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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Activity Based Cotsting for Construction Companies provides guidelines on how overhead costs can be managed for using Activity Based Costing (ABC), providing gains in contractor competiveness. Illustrated with a range of case studies and examples it also presents a map that shows construction contractors how to implement ABC to calculate overhead costs accurately, identifying non or low-value added operations which can then be improved.
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Seitenzahl: 195
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Preface
1 Introduction
1.1 What comprises costs in a construction company?
1.2 Overhead costs in new business environments
1.3 Role of overhead cost management
1.4 Structure of this book
References
2 What Is Activity-Based Costing?
2.1 Traditional accounting method: resource-based costing with volume-based allocation
2.2 What are the problems with the current method?
2.3 What is activity-based costing?
2.4 Implementing activity-based costing
2.5 Chapter summary
References
3 Managing Overhead Costs in Construction Projects
3.1 Project overhead costs as profit points
3.2 Implementing ABC to manage project overhead costs
3.3 Case study: xx Commercial Complex
3.4 Using ABC data for managerial purposes
3.5 Chapter summary
References
4 Managing Your General Overhead Costs
4.1 General overhead costs
4.2 Managing general overhead costs
4.3 Does current practice for managing general overhead costs work?
4.4 How can ABC be implemented in managing general overhead costs?
4.5 How can ABC data be used in managing general overhead costs?
4.6 Chapter summary
References
5 Managing Overhead Costs in a Fabrication Shop
5.1 Rebar supply system
5.2 Case study: PQR Construction Inc.
5.3 Analysis using traditional rebar costs allocation
5.4 Analysis using activity-based costing
5.5 How can ABC data be used for managerial purposes?
5.6 Chapter summary
References
6 Activity-Based Costing in Your Organization
6.1 The benefits of the ABC journey
6.2 Implementation roadmap for ABC
6.3 Common mistakes in the journey
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 01
Table 1.1 Cost classification examples in the construction industry (general contractor’s perspective).
Chapter 02
Table 2.1 Overhead assignment example.
Table 2.2 Example of time data on budget approval.
Table 2.3 Example of time–effort percentage method.
Table 2.4 Example of facility costs allocated to departments.
Table 2.5 Example of facility costs (Department #5) allocated to activities.
Table 2.6 Cost driver selection criteria.
Table 2.7 Example of budget ratio.
Chapter 03
Table 3.1 Activity centers and activities.
Table 3.2 Template time–effort % table.
Table 3.3 Time–effort % table.
Table 3.4 Monthly activity costs.
Table 3.5 List of cost drivers.
Table 3.6 Unit rate of activity costs.
Table 3.7 Overhead costs of the cost object (buildings).
Table 3.8 Overhead costs of the cost object (work divisions).
Table 3.9 Management area analysis.
Table 3.10 Management area analysis (comparison analysis).
Table 3.11 Activity cost analysis results.
Table 3.12 Cost driver analysis.
Table 3.13 Work division cost analysis.
Table 3.14 Example of MBR comparison.
Chapter 04
Table 4.1 Income statement.
Table 4.2 Income statement by market sectors (revenue-based allocation).
Table 4.3 Income statement by market sectors (accurate overhead allocation).
Table 4.4 Income statement.
Table 4.5 Major components of general overhead costs.
Table 4.6 Scope of ABC.
Table 4.7 Major functions and activity centers.
Table 4.8 List of activities.
Table 4.9 Example of survey results (time–effort % method).
Table 4.10 List of cost drivers.
Table 4.11 List of activity costs.
Table 4.12 Unit rates of activity costs.
Table 4.13 Volume of cost drivers on each cost object.
Table 4.14 Costs of cost objects.
Table 4.15 Cost driver analysis.
Table 4.16 Income schedule using a traditional volume-based allocation.
Table 4.17 Income schedule using ABC.
Table 4.18 Changes in net profit ratio, projects.
Table 4.19 Income schedule using volume-based allocation, market sector.
Table 4.20 Income schedule using ABC, market sector.
Table 4.21 Profit % changes, market sector.
Table 4.22 Income schedule using volume-based allocation, customer.
Table 4.23 Income schedule using ABC, market sector, customer.
Table 4.24 Profit % changes, customer.
Chapter 05
Table 5.1 Cost breakdown of rebar fabrication costs.
Table 5.2 Schedule of profitability using traditional costing method.
Table 5.3 List of human resources in ABC system.
Table 5.4 Activity list.
Table 5.5 Time–effort % table.
Table 5.6 Activity costs.
Table 5.7 List of cost drivers.
