The Guardian
, 1996).
Guide
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Volume I
WILEY BLACKWELL COMPANIONS TO AMERICAN HISTORY
This series provides essential and authoritative overviews of the scholarship that has shaped our present understanding of the American past. Edited by eminent historians, each volume tackles one of the major periods or themes of American history, with individual topics authored by key scholars who have spent considerable time in research on the questions and controversies that have sparked debate in their field of interest. The volumes are accessible for the non‐specialist, while also engaging scholars seeking a reference to the historiography or future concerns.
A Companion to the American RevolutionEdited by Jack P. Greene and J. R. Pole
A Companion to 19th‐Century AmericaEdited by William L. Barney
A Companion to the American SouthEdited by John B. Boles
A Companion to American Women’s HistoryEdited by Nancy Hewitt
A Companion to American Indian HistoryEdited by Philip J. Deloria and Neal Salisbury
A Companion to Post‐1945 AmericaEdited by Jean‐Christophe Agnew and Roy Rosenzweig
A Companion to the Vietnam WarEdited by Marilyn Young and Robert Buzzanco
A Companion to Colonial AmericaEdited by Daniel Vickers
A Companion to American Foreign RelationsEdited by Robert Schulzinger
A Companion to 20th‐Century AmericaEdited by Stephen J. Whitfield
A Companion to the American WestEdited by William Deverell
A Companion to the Civil War and ReconstructionEdited by Lacy K. Ford
A Companion to American TechnologyEdited by Carroll Pursell
A Companion to African‐American HistoryEdited by Alton Hornsby
A Companion to American ImmigrationEdited by Reed Ueda
A Companion to American Cultural HistoryEdited by Karen Halttunen
A Companion to California HistoryEdited by William Deverell and David Igler
A Companion to American Military HistoryEdited by James Bradford
A Companion to Los AngelesEdited by William Deverell and Greg Hise
A Companion to American Environmental HistoryEdited by Douglas Cazaux Sackman
A Companion to Benjamin FranklinEdited by David Waldstreicher
A Companion to World War Two (2 volumes)Edited by Thomas W. Zeiler with Daniel M. DuBois
A Companion to American Legal HistoryEdited by Sally E. Hadden and Alfred L. Brophy
A Companion to the Gilded Age and Progressive EraEdited by Christopher McKnight Nichols and Nancy C. Unger
A Companion to U.S. Foreign Relations: Colonial Era to the Present (2 volumes)Edited by Christopher R. W. Dietrich
A Companion to U.S. Foreign Relations
Colonial Era to the Present
Edited by
Christopher R. W. Dietrich
Volume I
This edition first published 2020© 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Name: Dietrich, Christopher R. W., author.Title: A companion to U.S. foreign relations : colonial era to the present / Christopher R. W. Dietrich, ed.Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2020. | Series: Wiley Blackwell companions to American history | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Contents: v. 1. Colonial era to the present –Identifiers: LCCN 2019037182 (print) | LCCN 2019037183 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119166108 (v. 1 ; hardback) | ISBN 9781119166108 (v. 2 ; hardback) | ISBN 9781119459408 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119459699 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: United States–Foreign relations.Classification: LCC E183.7 .D474 2020 (print) | LCC E183.7 (ebook) | DDC 327.73–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019037182LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019037183
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Notes on Contributors
Benjamin A. Coates is Associate Professor of History at Wake Forest University. He is the author of Legalist Empire: International Law and American Foreign Relations in the Early Twentieth Century (2016). He has published scholarly articles in Diplomatic History, Modern American History, and Journal of American History, the latter of which won the Binkley‐Stephenson Award.
Emily Conroy‐Krutz is Associate Professor of History at Michigan State University. She is the author of Christian Imperialism: Converting the World in the Early American Republic (2015), and her articles have appeared in Journal of the Early Republic, Early American Studies, and Diplomatic History.
Andre Fleche is Professor of History at Castleton University. He is the author of The Revolution of 1861: The American Civil War in the Age of Nationalist Conflict (2012), which received the James A. Rawley Award from the Southern Historical Association. His scholarly articles have been published in Civil War History, Journal of the Civil War Era, and South Central Review.
