Advanced Composite Materials E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: Advance Materials Series
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 808

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016

Beschreibung

Composites materials is basically the combining of unique properties of materials to have synergistic effects. A combination of materials is needed to adapt to certain properties for any application area. There is an everlasting desire to make composite materials stronger, lighter or more durable than traditional materials. Carbon materials are known to be attractive in composites because of their combination of chemical and physical properties. In the recent years, development of new composites has been influenced by precision green approaches that restrict hazardous substances and waste created during production. This book ranges from the fundamental principles underpinning the fabrication of different composite materials to their devices, for example, applications in energy harvesting, memory devices, electrochemical biosensing and other advanced composite-based biomedical applications. This book provides a compilation of innovative fabrication strategies and utilization methodologies which are frequently adopted in the advanced composite materials community with respect to developing appropriate composites to efficiently utilize macro and nanoscale features. The key topics are: * Pioneer composite materials for printed electronics * Current-limiting defects in superconductors * High-tech ceramics materials * Carbon nanomaterials for electrochemical biosensing * Nanostructured ceramics and bioceramics for bone cancer * Importance of biomaterials for bone regeneration * Tuning hydroxyapatite particles * Carbon nanotubes reinforced bioceramic composite * Biomimetic prototype interface

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

Chapter 1: Composite Materials for Application in Printed Electronics

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Filler Materials

1.3 Conductive Polymers

1.4 Preparation of Electronics Materials for Printing

1.5 Overview of Application Fields

1.6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 2: Study of Current-limiting Defects in Superconductors Using Low-temperature Scanning Laser Microscopy

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Introduction of Low-temperature Scanning Laser Microscopy and Its Application in Defect Studies in Superconductors

2.3 Case Studies of Using LTSLM to Study Defects in Superconductors

2.4 Conclusions

Reference

Chapter 3: Innovative High-tech Ceramics Materials

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Ceramic Structure

3.3 Raw Materials

3.4 Processing of Ceramics

3.5 Properties

3.6 Some Important Advanced Ceramics

3.7 Conclusions

References

Chapter 4: Carbon Nanomaterials-based Enzymatic Electrochemical Sensing

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Carbon Nanomaterials

4.3 Carbon Nanotubes Paste Electrodes

4.4 Carbon Nanotube-based Electrodes with Immobilized Enzymes

4.5 Fullerene-modified Electrode

4.6 Carbon Nanoonion (CNO)-modified Electrode

4.7 Carbon Nanodiamond-modified Electrode

4.8 Carbon Nanohorns-modified Electrode

4.9 Carbon Nanofibers-based Electrode

4.10 Carbon Nanodot-based Electrode

4.11 Electrochemical Biosensor

4.12 Conclusions

4.13 Future Developments

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 5: Nanostructured Ceramics and Bioceramics for Bone Cancer Treatment

5.1 Overview

5.2 General Concepts onto Bone Cancer and Bone Metastases

5.3 Intrinsically Anticancer Nanoceramics

5.4 Imprinting Anticancer Properties to Bioceramics by Chemotherapeutic Functionalization

5.5 Composite Magnetic Bioceramics

5.6 Conclusions and Outlook

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 6: Therapeutic Strategies for Bone Regeneration: The Importance of Biomaterials Testing in Adequate Animal Models

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Animal Models Used for

In Vivo

Testing Bone of Grafting Products

6.3 Histomorphometric Analyses

6.4 Histologic Analysis

6.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 7: Tuning Hydroxyapatite Particles’ Characteristics for Solid Freeform Fabrication of Bone Scaffolds

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Powder-based Solid Freeform Fabrication of Naturally Derived Ceramic Components

7.3 Tuning of Naturally Derived Calcium Phosphates for Solid Freeform Fabrication

7.4 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 8: Carbon Nanotubes-reinforced Bioceramic Composite: An Advanced Coating Material for Orthopedic Applications

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Materials and Method

8.3 Results and Discussion

8.4 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Index

End User License Agreement

Guide

Cover

Copyright

Contents

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Scrivener Publishing 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J Beverly, MA 01915-6106

Advanced Materials Series The Advanced Materials Series provides recent advancements of the fascinating field of advanced materials science and technology, particularly in the area of structure, synthesis and processing, characterization, advanced-state properties, and applications. The volumes will cover theoretical and experimental approaches of molecular device materials, biomimetic materials, hybrid-type composite materials, functionalized polymers, supramolecular systems, information- and energy-transfer materials, biobased and biodegradable or environmental friendly materials. Each volume will be devoted to one broad subject and the multidisciplinary aspects will be drawn out in full.

