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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Bildung
- Sprache: Englisch
A freshly updated and science-based guide for contemporary adult educators
In the newly revised second edition of Adult Learning: Linking Theory and Practice, a team of veteran adult educators delivers an authoritative guide to adult education that is solidly grounded in theory and research while remaining concise and practice oriented. Each chapter is infused with practical applications for instruction you can implement immediately to improve concrete learning outcomes.
The authors cover a variety of topics, including adult learning in the contemporary world, traditional learning theories, andragogy, motivation and learning, and more.
Readers will also find:
- Explorations of the brain and cognitive functioning as it applies to adult learners
- How to adapt and improve the adult learning experience in the digital age
- Learning and reflection activities integrated throughout each chapter
Perfect for master's-level students and practitioners alike, Adult Learning: Linking Theory and Practice is the up-to-date and practical adult education resource that you've been waiting for.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 1012
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Table of Contents
COVER
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PRAISE FOR
ADULT LEARNING, SECOND EDITION
TITLE PAGE
COPYRIGHT
DEDICATION
PREFACE
Introduction to the Book
Purpose and Audience
Overview of Book Organization and Features
References
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
THE AUTHORS
SECTION ONE: THE ADULT LEARNING CONTEXT
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCING
ADULT LEARNING: LINKING THEORY AND PRACTICE
Adult Learning in Turbulent Times
Chapter Summary
Key Points
References
CHAPTER TWO: UNDERSTANDING ADULT LEARNING IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL CONTEXT AND CULTURE
Global Capitalism and Neoliberalism
The Knowledge Society
Technology
Demographic Shifts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Highlights
References
CHAPTER THREE: APPLYING CRITICAL PERSPECTIVES TO ADULT LEARNING IN SOCIAL CONTEXT
Being Critical
Critical Theory
Critical Thinking
Critical Action—Mindful and Timely Intervention
Chapter Summary
Chapter Highlights
References
SECTION TWO: THE ADULT EDUCATOR—THE
WHO AND THE WHY
CHAPTER FOUR: PURSUING A CAREER IN THE ADULT EDUCATION FIELD
Adult Education and Adult Educators
Boundaries of Adult Education
Careers and Roles in Adult Education
Exploring Philosophy, Principles, and Perspectives of Adult Education
Appreciate Pedagogical Validity
Chapter Summary
Key Points
References
CHAPTER FIVE: BECOMING AN ADULT EDUCATOR
Cultivating a Global, Adaptive Stance
Thinking Critically About Your Work as an Adult Educator
Committing to Equity and Justice
Becoming a Learning Leader
Chapter Summary
Key Points
References
SECTION THREE: THE ADULT LEARNER—THE
WHO
CHAPTER SIX: UNDERSTANDING ADULT LEARNERS' MOTIVATION
Motivation and Its Definitions
Motivation Theories
Motivation in Adult Education
Motivation in Online Settings
Chapter Summary
Key Points
References
CHAPTER SEVEN: APPLYING ANDRAGOGY—THE ART AND SCIENCE OF HELPING ADULTS LEARN
Andragogy and the Development of Adult Learning
Assumptions about Adult Learners
Andragogy Today
Andragogical Principles and Learning Experiences
Chapter Summary
Key Points
References
CHAPTER EIGHT: VALUING ADULTS' SELF‐DIRECTEDNESS IN LEARNING
Defining Self‐Directed Learning
Goals of Self‐directed Learning
The Process of Self‐Directed Learning
SDL as a Personal Attribute
Self‐Directed Learning in Various Contexts
Assessing Self‐Directed Learning
Myths of SDL
Critiques of Self‐Directed Learning
Chapter Summary
Key Points
References
SECTION FOUR: THE ADULT LEARNING PROCESS—THE
HOW
CHAPTER NINE: CONNECTING LEARNING AND CHANGE IN ADULTHOOD
Appreciating How Change Relates to Adult Learning
Lewin's 3‐Step Change Model
Understanding Adults' Learning and Change Dynamic
Understanding the Pace, Planning, and Scale of Change and Applying It to Adult Learners
Adult Learning and Change and Systems Theory
Coping with Change in Adulthood
Chapter Summary
Key Points
References
CHAPTER TEN: EXPERIENCING LEARNING IN ADULTHOOD
On the Relationship Between Experience and Learning
Models of Experiential Learning
Reflective Practice and Action Inquiry
Situated Cognition and Communities of Practice
Chapter Summary
Key Points
References
CHAPTER ELEVEN: LEARNING FOR TRANSFORMATION
Learning for Transformation (L4T)
Transformative Learning
Generative Knowing
Promoting Learning for Transformation
Chapter Summary
Key Points
References
CHAPTER TWELVE: CONNECTING NEUROSCIENCE AND ADULT LEARNING
Neuromyths
Neuroplasticity
Memory
Intelligence
Cognitive Development and Wisdom
Designing and Facilitating Educational Programs with Neuroscience in Mind
Chapter Summary
Key Points
References
SECTION FIVE: DEVELOPING AND DELIVERING ADULT LEARNING PROGRAMS—THE
WHAT
CHAPTER THIRTEEN: DESIGNING ADULT LEARNING EXPERIENCES AND PROGRAMS
The Principles of Effective Adult Learning Design
Designing an Effective Adult Learning Program
Instructional Strategies for Designing Learning for Adults
The Facilitator's Role in Adult Learning Program
Assessment and Evaluation of Adult Education Programs
Challenges in Designing Adult Learning Programs
Future Trends
Summary
Chapter Highlights
References
CHAPTER FOURTEEN: DESIGNING EFFECTIVE ONLINE LEARNING FOR ADULTS
Policies for Digitalization and COVID‐19 as an Academic Accelerating Effect
Digital Literacy in Teaching and Learning Environments
Designing Online Pedagogy
Effectiveness of Online Learning
Challenging Aspects of Online Learning
Psychological Challenges
Chapter Summary
Key Points
References
CHAPTER 15: FACILITATING ACTIVE ADULT LEARNING PROGRAMS
The Traditional Lecture
Active Learning
Considerations for Active Learning Implementation
Interactive Lecturing
Active Learning Design and Facilitation
Chapter Summary
Book Summary
References
NAME INDEX
SUBJECT INDEX
END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
List of Tables
Chapter 1
TABLE 1.1 ADULT LEARNING IN VUCA TERMS
TABLE 1.2 COMMON ADULT LEARNING AND EDUCATION TERMS
Chapter 2
TABLE 2.1 EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
TABLE 2.2 KEY LEXICONS FOR A GLOBAL, JUST CONTEXT
Chapter 3
TABLE 3.1 ASPECTS OF BEING CRITICAL
Chapter 4
TABLE 4.1 INSTITUTIONAL ADULT EDUCATION DELIVERY SYSTEMS
TABLE 4.2 ADULT EDUCATOR COMPETENCIES
TABLE 4.3 PHILOSOPHY OF ADULT EDUCATION INVENTORY DESCRIPTIONS
TABLE 4.4 PALS FACTORS AND EXAMPLES
TABLE 4.5 SUMMARY OF PRATT'S TPI PERSPECTIVES
Chapter 5
TABLE 5.1 THREE LEVELS OF ACTION AS ADULT EDUCATOR REFLECTION
Chapter 6
TABLE 6.1 CLASSICAL MOTIVATION THEORIES
TABLE 6.2 COMPARISON OF BOSHIER'S ADULT LEARNING MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS WITH ...