Table 5.8 Volume of cost drivers (1 month).
Table 5.9 Overhead cost allocation using ABC.
Table 5.10 Schedule of profitability using activity-based costing.
Table 5.11 Cost comparison: traditional vs. activity-based costing.
Table 5.12 Cost driver rate information.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 01
Figure 1.1 Cost structure of a construction contractor.
Figure 1.2 Cost assignment and classification.
Figure 1.3 Cost classification of a construction contractor: duality of overhead costs.
Chapter 02
Figure 2.1 One-stage costing.
Figure 2.2 Example of cost reports
Figure 2.3 Information flow in activity-based costing.
Figure 2.4 Activity cost driver vs. activity costs.
Figure 2.5 Activity hierarchy in manufacturing
Figure 2.6 Activity hierarchy in construction project overhead costs.
Figure 2.7 Activity hierarchy in construction general overhead costs.
Figure 2.8 Level of detail in activity definition.
Chapter 03
Figure 3.1 Cost flow in a construction project.
Figure 3.2 Team charter example.
Figure 3.3 Example of activity granularity.
Figure 3.4 Strategic plan for the use of ABC data.
Figure 3.5 Overhead cost allocation to subcontractors.
Chapter 04
Figure 4.1 Sample ABC team charter for managing general overhead costs.
Chapter 05
Figure 5.1 Two prevailing material supply systems of steel reinforced bar.
Figure 5.2 Traditional overhead allocation method procedures.
Figure 5.3 ABC overhead allocation method procedures.
Chapter 06
Figure 6.1 Concept-level road map for the ABC journey.
Figure 6.2 Implementation road map for a focused ABC application.
Figure 6.3 Template form for a team charter.
Figure 6.4 A checklist for Gate 1.
Figure 6.5 Template activity list.
Figure 6.6 Template activity dictionary.
Figure 6.7 Time–effort % survey form.
Figure 6.8 A checklist for Gate 2.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
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Activity Based Costing for Construction Companies
First Edition
Young-Woo Kim
University of Washington,Seattle, WAUSA
This edition first published 2017© 2017 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law.Advice on how to obtain permision to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
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Preface
It was the mid-1990s when I got my first project engineer job – my first job after I graduated from college. The first project was an industrial project (cement plant construction), where the general contractor I worked for experienced significant cost overruns, although all team members including labor crews worked hard. I learned that there was not much room for cost reduction since most work was subcontracted, with fixed price contracts. I did not learn how to effectively manage the activities of management staff and overhead costs, although I did learn how to effectively manage project direct costs, through the use of several tools such as the earned value method. Senior management at the project tried to reduce the number of management staff to reduce overhead costs, but it turned out that the lack of management staff caused more confusion and inefficiency on the site.
My experiences as a practitioner prompted me to study process improvement and management of overhead costs. As a graduate student of CAL, I was fortunate in two ways. First, I was very fortunate that I had chance to work with some of the great minds of Lean construction, a new construction management paradigm, which placed its focus on the production systems. Gaining knowledge and background in production systems helped me expand my horizons in studying overhead cost management. Second, I was fortunate that I had chance to study activity-based costing – a new cost management paradigm – in the manufacturing industry in the late 1990s, when activity-based costing had not yet been introduced in the construction industry.
However, the application of activity-based costing to the construction industry was not an easy job. Because of the difference between manufacturing and construction, namely the nature of the organizational structure and the production system, activity-based costing requires adaptation to suit the specifics of the construction industry. My understanding of the production system and organizational structure of the construction industry, and the principles of Lean construction, allowed me to apply activity-based costing to this new context.
My first ABC project was a commercial building project where ABC was applied to managing the general contractor’s project overhead costs; this became my PhD dissertation in 2002. Since then, my ABC journey has continued. I expanded my ABC experience through consultation and research in different contexts, e.g., home office overhead costs, overhead costs at fabrication shops, etc.
I have noted the lack of reference materials on managing overhead costs in our industry. I felt the same way regarding construction education. It is true that the majority of cost management topics in the classroom in our industry still focus on managing direct costs such as earned value management and labor productivity. Although they are important, our industry and classroom need guidance on managing overhead costs. That is what motivated me to write this book.
This book has two main objectives: 1) to outline activity-based costing to be applied to different construction industry settings; and 2) to provide an implementation roadmap. I wanted to show the logic and simplicity behind ABC as well as the benefits of ABC. I hope that by reading the book, you will be able to create your own ideas about how to manage overhead costs in your organization.