Series Editor: Ashutosh Tiwari Biosensors and Bioelectronics Centre Linköping University SE-581 83 Linköping Sweden

E-mail: [email protected]

Managing Editors: Sachin Mishra and Sophie Thompson

Publishers at Scrivener Martin Scrivener ([email protected]) Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Advanced Composite Materials

Edited by

Ashutosh Tiwari

Mohammad Rabia Alenezi

Seong Chan Jun

Copyright © 2016 by Scrivener Publishing LLC. All rights reserved.

Co-published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey, and Scrivener Publishing LLC, Beverly, Massachusetts. Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, [phone], fax [phone], or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, [phone], fax [phone], or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

ISBN 978-1-119-24253-6

Preface

The term “composites” is a simplified way of describing the combining of unique properties of different materials to produce synergistic effects. A combination of materials is needed so that certain properties can be adapted to any area of application. There has been an everlasting desire for composite materials to be made stronger, lighter or more durable than traditional materials. Carbon materials are known to be attractive for composites due to a combination of their chemical and physical properties. Recently, carbon allotropes, such as graphene, graphene oxide and carbon nanotubes, have been used in electrochemical biosensors to provide highly sensitive and selective detection.

Included in this book are innovative fabrication strategies and utilization methodologies frequently adopted in the advanced composite materials community with respect to developing appropriate composites to efficiently utilize macro- and nanoscale features. Its general readership are those from interdisciplinary backgrounds across the fields of physics, chemistry, materials science and engineering, nanoelectronics, electrochemical sensing, biomaterials science, nanobiotechnology and, most importantly, the biomedical materials-related life science communities. The comprehensive overview of state-of-the-art research on composite materials presented herein will be of interest to scientists, researchers, students and engineers in materials science/nanotechnology research, composite systems and nanodevices, sensors, carbon nanomaterials, graphene, nanobiomaterials, advanced biomaterials applications, and also industrial sectors intending to utilize composite materials in different technologies via cutting-edge techniques. Interdisciplinary PhD candidates will also find this book useful for developing their fundamental understanding on the subject and it will also be appropriate for master and undergraduate level courses on composite materials processing, properties and applications in physics, chemistry, materials science, nanotechnology, biomaterials and biomedical engineering, among others. In conclusion, we would like to thank all the contributors whose preparation of such high quality chapters is greatly appreciated and the production team for their dedicated work to ensure the birth of this book.

Editors Ashutosh Tiwari, PhD, DSc Mohammad Rabia Alenezi, PhD Seong Chan Jun, PhD July, 2016

Chapter 1Composite Materials for Application in Printed Electronics

Kamil Janeczek

Tele and Radio Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland

Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract

Further development of printed electronics requires investigations of new advanced composite materials that can be used to produce different types of devices on flexible or rigid substrates. Among these printed devices, organic light-emitting diodes, organic photovoltaic cells, radio frequency identification tags, sensors, and capacitors can be mentioned. To achieve their high performance, materials used for their fabrication should exhibit excellent electrical as well as thermal and mechanical properties to be not susceptible to environmental factors, in particular to bending cycles. In this study, recently developed different materials used in printed electronics for fabrication of various types of devices are discussed. These materials contain graphene, graphite nanofibers, carbon nanotubes, silver nanopowder, or silver flakes. Properties of layers produced from these materials were discussed, i.e. based on the results obtained using scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, profilometers, and their durability after thermal and mechanical tests was assessed by measurement of their resistance and analysis of their surface and microstructure.

Keywords: Printed electronics, graphene, carbon nanotubes, silver nanopowder, graphite nanofibers

1.1 Introduction

In recent years, development of modern electronics technologies has been influenced by eco-friendly approach that consists in limitation of hazardous substances and waste created during production of electronics devices. In effect of this approach, the Directive on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment (in short: Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive – RoHS) was introduced. Its aim was to restrict the use of the following six substances: lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), hexavalent chromium (Cr6+), polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE), and polybrominated biphenyls (PBB) [1].

Another manifestation of the eco-friendly approach in electronics industry was development of printed electronics which is also called organic, plastic, polymer, or organic electronics [2]. This new branch is based on polymer materials that allow to fabricate light-weight, flexible, cheap, and disposable devices. Among them, organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) [3–6], organic photovoltaic cells [7–9], radio frequency identification (RFID) tags [10–12], memories [13–15], batteries [16–17], smart textiles [18–19], and sensors [20–23] can be named.

Unlike conventional technologies, e.g. etching used in production of printed circuit boards, printed electronics belongs to additive manufacturing techniques. This means that a produced component is formed by printing different types of materials directly on a substrate, whereas in subtractive techniques some parts of materials are removed to create a designed element. In this way, unwanted waste is produced when subtractive techniques are used. This waste has negative impact on environment and it increases production cost because it is necessary to pay for its utilization [24]. Printed electronics allows to avoid creating as big amount of waste as it is generated in conventional technological processes and with respect to this ability printed electronics can be assessed as eco-friendly. Its additional advantage is less complexity compared for instance to etching, e.g. to produce electronic circuits smaller number of technological steps is required [25]. To see this aspect better, a few chosen printing techniques and etching technique for comparison are described below.