David S. Foglesong is Professor of History at Rutgers University. He is the author of The American Mission and the “Evil Empire”: The Crusade for a “Free Russia” Since 1881 (2007) and America’s Secret War Against Bolshevism: U.S. Intervention in the Russian Civil War, 1917–1920 (1995).
Ronald Angelo Johnson is Associate Professor of History at Texas State University. He is the author of Diplomacy in Black and White: John Adams, Toussaint Louverture, and Their Atlantic World Alliance (2014). His articles have appeared in History Compass, Early American Studies, and Baptist History & Heritage.
Andrew Johnstone is Director of American Studies and Associate Professor in American History at the University of Leicester. He is the author or editor of four books, including U.S. Presidential Elections and Foreign Policy: Candidates, Campaigns, and Global Politics from F.D.R. to Bill Clinton (2017) and Against Immediate Evil: American Internationalists and the Four Freedoms on the Eve of World War II (2014).
Ross A. Kennedy is Professor of History and Chair of the History Department at Illinois State University. He is the editor of A Companion to Woodrow Wilson (2013) and the author of The Will to Believe: Woodrow Wilson, World War I, and America’s Strategy for Peace and Security (2009), which won the Scott Bills Prize in Peace History.
Charles Laderman is Lecturer in International History at King’s College London. He is the author of Sharing the Burden: The Armenian Question, Humanitarian Intervention, and Anglo‐American Visions of Global Order (2019) and co‐author of Donald Trump: The Making of a World View (2017). His articles have appeared in Diplomatic History and Orbis.
Phillip W. Magness is a Senior Research Fellow at the American Institute for Economic Research in Great Barrington, MA. He is the co‐author of Cracks in the Ivory Tower: The Moral Mess of Higher Education (2019) and of Colonization after Emancipation: Lincoln and the Movement for Black Resettlement (2011). His articles have appeared in Social Science Quarterly, Journal of the History of Economic Thought, Slavery & Abolition, and Journal of the Early Republic.
Daniel Margolies is Professor of History and Chair of the History Department at Virginia Wesleyan University. He is the author or editor of four books, including Spaces of Law in American Foreign Relations (2011) and Henry Watterson and the New South: The Politics of Empire, Free Trade, and Globalization (2006). His work has appeared in Journal of American Culture, American Studies, and Southwestern Law Review.
Elspeth Martini is Assistant Professor of History at Montclair State University. She specializes in Native American and First Nations diplomacy and North American borderlands, and is the author of numerous articles and chapters in edited collections.
B. J. C. McKercher is Professor of History at the University of Victoria and the author and editor of 17 books, including Transition of Power: Britain’s Loss of Global Preeminence to the United States, 1930–1945 (1999). He is the editor of the journal Diplomacy & Statecraft.
David Narrett is Professor of History at the University of Texas at Arlington. He is the author of Inheritance and Family Life in Colonial New York City (1992) and Adventurism and Empire: The Struggle for Mastery in the Louisiana‐Florida Borderlands, 1762–1803 (2015), and his articles have appeared in The Southwestern Historical Quarterly, New York History, and The William and Mary Quarterly.
Meredith Oyen is Associate Professor of History at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County. She is the author of The Diplomacy of Migration: Transnational Lives and the Making of U.S.–Chinese Relations in the Cold War (2015). Her articles have appeared in Diplomatic History, Journal of Cold War Studies, and Modern Asian Studies.
Marc‐William Palen is Senior Lecturer at the University of Exeter. He is the author of The “Conspiracy” of Free Trade: The Anglo‐American Struggle over Empire and Economic Globalisation, 1846–1896 (2016). He is the editor of Imperial and Global Forum, and has published articles in Diplomatic History, Historical Journal, and Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History.
Kiran Klaus Patel is Professor of History at Ludwig Maximilian University Munich. He is the author of Project Europe: A History (2020); The New Deal: A Global History (2016) and Soldiers of Labor: Labor Service in Nazi Germany and New Deal America, 1933–1945 (2005).
Brian Rouleau is Associate Professor of History at Texas A&M University. His book, With Sails Whitening Every Sea: Mariners and the Making of an American Maritime Empire (2014), won the James Broussard Prize from the Society for Historians of the Early American Republic. He is the author of articles in Diplomatic History, Journal of the Early Republic, and Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era.