I did not intend to write a complete treatment of an accounting method with which your accounting system is to be replaced. I did not write this book from an accountant’s perspective. Instead, I wrote this book from the perspective of an operational manager who is concerned about their production system.
Once people recognize increased overhead costs, some tend to reduce them by reducing workforce or replacing existing staff with a less experienced workforce. It can be dangerous to reduce the number of management staff or to replace existing management staff with less experienced (i.e., less expensive) staff without fully examining the relationship between overhead costs and the production system. In this regard, the task of managing overhead costs should involve people who do understand the production system. That is the reason why this book was written for operational management staff.
I provide several case studies, each of which will give you an idea of how ABC can be implemented in a different setting. In each case, I tried to set out what I learned from my experience so that you can avoid pitfalls.
Activity-based costing is a powerful tool for managing overhead costs. I believe that the knowledge and experience of activity-based costing which I gained through past consulting and research experiences are limited and need improvement. However, the compelling reason I wrote this book is that any advancement begins with a foundation, and somebody needs to pave the way for practitioners and researchers in the domain of managing overhead costs.
Yong-Woo Kim, Ph.D.University of Washington, Seattle
1Introduction
Every business wants to reduce its costs so as to maximize its profits. Since construction is a type of business, it cannot be denied that every construction contractor is eager to reduce their costs. Construction contractors should also be able to accurately price each of their products and services (i.e., their projects), because accurate estimation of projects leads to the success of projects. Prior to addressing effectively managed costs, we need to have consensus on what comprises costs in a construction company.
1.1 What comprises costs in a construction company?
We usually define costs as a resource consumed to achieve a specific objective (Horngren et al., 1999; Raffish and Turney, 1991). Costs are usually measured as the monetary amount that must be paid to acquire resources, i.e., goods and services.
Let us investigate the cost structure of a construction company (i.e., a general contractor) to establish what comprises a construction company’s costs. The cost structure of a construction company is the framework by which its home offices and each of its projects are budgeted and controlled. Figure 1.1 shows the typical cost structure of a construction contractor whose revenue is the sum of the revenue of all projects.
Figure 1.1Cost structure of a construction contractor.
As seen in Figure 1.1, a contractor’s total costs consist of total construction costs and its general overhead costs. Total construction costs are the sum total of the construction costs of each project, which includes project direct costs and project overhead costs. The terms “overhead” or “overhead costs” are used to represent indirect costs in the rest of this book.
1.1.1 Construction costs (project costs)
Construction costs include both direct construction costs and the overhead (indirect) costs of each project. Direct project costs are the cost of materials, labor, and equipment, and subcontract costs. They are consumed and incorporated into the construction costs of a specific project. Project overhead costs include the consumption of resources used to support the activities of direct construction costs (e.g., field jobs), such as the salaries of project engineers.
All construction costs should be charged to a specific construction project. In addition, some of the home office resources used by a specific project are considered to be part of construction costs (i.e., project overhead costs). Suppose that 50% of an LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) engineer’s time in charge of green construction consulting at your home office is spent on three construction projects. Then, 50% of his or her salary needs to be allocated to these three projects according to the actual percentage of time spent on each project. In other words, 50% of the LEED engineer’s salary is considered to be project overhead costs.
1.1.2 Overhead costs in a construction company
Although we used several terms in relation to cost structure (Figure 1.1), in general, costs can be grouped into direct costs and overhead costs. There are multiple definitions for direct and overhead costs in construction. One definition of direct costs is the costs expended in the realization of a physical sub-element of the project (Halpin, 1985). Although some practitioners use this definition based on the realization of a physical element on site, the definition is not widely accepted in the domain of cost accounting.
A generally accepted definition of direct costs uses the ability to track a cost to a cost object.1 Direct costs of a cost object are related to a particular cost object and can be traced to it in an economically feasible (cost-effective) way (Horngren et al., 1999). The term “direct costs,” when applied to construction accounting means costs which can be specifically identified with a construction job or with a unit of production within a job (Coombs and Palmer, 1989). This definition is consistent with the general definition of direct costs.
Overhead costs of a cost object, on the other hand, are related to a particular cost object but cannot be traced to it in an economically feasible way. Figure 1.2 illustrates cost categorization according to cost assignments. The term “cost allocation” is used to describe the assignment of overhead costs to a particular cost object (Raffish and Turney, 1991). The other important term is “cost object.” According to the definition of overhead costs, two criteria for discerning overhead costs are (1) cost object and (2) traceability.
Figure 1.2Cost assignment and classification.