TABLE 6.3 LOAD AND POWER
TABLE 6.4 SUMMARY OF WLODKOWSKI AND GINSBERG'S (2017) MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGI...
Chapter 8
TABLE 8.1 GROW'S SELF‐DIRECTED LEARNING STAGES
TABLE 8.2 COSTA AND KALLICK'S CRITERIA FOR SELF‐DIRECTED LEARNER ASSESSMENT...
Chapter 9
TABLE 9.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF ADULT LEARNERS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR ADULT LEAR...
TABLE 9.2 HOLMES AND RAHE STRESS MANAGEMENT QUIZ SCORES AND RISK
Chapter 11
TABLE 11.1 TAYLOR'S SUMMARY OF TRANSFORMATIVE LEARNING'S THEORETICAL PERSPE...
Chapter 12
TABLE 12.1 NORMAL SIGNS OF AGING AND SYMPTOMS WARRANTING MEDICAL ADVICE
TABLE 12.2 THREE DEFINITIONAL STREAMS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
TABLE 12.3 MIXED‐MODEL PERSPECTIVE OF EI: EI AND THE SELF, EI AND OTHERS, E...
TABLE 12.4 PIAGET'S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
TABLE 12.5 COGNITIVE‐FOCUSED MODELS OF WISDOM
TABLE 12.6 PERSONALITY‐FOCUSED MODELS OF WISDOM
TABLE 12.7 DEVELOPMENTAL MODELS OF WISDOM
TABLE 12.8 THE 5E MODEL OF INSTRUCTION AND IMPLICATIONS FOR COGNITION AND L...
Chapter 13
TABLE 13.1 SUMMARY OF THE RECENT TRENDS IN ADULT EDUCATION
Chapter 14
TABLE 14.1 MENTAL CONTRASTING AND IMPLEMENTATION INTENTIONS (MCII) EXERCISE...
Chapter 15
TABLE 15.1 SAMPLE INTERACTIVE LECTURE AGENDA
TABLE 15.2 INTERACTIVE LECTURE STRATEGIES
TABLE 15.3 INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUE BY ACTIVITY LEVEL
TABLE 15.4 TEN STRATEGIES FOR FACILITATING GROUP EXERCISES
TABLE 15.5 REFLECTIVE PRACTICE ACTIVITIES
TABLE 15.6 INFORMATION SEEKING, ANALYSIS, AND SYNTHESIS ACTIVITIES
TABLE 15.7 GROUP INQUIRY ACTIVITIES
TABLE 15.8 BRINGING THE ADULT LEARNING FRAMEWORK TOGETHER IN ADULT LEARNING...
List of Illustrations
PREFACE
FIGURE P.1 FRAMEWORK FOR ADULT LEARNING
FIGURE P.2 CHAPTER FEATURES
Chapter 4
FIGURE 4.1 ADULT EDUCATION (AE) PYRAMID
Chapter 9
FIGURE 9.1 LEWIN'S 3‐STEP CHANGE MODEL
FIGURE 9.2 THE ADULT LEARNING AND CHANGE FEEDBACK LOOP
FIGURE 9.3 SYSTEM PROPERTIES
Chapter 10
FIGURE 10.1 KOLB'S EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING CYCLE
FIGURE 10.2 KOLB'S LEARNING CYCLE
FIGURE 10.3 KOLB EDUCATOR ROLE PROFILE
FIGURE 10.4 TEACHING AROUND THE CIRCLE
Chapter 12
FIGURE 12.1 FLUID AND CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE
FIGURE 12.2 ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT AND NEUROPLASTICITY
Guide
COVER
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PRAISE FOR ADULT LEARNING, SECOND EDITION
TITLE PAGE
COPYRIGHT
DEDICATION
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
THE AUTHORS
Begin Reading
NAME INDEX
SUBJECT INDEX
END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Praise for Adult Learning, Second Edition
“Bierema, Fedeli, and Merriam skillfully weave together theory, research, and practice, focusing on adult learners in a manner valuable to individuals tasked with facilitating or developing instructional or human resource programs for adults. Readers interested in how to apply the many concepts presented will appreciate eye‐catching boxes integrated throughout the chapters, providing seven different types of tools facilitating application, reflection, and pursuit of further learning.”
—Jovita M. Ross‐Gordon, Distinguished Professor Emerita of Adult, Professional, and Community Education, Texas State University
“This book is an indispensable guide for anyone involved in adult education—whether as a student, educator, practitioner, administrator, or lifelong learner. It offers a clear, structured framework, reflective exercises, and evidence‐based tools that empower readers to apply what they learn to real‐world settings immediately.”