Peter A. Shulman is Associate Professor of History at Case Western Review University. He is the author of Coal and Empire: The Birth of Energy Security in Industrial America (2015) and has published articles in Journal of Global History, Journal of Policy History, and History and Technology.
Anelise Hanson Shrout is Assistant Professor of Digital and Computational Studies at Bates College. She is the editor of the Digital Almshouse Project and her articles have appeared in Digital Humanities Quarterly, Journal of the Early Republic, and Early American Studies.
Sarah Steinbock‐Pratt is Assistant Professor of History at the University of Alabama. She is the author of Educating the Empire: American Teachers and Contested Colonization in the Philippines (2019), as well as scholarly articles in Gender & History and Women’s Studies.
Christy Thornton is Assistant Professor of Sociology and Latin American Studies at Johns Hopkins University. She received her PhD in history from New York University and has been a fellow in the Weatherhead Initiative on Global History at Harvard University. Her first book, Revolution in Development: Mexico and the Governance of the Global Economy is under contract with the University of California Press.
Robbie J. Totten is Associate Professor and Chair of the Politics & Global Studies Department at the American Jewish University. His articles have appeared in Diplomatic History, Diplomacy & Statecraft, the Georgetown Immigration Law Journal, the Journal of Interdisciplinary History, and the UC Davis Journal of International Law & Policy.
Katherine Unterman is Associate Professor of History at Texas A&M University. She is the author of Uncle Sam’s Policemen: The Pursuit of Fugitives Across Borders (2015) and has published articles in Law and History Review, South Central Review, and Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era, the last of which won the Fishel‐Calhoun Prize.
Colleen Woods is Assistant Professor of History at the University of Maryland. She is the author of Freedom Incorporated: Anticommunism and Philippine Independence in the Age of Decolonization (2020) and of articles in Journal of Contemporary History and LABOR: Studies of Working‐Class History.
Sonja Wentling is Professor of History and Global Studies at Concordia College. She is the co‐author of Herbert Hoover and the Jews: The Origins of the “Jewish Vote” and Bipartisan Support for Israel (2012) and the author of articles in Journal of the Historical Society, American Jewish Archives, and American Jewish History.
About the Editor
Christopher R. W. Dietrich is Associate Professor of History and Director of American Studies at Fordham University. His first book, Oil Revolution, tracks the rise of anticolonial political economic thought among elites from oil‐producing nations in the Middle East and Latin America from the 1950s to the 1970s. It was published by Cambridge University Press in 2017. He has won awards and fellowships from the Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations, the American Historical Association, the National History Center, the Woodrow Wilson Foundation, the International Studies Association, and others. He is currently completing a book on oil, U.S. foreign relations, and domestic society from World War I to the present. Originally from Decatur, Georgia, he resides in New York City.
Preface
Many Histories
What follows is a collection of highly informative essays on the writing of the history of the foreign relations of the United States. But historiography is always more than just a literature review. These volumes ask a series of crucial questions about the past: What have been the key moments and themes in the history of U.S. foreign relations? How do those moments reflect the broader nature of the nation's global interactions? How did the United States become a colonial power and a global superpower? Who has shaped and been shaped by major foreign‐policy decisions, at home and abroad? In short, why is the study of the history of U.S. foreign relations so fundamentally important?
The essays here represent the work of a new generation of scholars who pose these and other probing questions that reach to the heart of American national identity. A brief word on the field’s critics is useful here. Writing on the history of U.S. foreign relations has never really been restricted to the field of “diplomatic history” – the enlightening but sometimes cramped study of powerful officials and the outward‐looking policies they made. To depict diplomatic history as simply “the world according to Washington,” as some have, was always to build a bit of a straw man. But scholarship written in the past generation has included an ampler array of actors and ideas beyond conventional policymakers like presidents and secretaries of state, beyond conventional arguments about grand strategy and national security. Scholars of ideology and political economy have revealed the ways in which the formation and international rise of American power was entwined with imperial expansion and global integration. Historians of labor, migration, development, and human rights have examined international networks and the place of modernization, morality, and movement in the decisions of state and non‐state actors. The upsurge in cultural and social history in the past two decades has encouraged historians to weave U.S. foreign relations together with histories of race, gender, class, national identity, and religion. Scholars have increasingly unearthed the economic, racial, and patriarchal structures that undergirded U.S. power in the nineteenth century and after. Historians of popular culture and politics have helped us understand how social movements, media, and nongovernmental organizations shape the myriad interactions of the United States with other actors. Global and international historians have encouraged us to remember that American actors, while exceedingly powerful in the twentieth century, never operated in a vacuum. Americans did have a great deal of what historians call “agency” – the power to transform their own and other peoples' lives – but their possibilities were shaped by events beyond their control as often as not.