The term “overhead costs” is still used in a vague manner in the construction industry, because our industry has more than one type of overhead cost. In other words, the same cost can be both an overhead cost and a direct cost, depending on the perspective of the observer.
For example, a superintendent’s wage is an overhead cost to a specific project at the project level, but it is also a direct cost to the specific project at the home office level. Figure 1.3 presents a general classification of construction costs showing the “duality” of overhead costs in the construction industry.
Figure 1.3Cost classification of a construction contractor: duality of overhead costs.
1.1.3 The cost classification in use and the duality of overhead costs
Despite definitions of cost classification, the construction industry does not seem to have a standard cost classification system of its own. Holland and Hobson’s survey results (1999) suggested that cost categorization is not standardized in construction.
Table 1.1 shows the result of a survey of general contractors’ cost categorization that was carried out by the authors’ research team. In Table 1.1, project overhead costs (P) and project direct costs (D) constitute project construction costs, and overhead costs (O) refer to general overhead costs. Table 1.1 also confirms that the construction industry lacks a standard system for categorizing costs.
Table 1.1Cost classification examples in the construction industry (general contractor’s perspective).
Cost Item No.
Item
Number of participants
P
D
O
1
Construction manager
15
60.0%
33.3%
6.7%
2
Superintendent
14
64.3%
28.6%
7.1%
3
Project engineer
15
60.0%
33.3%
6.7%
4
Material engineer
13
61.5%
30.8%
7.7%
5
Survey crew
12
66.7%
33.3%
0.0%
6
Quality staff
13
69.2%
23.1%
7.7%
7
Safety engineers
14
64.3%
28.6%
7.1%
8
Secretaries (field office)
13
69.2%
23.1%
7.7%
9
Automobiles
12
50.0%
33.3%
16.7%
10
Fencing and gates
11
81.8%
18.2%
0.0%
11
Temporary parking
13
61.5%
30.8%
7.7%
12
Project office
15
73.3%
20.0%
6.7%
13
Fabrication shop
9
33.3%
22.2%
44.5%
14
LEED engineer
8
37.5%
25.0%
37.5%
15
Rigging equipment
12
66.6%
16.7%
16.7%
16
Warehouse
14
50.0%
21.4%
28.6%
Note: P = project overhead costs, D = project direct costs, O = home office overhead costs.
Why doesn’t the industry have cost classification standards? The author’s observations and interviews with industry professionals suggest that categorization is mainly driven by the terms of contracts. In other words, commercial interests bound by contracts lead to cost classification. Suppose that your contract says that the owner is to reimburse all of the project’s direct costs. In that case it is not surprising that you tend to include more cost items in the category of project direct costs. A lack of cost classification standards is one of the obstacles to the advancement of cost management practices.
1.2 Overhead costs in new business environments
Project overhead costs are increasingly important, as they have grown in recent years (Assaf et al., 1999; Kim and Ballard, 2005). A number of driving forces have increased overhead costs (i.e., general overhead costs and project overhead costs) in recent years. The following four factors are identified as driving forces:
Technical and managerial factor
A fragmented approach and activity-centered management has caused ineffective project delivery (Ballard et al., 2011). In response to such challenges, Lean construction and Building Information Modeling (BIM) have been adopted widely in the construction industry. Technical and management innovations such as BIM and Lean construction increase a contractor’s overhead costs, both in terms of project overhead costs and general overhead costs, although they contribute to reducing total construction costs (mostly direct costs).
The fundamental principle of Lean construction is a reliable work flow2 through a predictable production plan (Ballard et al., 2007; Ballard, 1999). Achieving a reliable work flow via Lean construction usually involves intensive collaborative production planning such as “pull” planning and weekly work planning (Ballard, 1994). Other Lean construction principles such as just-in-time (JIT) delivery also require intensive planning efforts and close collaboration among project stakeholders; however, allocating more resources to collaboration and planning has an impact on project overhead costs. In addition, a contractor needs to hold educational workshops or training sessions to educate employees in preparation for Lean implementation.
Building Information Modeling has been practiced in inter-organizational collaborations among architects, engineers, and construction contractors (Dossick and Neff, 2011). In addition to the hardware and software expenses that arise with this system, a construction company will need more staff to operate the system, as well as having to meet the costs of associated collaborative processes, such as coordination meetings (Eastman et al., 2008).
In addition to using the Lean and BIM systems, the construction industry has also adopted information technology in many areas. Some examples of technology include ERP (enterprise resource planning), various material tracking systems such as bar codes and RFID (radio frequency identification), and automation. These investments in information technology inevitably increase overhead costs, despite increased management efficiency and labor productivity.