—Simone C. O. Conceição, PhD, Professor Emerita, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, Learning Design Consulting, SCOC Consulting
“The authors expertly balance research‐based insights with practical applications, making complex theories accessible and easy to integrate into teaching. The inclusion of structured chapter summaries and bullet point key takeaways enhances its usability, making it an excellent guide for both academic and professional settings.”
—Dr. Sara Bono, Assistant Professor of Higher, Adult, and Lifelong Education, Michigan State University
“This absorbing and useful read is a wonderful addition to the literature on adult learning. The new section on the adult educator is extremely important and the entire book is a must‐read for anyone working with adults.”
—Amy D. Rose, Professor Emerita, Northern Illinois University
“Readers are introduced to the learning context, adult learners, and how to plan adult education programs. The authors apply concepts through examples, case studies, reflective questions, and tips and tools for teaching and learning. This accessible text is a must‐have for adult educators in various settings.”
—Lisa M. Baumgartner, EdD, Professor, Adult, Professional and Community Education Program, Texas State University
“Adult learning occurs each day. However, adult learning programs require detailed and systematic planning to guide learners toward the objectives of the educational process. The book presents theoretical knowledge from an andragogical and interdisciplinary perspective and directs the reader to apply this knowledge in the creation of adult learning programs. Consequently, the book serves as a crucial foundation for students in adult education as well as for professionals in the field involved in program design daily.”
—Dr. Regina Egetenmeyer, Professor for Adult and Continuing Education at Julius‐Maximilians‐Universität Würzburg/Germany
“As a faculty member in Human Resource Development, I found this book to be incredibly timely and enlightening. This second edition builds on the strengths of the first with new features, such as integrated boxes with chapter overviews, reflective prompts, evidence‐to‐practice connections, and teaching tools, enriching the learning experience and embodying the best of adult education principles.”
—Jie Ke, Associate Professor of Human Resource Development, School of Lifelong Learning, Jackson State University
“This book is an invitation to explore and redefine what adult learning means and where its boundaries lie. It offers a thoughtful space where research and practice come together, posing open‐ended questions and encouraging diverse and thoughtful responses.”
—Loretta Fabbri, Full Professor of Teaching and Methods of Educational and Training Processes, University of Siena
“This much‐awaited second edition expands on multiple fronts that make it a ready resource for a variety of audiences. The book contains enough academic rigor to be used as a textbook while still containing practical aspects derived from academic theorization that practitioners can quickly adapt or use ideas to think through their own adult learning/education/training practices.”
—Ajit P Bhattarai, PhD, Assistant Professor, Idaho State University
“This is an exceptionally practical book that is both theoretically grounded and replete with great examples from practice. It explores these components of adult learning: the who (adult educator and learners), the what (content and delivery of programs), the where (contexts and everyday learning interactions), the why (reasons behind teaching and learning), and the how (methods of teaching from neuroscience, the arts, movies, media, and embodied approaches).”
—Dr. Elizabeth J. Tisdell, Distinguished Professor Emerita Penn State University–Harrisburg
“Adult Learning, Second Edition is a meticulously organized book that thoroughly explores the field of adult education, offering clear insights into the frequently asked question: What constitutes adult education? This book serves as a comprehensive guide for an introductory course in any adult education program or as an adult learning course for students of other disciplinary programs.”
—Dr. Mary V. Alfred, Professor Emerita Adult Education and Human Resource Development Texas A&M University
“Adult Learning, Second Edition serves as a vital resource, highlighting the importance of grounding adult education in theory, practice, as well as an understanding of the interconnected socio‐cultural, political, economic, technological, and historical realities of the people we serve. Using reflexive practices, Bierema, Fedeli, and Merriam situate the learner/teacher within an educational context or environment and provide resources and tools to create and develop strategies and activities based on certain factors.”
—Vanessa Sheared, EdD (Retired) Board President, Closing the Gap Foundation Board of Directors, United Way, California Capital Region
“This new edition is an exemplary text that continues to make a significant contribution to the field of adult education. It offers a rich and comprehensive synthesis of the major theories, concepts, and frameworks that inform how adults learn, while simultaneously emphasizing the practical implications of these ideas for educators working in diverse settings. It remains an essential text for anyone teaching or studying in this field.”
—Mitsunori Misawa, PhD, Associate Professor Adult and Continuing Education University of Tennessee
ADULT LEARNING
Linking Theory and Practice
Second Edition
Laura L. Bierema,
Monica Fedeli,
Sharan B. Merriam
Copyright © 2025 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved, including rights for text and data mining and training of artificial intelligence technologies or similar technologies.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Published simultaneously in Canada.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data:
Names: Bierema, Laura L. (Laura Lee), 1964‐ author | Fedeli, Monica author | Merriam, Sharan B. author
Title: Adult learning : linking theory and practice / Laura L. Bierema, Monica Fedeli, Sharan B. Merriam.
Description: Second edition. | Hoboken, New Jersey : Jossey‐Bass, [2025] | Previous edition: 2014. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2025015888 (print) | LCCN 2025015889 (ebook) | ISBN 9781394265329 hardback | ISBN 9781394265343 adobe pdf | ISBN 9781394265336 epub
Subjects: LCSH: Adult education | Adult education—Research | Education and globalization | Activity programs in education
Classification: LCC LC5215 .M524 2025 (print) | LCC LC5215 (ebook) | DDC 374—dc23/eng/20250515
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2025015888
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2025015889
Cover Design: Paul McCarthy
Cover Art: © Getty Images / Zpagistock
To Mark Ebell for being an incredible partner in life, work, and adventure. I treasure your caring support and patience. And to my cherished golden retrievers, Brodie and Skye, whose companionship and playful antics brought joy and laughter throughout the writing process.
—Laura
To my wonderful spouse, Edward Taylor—your unwavering love and support are my greatest source of strength through all the challenges of our lives. From late‐night brainstorming sessions to laughter‐filled detours, you are my favorite co‐adventurer.