Such insights have allowed this generation of historians to write new histories that build on ongoing debates about the nature of American international power, rather than replace them. Such a roomy understanding of the history of U.S. foreign relations should be celebrated, and this collection serves as a snapshot of a dynamic field. The first volume contains essays that analyze the history of U.S. foreign relations from the eighteenth century to the middle of the twentieth, a period in which the United States won independence, expanded its borders rapidly, fought major wars, and joined the ranks of the modern, industrial imperial powers. Readers will find much of interest in terms of traditional questions of power, expansion, and wealth. They will also find essays that cover topics from propaganda to philanthropy, that discuss the lives of people from legislators and diplomats to artists and missionaries. The contributors cover a wide variety of methodologies, drawing from fields of U.S. political, diplomatic, legal, and military history. They examine the links between U.S. foreign relations and the study of American culture, ideology, race, gender, and religion, as well as the study of migration, Native American history, the political economies of industrialization and imperialism, and U.S. interactions with a wide variety of characters at home and abroad.
Great new opportunities have opened up with the deeper integration of the history of U.S. foreign relations with other schools of study. The chapters of the second volume analyze a dizzying array of topics for the period dominated by the Cold War, decolonization, and U.S.‐led globalization. The volume begins with a series of essays on military bases, black internationalism, development, narcotics, public diplomacy, decolonization, and other topics. Subsequent chapters examine U.S. relations with different actors from Europe, Latin America, Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. The volume also features essays on the Vietnam War, nuclear politics and diplomacy, international political economy, and the end of the Cold War. As in the first volume, the chapters analyze older and newer currents of thought in the history of U.S. foreign relations, including the study of human rights, non‐state actors and non‐U.S. perspectives, modernization and development, natural resources, and the material and cultural worlds inhabited by U.S. actors and their interlocutors.
The result is wonderfully messy. Just as different pasts bleed into different presents, so too are the borders of the topography of the history of U.S. foreign relations not neatly parceled out. The study of diplomacy was and still is a question of how people used the levers of power and wealth, and diplomacy continues to provide a well‐defined center and periphery to the flourishing range of approaches discussed in the following pages. All the while, new approaches have helped us understand not only official decision‐making but also the wider world that informs it. This project is thus meant above all to help students, scholars, and the general public take in hand the challenging and fascinating scope not of the singular story but of the many histories of U.S. foreign relations. Its essays reveal the benefits of the inclusive spirit that should be at the core of modern historical scholarship. Different methods in historians' toolkits can congregate to provide us with a better understanding of the past.
Historical research in the last decade has drawn our attention to the many causes and consequences of crucial moments and trends in the history of U.S. foreign relations – from the American Revolution to the Cold War to the Global War on Terror. At the most fundamental level, the histories that follow remind us how the nation's interactions at home and abroad have shaped not just the practice of American power but the ways it has been understood over time: how people work out what values and interests drive U.S. foreign relations, what consequences derive from the practice of American power, what it means to be American. These are questions for yesterday, for today, and for all time.
New York, NYDecember 2019
Acknowledgements
Writing the acknowledgements for a project as large as this is a particularly formidable task. It has been a joy to learn from the contributors to these two volumes, and I thank them for sharing their time and expertise. Each has admirably surveyed their niche in this fascinating field, and all have linked their topics to the deeper questions of change and continuity over the course of the history of U.S. foreign relations. I am delighted with the marvelous intellectual work they have produced. I thank the authors for their perseverance and professionalism, for enduring endless updates and request for revisions, and for putting up with me.