—Monica
PREFACE
Introduction to the Book
As an adult, you are constantly learning. You might search the Internet to plan a vacation, hear about a new book you want to read on the radio, ask a co‐worker to explain a new reporting procedure, or sign up for a class to earn a certificate or a degree. Learning infiltrates your daily activities in family, work, and community life. Learning can occur anywhere, anytime, from human resource development programs at work to seminars and workshops sponsored by libraries, museums, religious organizations, hospitals, and other institutions to more formal programs offered by schools, colleges, and universities. Learning is also accessible in multiple formats, such as in‐person, online, or hybrid. The field of adult education—adults engaging in systematic, sustained learning activities to gain new knowledge, skills, attitudes, or values—is dedicated to the diverse and varied ways adults learn throughout their lives. You, the adult learner, are what unites practitioners and scholars of adult education and learning. Adult educators strive to understand their own learning to better design and facilitate meaningful adult learning activities.
Most likely, you are reading this book to discover more about adult learning. However, unlike Malcolm Knowles, who, as Director of Adult Education at the Boston YMCA in the 1940s, lamented his inability to “find a book that would tell me how to conduct a program of this sort” (Knowles, 1984, p. 2), and realized “that although there was general agreement among adult educators that adults are different from youth as learners, there was no comprehensive theory about these differences” (Knowles, 1984, pp. 3–4), this information exists for your benefit as a learner, educator, or both. Today, the literature on adult learning is vibrant and voluminous, serving both practitioner and scholarly audiences. This book will give you a solid foundation of adult learning theory and tangible ways to apply the ideas presented.
Purpose and Audience
The inspiration behind the first edition of Adult Learning: Linking Theory and Practice (Merriam & Bierema, 2014) was based on a survey of adult learning literature in the 2010s, revealing that it primarily focused on a particular aspect of adult learning, such as motivation (Wlodkowski, 2008; Wlodkowski and Ginsberg, 2017), andragogy—the art of teaching adults—and its application to workplace learning and human resource development (Knowles et al., 2011), critical thinking (Brookfield, 2012), experiential learning, (Fenwick, 2003), dialogic education (Vella, 2000), and transformative learning (Taylor & Cranton, 2012). At that time, many other textbooks were highly theoretical (Jarvis, 2006; Illeris, 2004) or theory and research‐intensive (Merriam et al., 2007). What was missing from the literature on adult learning was a book that provides an overview of the major theories and research in adult learning in language that those new to adult education can understand and, at the same time, point out applications of these ideas to practice.
The first edition of Adult Learning: Linking Theory and Practice presented adult learning theory, mindful that you, the reader, are yourself an adult learner. The first edition was also intended for adult learning practitioners who design and facilitate educational programs for adults. As authors, a driving goal of the first edition was to create a reader‐ and practitioner‐friendly book with included activities and resources at the end of each chapter for personal and instructional use. We have improved this aspect of the book significantly in this second edition, as explained later in this preface.
Today, adult learning is of crucial social importance, particularly in a time of globalization, VUCA (volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous) social, environmental, and economic challenges, the rise of artificial intelligence, shifts as a consequence of the COVID‐19 pandemic and Great Resignation, and an aging society. Many of these changes have occurred in the last decade, making revising Adult Learning: Linking Theory and Practice timely.
The intended audiences for this book are students, faculty, and anyone interested in deepening their knowledge of the theory and practice of adult learning. The primary audience for this book is students and faculty in adult education, human resource development, and other programs dedicated to understanding and facilitating effective adult learning in any context. Usually, these academic programs have a core required course in adult learning. Whether these are undergraduate, master's, or doctoral‐level programs, typically, this course is the student's first introduction to adult learning. Another audience for this book is graduate students in professional preparation programs whose work may involve the education and training of adults, such as school administrators, public health personnel, social workers, corporate consultants and trainers, counselors, government administrators, higher education faculty, and administrators. Across the globe, academic programs dedicated to adult learning may have different names, such as Lifelong Learning, Social Education, Adult and Professional Education, Community Education, and others. Still, most have a course on adult learning. Of course, this book is also appropriate for anyone interested in adult learning.
Overview of Book Organization and Features
Adult learning theory emerged in the mid‐20th century and has evolved with the development of theory and practice to understand how adults learn to be contributing family members, workers, and citizens. Several theories, models, and practices have been developed over the decades, making the landscape of adult learning and education theory rich and daunting. Partelow (2023) explained that disciplinary frameworks articulate a set of assumptions, values, concepts, and practices and provide a basis for inquiry, underscoring, “Frameworks are positioned within a theory of science. Understanding this positioning can guide scholars in comprehending how their engagement with frameworks contributes to the overall advancement of their field” (p. 512).
Inspiration for the design of the second edition of Adult Learning: Linking Theory and Practice came from Merriam and Caffarella's (1999) premise that “Learning in adulthood can be distinguished from childhood in terms of the learner, the context, and to some extent the learning process” (p. 389). Their “configuration of context, learner, and process” (p. 399) inspired Bierema's (2008, 2019) framework of the context, educator, learner, process, and method, which was briefly introduced in the first edition of this book (Merriam & Bierema, 2014). According to this framework, the second edition of Adult Learning: Linking Theory and Practice represents a comprehensive exploration of adult learning.
The Framework for Adult Learning summarizes its key components, including the: (1) Adult learning context, (2) Adult educator, (3) Adult learner, (4) Adult learning process, and (5) Methods for adult learning facilitation, essentially considering the where, who, how, and what of adult learning, presented in Figure P.1. The framework melds key issues and ideas in adult learning and education, bridges theory and practice, and provides the organizing structure for the book. The adult learning framework captures the context or where learning occurs and how social dynamics impact individuals, groups, and learning systems. It considers the who, including adult educators, and how their values and approaches affect learning and learners and how best to honor their learning goals, motivations, and challenges. It also tackles the learning process or how learning unfolds in people's heads, hearts, and bodies. Finally, the framework addresses what is required to effectively integrate the context, educator, learner, and process in methods for planning and facilitating meaningful adult educational programs.
FIGURE P.1 FRAMEWORK FOR ADULT LEARNING
FIGURE P.2 CHAPTER FEATURES
The practical focus of Adult Learning: Linking Theory and Practice is its distinguishing feature. Many adult education and learning books are mired in theory with inadequate explanations of the applications. The second edition of Adult Learning: Linking Theory and Practice builds on the strong foundation of the first edition and introduces a new framework and features. As noted, the book is organized according to five adult learning domains introduced as a framework for understanding the field in the first edition. Further, the book has recurring feature boxes embedded in each chapter. Although the first edition incorporated helpful tips for practice and instruction at the end of each chapter, this edition has expanded that feature by integrating these activities throughout the text. The book features integrated boxes to provide chapter overviews, prompts for reflective practice, connections of evidence to practice, and tips and tools for teaching and learning to enhance the learning experience for readers and help them apply their knowledge in good adult education form. Figure P.2 illuminates the new features in this edition.
There are some changes in content from the first edition. The content is organized into sections based on the five foci of the second edition's framework, beginning with context and culture rather than ending with those topics. A new section (Section 2) on The Adult Educator explores the careers and competencies of people doing this work. We added a new chapter on “Connecting Learning and Change in Adulthood,” as learning and change processes are interwoven and mutually reinforcing. We expanded the “Transformative Learning” chapter to “Learning for Transformation” to reflect the theoretical developments in this area. We have integrated the chapter on “Body and Spirit in Learning” throughout the book, as embodied, spiritual, and narrative learning are excellent methods for fostering all types of adult learning. We created a new section with three chapters titled Developing and Delivering Adult Learning Programs—The What to help educators and learners use effective tools and strategies to design new programs in online, hybrid, and face‐to‐face formats using active learning. All chapters have been updated based on advances in theory and practice. We (the authors) hope you find this book user‐friendly and relevant to your thinking and practice as adult educators and learners.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
It is with heartfelt gratitude we recognize and appreciate the people who supported our writing journey. This book would be impossible to write without the outstanding adult learners we work with in classes, workshops, and seminars, as well as on research. You challenge us to do our best work. We have written this book for you and hope it enhances your thinking and practice in adult education. We acknowledge our Editor, Samuel Offman; Managing Editor, Ashirvad Moses; and their colleagues at John Wiley & Sons, who were highly supportive and helpful throughout writing and production. We also thank friends and family, including Mark Ebell, Phillip Holmes, and Ed Taylor, who read chapter drafts and provided invaluable feedback. A special appreciation goes to University of Georgia PhD Candidate and Graduate Research Assistant Eunbi Sim and University of Padova Research Assistant Marica Liotino. Eunbi served as an expert library researcher and proofreader, finding excellent resources, chasing references, and tending to the technical issues as we neared publication. Marica supported technical issues, actively searched for relevant resources, and carefully proofread the content to ensure accuracy and clarity. We are indebted to you for your contributions. We thank all of you, including our family, friends, and colleagues, for your support and encouragement.
—Laura L. Bierema
Athens, Georgia
February 2025
—Monica Fedeli
Padova, Italy
February 2025
THE AUTHORS
Laura L. Bierema is a professor of adult learning, leadership, and organization development at the University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States. Her research interests include workplace learning, career development, women's development, organization development, executive coaching, leadership, and critical human resource development. She holds bachelor's and master's degrees from Michigan State University and a doctorate in adult education from UGA. She has published over 200 book chapters and articles in research and professional publications and authored, co‐authored, or edited 12 books. She was a 2018 US Fulbright Research Scholar at the University of Padova, Italy.
Dr. Bierema has won multiple research, teaching, mentoring, and leadership awards, including the Academy of Human Resource Development's (AHRD) Outstanding Scholar, Forward, and Human Resource Development Scholar Hall of Fame Awards; AHRD's Book of the Year for Adult Learning: Linking Research and Practice, 1st Edition (2014) and Human Resource Development: A Critical Perspective (2024); the University, Professional, and Continuing Education Association's Phillip E. Frandson Award for Literature for Adult Learning: Linking Theory and Practice, 1st Edition (2014); and she was inducted into the Adult and Continuing Education Hall of Fame (2022).
Monica Fedeli is a professor in the Department of Philosophy, Sociology, Pedagogy, and Applied Psychology at the University of Padova, Italy. She holds leadership roles as Vice‐Rector for Outreach and Relations with the Territory and Advisor for Innovative Teaching and E‐Learning at the university.
Fedeli's research focuses on adult learning, faculty development, and organizational change, particularly emphasizing active learning methodologies, employability, and transformative learning. She has contributed extensively to higher education innovation, developing new teaching strategies and promoting faculty training programs. Her scholarly work includes the authorship and co‐authorship of multiple books and over 80 journal articles on adult education, knowledge management, and innovative pedagogies. She has served as an editor and board member for international journals such as Excellence and Innovation in Learning and Teaching and Reflective Practices.
Fedeli has been recognized internationally for her contributions to adult education, including collaborations with Fulbright research programs, Erasmus+ projects, and multiple international teaching fellowships at institutions across Europe and the United States. Her notable publications include Connecting Adult Learning and Knowledge Management (2019) and Teaching4Learning@Unipd (2020), exploring strategies for enhancing higher education learning and organizational development.
Fedeli remains a leading voice in faculty development and innovative learning, continuously working to bridge the gap between research, policy, and educational practice.