The project emerged from conversations with Jeremi Suri at the University of Texas at Austin and Peter Coveney at Wiley‐Blackwell. It is an honor to join the Companions to American History series, and I am grateful to Peter for allowing me to run with the idea. Thanks to my current team at Wiley‐Blackwell, Jennifer Manias, Skyler Van Valkenburgh, Liz Wingett, Lesley Drewitt, and Sakthivel Kandaswamy, for working tirelessly in shepherding the project to completion. My colleagues at Fordham University – especially Asif Siddiqi, Kirsten Swinth, Silvana Patriarca, David Hamlin, Daniel Soyer, Wes Alcenat, Samantha Iyer, Magda Teter, Yuko Miki, David Myers, Magda Teter, Carl Fischer, Glenn Hendler, and Saul Cornell – have generously shared their wisdom.
My partner Verónica Jiménez Vega and my son Emiliano Dietrich‐Jiménez deserve many thanks and much love for their consistent support. Finally, I would like to thank our readers. To capture the motivations and beliefs of people in the past is the historian's trade, but you are the reason for our work.
Chapter OneImperial Crisis, Revolution, and a New Nation, 1763–1803
David Narrett
The immediate origins of U.S. foreign relations lie in the period following the Seven Years' War. It was then that American colonists invoked English constitutional principles in opposition to the mother country's new taxation measures and stringent customs regulation. Parliament's Coercive Acts of 1774 galvanized colonial protests to new heights, triggering the meeting of the First Continental Congress. While not calling for independence, Congress resolved on October 14, 1774 that Parliament could not legitimately bind the colonies' “external commerce” unless such regulations worked “to the mutual benefit of both countries.” This defense of “American rights” was soon buttressed by the Continental Association – local committees dedicated to enforcing the non‐importation of British goods (Ford et al. 1904–1937, 1, pp. 66, 68–69). An autonomous American commercial policy was evident before the first shots were fired at Lexington on April 19, 1775.
It is difficult to overstate the radical change in American colonial perspectives that occurred from the British conquest of Canada in 1760 to the congressional resolves of 1774. In 1760, Benjamin Franklin rejoiced at a shared imperial triumph: “I have long been of Opinion, that the Foundations of the future Grandeur and Stability of the British Empire, lie in America; and tho’, like other Foundations, they are low and little seen, they are nevertheless, broad and Strong enough to support the greatest Political Structure Human Wisdom ever yet erected” (Franklin to Lord Kames, Jan. 3, 1760, in Labaree et al. 1959–2017, 9, p. 7). Fourteen years later, Franklin described British foes of American rights as being so ignorant of the colonies that they “appear to be no better acquainted with their History or Constitution than they are with the Inhabitants of the Moon” (Franklin to Lord Buckinghamshire, Apr. 2, 1774, in Labaree et al. 1959–2017, 21, p. 177). Paradoxically, U.S. foreign relations were born in conflict against imperial Britain, while also being shaped by British colonial foundations, which influenced the fledgling nation's engagement in continental and Atlantic spheres in both war and peace.
A major historical debate in early American foreign relations involves the character of nationhood – how the United States seemingly followed paths to independence, sovereignty, and power that moved inexorably toward continental empire, the spread of republican institutions, and commercial liberalism on the world stage. Robert Kagan, one recent proponent of this view, writes: “At America's birth … foreign policy and national identity were intimately bound together, and they would remain so for the next two centuries” (2006, p. 42). Kagan sees the American pursuit of empire stirred by a “revolutionary ideology,” which made “the young American republic dangerous in the eyes of others,” whether those “others” were European monarchies or Indian peoples who stood in the way (2006, p. 4).
Eliga Gould offers a quite different analysis than Kagan's by emphasizing how the United States began as a “protean and contingent polity” that struggled to gain international respect and to “appear worthy of peaceful relations with other nations” (2012, pp. 12–13). From still another perspective, early American foreign relations may be explained through the problem of union – beginning with the difficulty that Great Britain faced when tightening control over American colonies which viewed themselves as equal members of the empire. The United States necessarily had to find new federative structures to endure as a nation, let alone to acquire power in continental and maritime spheres. As Gould and Peter S. Onuf jointly explain: “The dialectic of whole and part, of diversity in union, was central to constructing a viable constitutional order for the United States … The great question was whether identification with Britain could be redirected toward ‘America,’ and whether an alliance of state‐republics could effectively replace, and fulfill the promise of, the imperial connection” (2005, p. 7). The American Union's gradual accretion of power spelled retreat for Native peoples, especially as the latter lost European imperial support (Sadosky 2009, p. 8). Moreover, U.S. territorial expansion raised the issue of slavery's growth and attendant sectional rivalry. The Southern states' dependence on slavery had its own imperial impetus. Slaveholders were not only eager for new lands but also wary that escaped blacks would find refuge in bordering foreign or Indian territories.