Sharon B. Merriam is a professor emerita of adult education and qualitative research at the University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia, United States. Merriam's research and writing activities have focused on adult and lifelong learning and qualitative research methods. She was co‐editor of Adult Education Quarterly, the primary research and theory journal in adult education. She has published 26 books, several translated into Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and French, and over 100 journal articles and book chapters. She is a four‐time winner of the prestigious Cyril O. Houle World Award for Literature in Adult Education for books published in 1982, 1997, 1999, and 2007. Based on her widespread contributions to adult education, Merriam has been inducted into the International Adult and Continuing Education Hall of Fame and was the first to receive the American Association of Adult and Continuing Education's Career Achievement Award. She has conducted workshops and seminars on adult learning and qualitative research throughout North America and overseas, including countries in southern Africa, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Europe. She has been a Fulbright Scholar, a Senior Research Fellow in Malaysia, and a Distinguished Visiting Scholar at universities in South Korea and South Africa.
SECTION ONETHE ADULT LEARNING CONTEXT
Context is where learning occurs, and it affects every learning exchange. Context is the social system that permeates the thinking and actions of all human beings within a particular situation, such as a classroom, school, organization, community, or nation. Context may incorporate physical conditions, political conditions, economic conditions, power dynamics, and other influences that impact those occupying that space. Learning context is “the social system that affects the thinking and actions of people within a particular social situation such as a classroom, school, organization, community, or nation … [that] incorporates culture, privilege, and power” (Merriam & Bierema, 2014, p. 241).
As an adult educator or learner, consider the context where you live, study, or work. Who are the members? What are the dynamics? Is there trust? What is the culture? The world is complex, changing, and unpredictable, and adults need to effectively cope with how these forces affect life and work. Global diversity is increasing, and learners and educators must also respond to how culture, privilege, and power shape society. This section explores how the VUCA (volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous) shapes teaching and learning. It also examines how culture, privilege, and power affect teaching and learning.
Educators are responsible for being aware of context and working to make their classroom an environment that values diversity, equity, and inclusion, where learners can safely and bravely voice their ideas, share, and question assumptions. The physical or psychological learning context may also require inhabitants to modify their thinking and actions when occupying the space. This responsibility means that adult educators need to create an atmosphere conducive to the emergence of a learning community centered on equity and respect.
Chapter 1, “Introducing Adult Learning: Linking Theory and Practice,” introduces key adult learning concepts and terms. Chapter 2, “Understanding Adult Learning in Contemporary Social Context and Culture,” situates adult learning today, considering how social, technological, economic, cultural, and global dynamics affect every aspect of adulthood. Chapter 3, “Applying Critical Perspectives to Adult Learning in Social Context,” explores the role of scrutiny in adult learning by describing what being critical as an adult learner or educator means, including understanding criticality as a philosophy, thinking process, and agenda for mindful and timely action on social problems and challenges.
Reference
Merriam, S. B., & Bierema, L. L. (2014).
Adult learning: Linking theory and practice
. John Wiley & Sons.
CHAPTER ONEINTRODUCING ADULT LEARNING: LINKING THEORY AND PRACTICE
Box 1.1 Chapter Overview and Learning Objectives
Learning is a fundamental process that is continual and lifelong. An African proverb captures this sentiment about adult learning:
Anyone who fails to learn…is regarded as oku eniyan (the living dead).
(Avoseh, 2001, p. 483)
Learning—acquiring knowledge, skills, and attitudes—is as natural as breathing and vital to life. As an adult, you constantly learn throughout your day and life, whether or not you are conscious of it. You learn about breaking news from your smartphone. You decide to try a new recipe you scanned in the newspaper. You discover a new route across town due to an unexpected detour. You encounter a moment to question an assumption when a friend tells you how they shifted their thinking about a shared value. Your concern for a struggling child prompts you to identify ways to help them navigate the situation that sends you to other parents, their teacher, or your therapist. You decide to make a major life change that creates significant upheaval. These moments are learning opportunities in adulthood, largely unplanned and informal, and sometimes surprising.
This chapter introduces the second edition of Adult Learning: Linking Theory and Practice and provides an overview of the book with advice on how to read it. This book is written for you: an adult learner, an adult educator, a person interested in learning, or all three. The chapter and book contain key terms and ideas about adult education and learning. The chapter begins with an introduction to the book and its features, introduces key terms and definitions, and provides an overview of its framework. The boxes throughout the book include Chapter Overview and Learning Objectives, Adult Learning and Teaching Cases, SOTL: The Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Reflective Practice, and Tips and Tools for Teaching and Learning, Adult Learning by the Numbers, and Recommendations for Further Learning.
As a result of reading this chapter and completing the exercise boxes, you, the reader, should be able to:
Understand the aims of
Adult Learning: Linking Theory and Practice
and how to read this book.
Define key adult learning concepts and terms.
Understand the book's framework.
Adult Learning in Turbulent Times
Globalization, the knowledge age, technology, and demographic changes characterize today's learning context. This chapter describes the world where adults learn. Most people have heard the adage attributed to Greek philosopher Heraclitus of Ephesus (535–475 BCE) that “Change is the only constant.” The axiom has never been truer, with change at an exponentially higher rate than ever throughout history. Learning has been adults' proven response to change, and as action learning advocate Reg Revans (2017) said, “There can be no learning without action, and no action without learning” (p. 53).
When you, the reader, think about learning, what flashes into your mind? It is likely a formal classroom with rows, pupils, materials, and a teacher. Yet, the majority of learning in adulthood is informal—not organized or taught by a teacher—and often incidental in that it is a byproduct of another experience, such as shifting to remote work and realizing life is more or less stressful or listening to the news and trying to understand geopolitical conflict. Learning happens as you navigate and negotiate daily life in your communications with others, face personal and interpersonal challenges, care for family members, engage in work or a career, participate in your community, and adjust to unexpected changes and catastrophes like the COVID‐19 pandemic. Jarvis (1987) observed that adult learning rarely occurs in isolation but in the context of life and the world. The editors of the 2023 Handbook of Adult and Continuing Education began the book by observing the field of adult education as “a forward‐looking domain of practice and scholarship” (Mizzi et al., 2023, p. 1), describing the time as tumultuous:
Adult and continuing education should not simply respond to rapidly changing social, economic, technological, and political environments across the globe, but should lead the way in preparing adults to become informed, globally connected, critical citizens who are knowledgeable, skilled, and open and adaptive to change and uncertainty. (p. 7)
We (the authors) wrote the second edition of Adult Learning: Linking Theory and Practice deeply committed to providing you, as an adult or educator, with theoretically sound applied ways to enhance your learning and that of others. As adults muddle through a global pandemic, learn new technology, grapple with a health change, or travel to a new place, their learning is embedded within the social context, affected by the people, places, and current events they encounter.