These and other important issues in the history of American foreign relations from 1763 to the Louisiana Purchase of 1803 may be examined in four main periods: imperial crisis (1763–1775), revolution and war (1775–1783), postwar struggles under the Articles of Confederation (1783–1788), and the evolution of national policy under the presidencies of Washington, Adams, and Jefferson (1789–1803). These periods should be considered as guideposts within a broad and multifaceted story.
The Imperial Crisis (1763–1775)
While the Stamp Act crisis of 1765 centered on the issue of Parliamentary taxation, it also exhibited colonial disquiet with British policies for the North American interior. The Revenue or Sugar Act (1764) and the Stamp Act mandated that tax revenues be applied toward the growing cost of colonial defense and administration. In early 1763, about 8000 British soldiers were stationed in frontier outposts such as Fort Pitt and Detroit as well as in Canada (Shy 1965, p. 114). Small garrisons were soon established in East and West Florida. (“The Floridas” – as Britons dubbed those colonies – came into the empire by the English acquisition of former Spanish and French territories as stipulated in the Treaty of Paris of 1763.) Colonials along the Atlantic seaboard viewed Great Britain – and not themselves – as bound to pay for regular troops in these areas. Colonial opinion on this point was little affected by Pontiac's War (1763–1765), a violent upsurge of Indian resistance against the British presence in the Ohio country and the Great Lakes region.
Rejecting Parliamentary taxation on constitutional grounds, colonial declarations of rights expressed a particular sense of responsibility within the empire. John Dickinson's “Farmer's” Letters of 1767, written in response to the Townshend Acts, contended that Americans merited special dispensation from the mother country because the colonies were obligated to import British manufactures under the Navigation Acts. Moreover, taxes that drained American pocketbooks would necessarily weaken the British economy, which depended in large measure on transatlantic trade. Colonials wanted economic reciprocity on their own terms, not imperial dictation. The non‐importation movement encouraged ordinary colonists as well as elites to express a shared pride in American identity. Alarmed by colonial protests, royal ministers such as George Grenville and Charles Townshend could not fathom why American subjects should be so adamant against shouldering any tax burden on behalf of an empire that protected them.
Historians have taken diverse approaches to explaining the escalating tensions between Britain and the colonies. During the 1960s, Bernard Bailyn illuminated the Revolution's ideological origins by analyzing radical Whig perceptions that made colonials acutely protective of their liberties (Bailyn 1967). Theodore Draper has probed “the struggle for power” between an empire bent on upholding metropolitan authority and colonies forging their own path and breaking away from “external restraints and prohibitions” (1995, p. 516). In truth, there was a complex interplay between American ideology and interest. One should also emphasize political fissures within both Great Britain and its North American colonies. A minority in the British governing elite sharply criticized ministerial policy in 1774–1775, while many colonials were either ambivalent or opposed to the movement toward independence.
British trans‐Appalachian policy is a significant and yet often overlooked element of the imperial crisis. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established a provisional boundary line between colonial settlement zones east of the Appalachians and Indian “hunting grounds” to the west. The Proclamation, which was issued during Pontiac's War, reflected a concerted British attempt to stabilize North American frontiers and to prevent the recurrence of colonial–Indian conflicts that would require royal military intervention. The King's government deliberately replaced General Jeffrey Amherst, British commander‐in‐chief in North America, whom the ministry blamed for precipitating Pontiac's War by his ham‐fisted management of Indian relations (Anderson 2000, pp. 552–553).
Anglo‐American ambitions were hardly stilled by the Proclamation Line. The crown itself had set a precedent for provincial expansionists by authorizing a huge land grant in 1749 to the Ohio Company – a partnership of wealthy Virginians who intended to promote settlement at the Forks of the Ohio and adjoining territory. British victory in the Seven Years' War encouraged the formation of new land