Volatility or “VUCA”
The acronym “VUCA” represents conditions that are V‐volatile, U‐uncertain, C‐complex, and A‐ambiguous (van der Steege, 2017; Yoder‐Wise, 2021). The United States Army War College devised VUCA to describe and study perplexing, shifting, confusing, and multifaceted conditions (US Army Heritage and Education Center, 2018; Whiteman, 1998). VUCA circumstances prevail: The world grapples with the aftermath of the global COVID‐19 pandemic and how it is reshaping work and career conditions; brutal wars rage and people are displaced, wounded, and killed, with little evident movement toward resolution; global poverty and hunger plague many nations; police violence against Black and Brown humans continues in the United States and elsewhere, although the wave of demands for equity and justice following the murder of George Floyd and others are being doused by conservative voices and initiatives to weaken or destroy diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) efforts in the workplace and educational settings; voters are electing populist leaders who are creating global conflict and unrest; and severe weather conditions have become the norm, causing destruction and human suffering as a result of climate change. These VUCA challenges capture what Rittel and Webber (1973) called “wicked problems”—obtuse, incomprehensible situations that are difficult for people to understand, predict, control, or address and require different mindsets and approaches than easily solved problems.
Living and Learning Amid Volatility
Learning in a VUCA world puts new demands on adults who must create meaning and make decisions with incomplete, changing information. Hawley et al. (2023) underscored, “The pandemic and the continued devaluation of Black lives are the backdrop for two of the major challenges resulting during this unprecedented time: economic and social disruption” (p. 453). They noted further that adult and continuing education is critical in helping people and nations confront these challenges. For example, Canzittu (2022) explained that in today's context, employers expect workers to flex amid complexity by facilitating learning and leveraging knowledge to respond effectively to problems and derive appropriate solutions. Further, organizations grapple with capacity building to create, maintain, and share knowledge to address wicked problems. Table 1.1 describes VUCA concepts in adult learning terms using the COVID‐19 pandemic as an example of a VUCA situation.
VUCA circumstances present continual opportunities for learning and change while simultaneously creating conditions that create resistance to both. The COVID‐19 pandemic was unusual because change was compulsory and immediate once lockdowns began. Although few changes are as extreme, the situation proved that humanity could change radically and quickly (Korten, 2020).
Most people dislike or resist change, so living in a VUCA world can create anxiety and frustration. Finding resilience and staying focused can be difficult. Adopting a learning orientation—asking “What is new or different now?” or “What can I learn from this situation?”—is a healthier coping mechanism than feelings of helplessness or exasperation. It also helps to talk about change and uncertainty with others to make collective meaning and perhaps take collective action. Box 1.2 applies VUCA.
The research and scholarship in adult learning are extensive, and this book provides a solid introduction and firm grounding in the theories and research that inform evidence‐based practice. One of the book's features highlights SoTL—the scholarship of teaching and learning. Box 1.3 defines this concept.
Defining Adult Education and Learning Concepts and Terms
Adult education and the process of adult learning have several important concepts and terms to understand in order to be conversant in the field. Table 1.2 provides a summary of commonly used terms and a definition. Review the table to discover how many terms are familiar to you as a learner or educator.
The book will use these terms to introduce theory and research and tie them to best practices for facilitating effective adult learning.
TABLE 1.1 ADULT LEARNING IN VUCA TERMS
Source: Adapted from Bierema, 2024, pp. 22–23.
VUCA Term
Definition
Adult Learning Examples
Learning Strategies for Coping with Change
Reflective Questions
V
Volatility
Unstable change, even in situations that are understandable and identifiable.
The COVID‐19 pandemic injected volatility into life and work overnight globally. Even though people knew how to live and work, the disruption caused immediate shifts in how people lived, worked, and learned, demanding new ways of being and knowing. The lines blurred between home and work life, creating life balance challenges; formal learning suddenly became remote and technology‐driven for all ages; jobs were reconfigured for remote work; anxieties prevailed about safety; social distancing became the norm, and new ways of connecting were discovered; and many people began reassessing their values and life goals, especially related to work.
Find balance, be agile, and be open to new learning:
When the world is unpredictable, find a space, practice, or community that feels safe and centering. Ask questions about new challenges and learning. Accept change as a constant and develop flexibility to maneuver and change with the fluctuating demands. Create a vision for your next steps in life and help others do the same.
What do I understand about this situation?
What do I not understand about this situation?
What scares me about this situation?
What am I learning about myself? Others?
How can I support others in this moment?
How do I want to show up in this moment?
U
Uncertainty
The present is unclear, and the future is uncertain. A lack of knowledge about the implications or consequences of a situation prevails, even when its causes and effects are anticipated and recognizable.
The COVID‐19 pandemic created a health risk situation that required immediate changes in daily life and work. It was unclear how long the pandemic would last and how it would affect lives in the future.
Learn:
Seek to understand and build knowledge about the situation. Work on environmental scanning to assess the current reality and anticipate future needs, opportunities, and challenges. Reflect on what you do well and how you can improve. Use the situation to enhance your learning and knowledge. Keep perspective and attempt to control what is in your sphere of influence. Take care of yourself and your loved ones.
What is known about the situation?
What is unknown?
What do I know that can be useful right now?
What can I control?
How can I support others in navigating the uncertainty?
C
Complexity
Multiple factors within a system come into play that create confusion and chaos.
How COVID‐19 vaccines were developed and administrated was a global, confusing, and chaotic task. On a more individual level, how families decided to organize their lives was a new learning territory. Similarly, work teams and organizations had to deal with the upheaval and awkwardness of remote work.
Communicate:
Clearly and often. Whether engaging with family and friends or peers, supervisees, customers, or the boss, transparent exchanges help create alignment on the next steps. Communicating and ensuring people understand expectations also enhances collaboration and results.
How might I cultivate a growth or learning mindset?
What scares me about not knowing? How can I lean into the confusion?
What are different ways of looking at this situation? Who else should I be talking with?
How am I affected by this situation? How can I influence this situation?
A
Ambiguity
Little or no clarity exists about the situation.
When the COVID‐19 pandemic began, there was little clearness about personal safety measures like masking or social distancing. There was a blurring of personal and professional work for remote workers. Once some organizations began returning to in‐person work, many CEOs made and continue making missteps in their policies and communication.
Experiment and foster resilience and flexibility:
When the situation is unclear, you may have to try different things. Sometimes, that means making an individual decision. Another may mean negotiating the appropriate situation and learning new coping skills. Talking about coping with others can also be helpful and therapeutic.
What is known?
How can I remain calm in the face of the unknown?
Who seems to manage ambiguity well? What can I learn from them?
What happens if I make the wrong decision?
Box 1.2 Reflective Practice
Applying VUCA to Life's Challenges
VUCA gives you, as an adult learner or educator, the language to make meaning of abstruse and fluctuating situations and find ways to be resilient during uncertainty. Referring to Table 1.1, picture a taxing situation you have encountered or are currently trying to solve. Review the definitions, examples, and coping strategies and consider how you might handle it from a VUCA perspective. Jot your reflections in this box:
VUCA Term
Definition
Coping Strategies
V Volatility
Unstable change, even in situations that are understandable and identifiable.
Find balance and be agile by:
U Uncertainty
The present is unclear, and the future is uncertain.
Learn by:
C Complexity
Multiple factors within a system come into play that create confusion and chaos.
Communicate by:
A Ambiguity
Little or no clarity exists about the situation.
Experiment and foster resilience and flexibility by:
Source: Adapted from Bierema, 2024, p. 24.
Box 1.3 SoTL: The Scholarship of Teaching and Learning
What Is the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning?
The scholarship of teaching and learning (SoTL) began with Boyer's (1990) work, Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities of the Professorate, in which he advocated reframing traditional scholarship to reflect the range of faculty work. Boyer proposed expanding scholarship beyond conventional or basic research to include integrative scholarship that compiles and interprets original research and insights from existing research, the scholarship of application or bridging of theory and practice, and the scholarship of teaching to profile effective, evidence‐based teaching methods.
Fanghanel et al. (2015) explained:
SoTL covers concepts as diverse as reflection and inquiry on learning and teaching practices, strategies to enhance teaching and learning, curriculum development, the promotion of research‐informed teaching, undergraduate research, and student engagement in disciplinary or SoTL research. SoTL is also fundamentally linked to, and informs, visions of, and practices for, strategic professional development, career planning, promotion and recognition (Chalmers, 2011; Fanghanel, 2013; Hutchings et al., 2011; Mårtensson et al., 2011). (pp. 8–9)
Adult education scholar Roger Boshier (2009) criticized SoTL, arguing that the concept has become a synonym for non‐teaching–related activities, the definition has conceptual confusion, SoTL is difficult to operationalize, SoTL discourse is anti‐intellectual, and it over‐relies on peer review to determine effectiveness.
This book will profile research that provides evidence for effective adult learning practice, where the information is available, and share contrary views and evidence.
A Framework for Adult Learning
This edition of the book applies a framework to organize the major sections of the book. Merriam et al. (2020) offered a scaffold for adult learning that distinguishes it from child learning according to the characteristics of the learner, process, and context that inspired the current framework. The first edition of Adult Learning: Linking Theory and Practice expanded the scaffolding to consider the additional variables of the educator and the design and facilitation of the learning itself. The framework has evolved and become the organizing framework for this book: the educational context, the educator, the learner, the process, and the method. This section briefly introduces the framework.
The Adult Learning Context—The Where.
Context is where learning occurs, and it affects every learning exchange. Context is the social system that permeates the thinking and actions of all human beings within a particular situation, such as a classroom, school, organization, community, or nation. Context may incorporate physical conditions, political conditions, economic conditions, power dynamics, and other influences that impact those occupying that space. For example, the context of the COVID‐19 pandemic radically affected how people lived, worked, and learned worldwide. The physical or psychological context may also require inhabitants to modify their thinking and actions when occupying the space. For example, the physical context, such as a classroom setup and format, affects the learning exchange. A traditional in‐person lecture format with all learners facing the front will create very different interpersonal dynamics than a room where learners can sit around a table and face each other or a room with only chairs but no tables. Of course, learners from more teacher‐centered cultures may be uncomfortable with a room setup that turns their gaze away from the teacher and toward their peers. The psychological environment, such as one marked by interpersonal conflict, creates very different dynamics from one where there is collaboration and respect. Online learning contexts have other influences on learning as they change the nature of human interaction that might occur in a classroom.
TABLE 1.2 COMMON ADULT LEARNING AND EDUCATION TERMS
Term
Definition
Adult Education
Adults engage in learning or educational activities to develop new knowledge, skills, or attitudes, encompassing everything from basic literacy to advanced graduate work to activities not associated with academic institutions or formal instruction. Adult education is considered distinctive from the education of children.
Adult Educator
A person who teaches, supports, and facilitates adult education and learning on various topics.
Adult Learner
Any person holding roles with adult‐like responsibilities (e.g., worker, parent, responsible citizen) who is engaged in acquiring new knowledge, whether formal, informal, or nonformal (see definitions in this table).
Adult Learning
When adults engage in systemic, sustained activities to gain new knowledge to meet a desired goal, such as learning, connecting with others, or advancing at work, adult learning can be formal, informal, or nonformal.
Andragogy
Contrasted with pedagogy, andragogy is typically learner‐centered education where learners define their learning goals and have input and control over the learning process, even when engaged in formal education.
Chautauqua