There are many different printing techniques which can be utilized for fabrication of electronics devices. Among them, screen printing, ink-jet, gravure, and flexography can be specified. The first one is a well-known and popular manufacturing technique in which a paste is transferred onto a substrate through a mesh made from polyester, steel, or polyimide. The mesh is stretched on a metal frame. In order to get a required thickness of a printed pattern, it is necessary to choose suitable force and speed of a squeegee and distance between mesh and substrate. After the printing process, the fabricated pattern is cured using elevated temperature or ultraviolet (UV) [26].

Another printing technique is ink-jet, which has been rapidly developed in the recent years. Its two different groups can be named: drop-on-demand (DoD) and continuous ink-jet (CIJ). In the DoD process, a single ink droplet is jetted through a nozzle when pressure within a reservoir grows or due to vibration of a piezo element or a bubble created as a result of rapid evaporation of the heated ink [26–28]. In industrial application, size of generated droplets varies from 15 to 55 µm, drop speed is typically equal to 3–15 m/s, and printing frequencies are up to 100 kHz [29]. In the CIJ process, a stream of fine droplets is ejected out of the nozzle under the pressure inside the reservoir which is undergoing vibration. The generated droplets pass through a charged electrode, and then two perpendicular electric fields can deflect them in two directions. The droplets which are not intended to be printed are collected into a gutter [30]. Typically, CIJ produces droplets with a diameter of 80–100 µm moving at speed of 20 m/s with drop frequencies even above 250 kHz. For both mentioned ink-jet groups, thermal, piezoelectric, and electromagnetic actuators are usually utilized [29].

In comparison to screen printing, ink-jet method makes possible to produce much thinner layers (below 1 µm) [27] and higher resolution (250 lines per cm) [26]. Moreover, it is not necessary to use in-between forms, such as stencils, what is significant advantage of ink-jet printing.

In the classical gravure method, a number of cavities with raster structure are created in a cylindrical metal printing form covered with a thin chrome layer to ensure resistance and hardness to wear. During printing process, the cylinder rotates in an ink reservoir, and the excess amount of ink is wiped away by a doctor blade. Then, the ink remaining in the cavities is transferred to the substrate under pressure created by an impression cylinder. Gravure inks may be solvent- or water-based or UV-curing. Their viscosities can vary in the range of 0.01–0.05 Pa.s [26, 31].

The advantage of the gravure method is highly resistant cylindrical form in comparison to flexography or offset printing. It can be useful when thin layers from low-viscosity inks containing a large amount of aggressive organic solvents are fabricated. However, gravure printing shows some limitations. The first one is relatively high pressure in the contact area and very rigid form surface which limit application of this method to flexible substrates and which cause considerable difficulties when multilayer devices are manufactured. The other limitation is connected with observed deformation of printed pattern which varies depending on the position of printed elements relatively to the axis direction of the cylinder [31, 32].

Another advantage of gravure printing is its capability to be used for the mass production of printed electronics. Large cylinders are capable of producing up to 2000 feet per minute, much more than it is possible to print with ink-jet which is suitable for a small production of printed devices. Furthermore, in gravure method, cavities are constantly refilled with an ink when the cylinder rotates what sustains long print runs and prevents against ink clogging. The latter is a common problem in ink-jet printing [33].

Apart from gravure, flexography can be used for the mass production of printed components. In the recent years, it is often assessed as the most promising roll-to-roll method suitable for printed electronics (initially, it was developed for packaging industry). In flexography method, a printing unit comprises anilox, cylinder holding a flexible printing form and printing cylinder which presses a substrate material against the form. Anilox roller is used to precisely supply a quantity of ink onto the print form [31].

The main drawback of flexography, as a potential technique for production of printed devices, is uneven printing (irregularity on the edges) which is caused by a structure of the thresholds between raster cavities. However, its advantage is capability to produce thin layers and to use a wide variety of substrates, such as corrugated cardboard, paper, board, flexible and rigid polymers, glass, and metals. The ink viscosities can be in the range of 0.01–0.1 Pa.s, and the printed elements can have 10 µm in diameter and 20 µm in width [26, 31].

All above-described techniques belong to additive manufacturing processes. Currently, subtractive techniques are also very popular and used commonly in electronic industry, in particularly wet etching. In this method, liquid chemicals or etchants are utilized to remove unwanted metallic parts in the following steps: deposition of photoresist on the metallic surface, exposure of photoresist to UV light through a photomask protecting a desired pattern on the substrate and finally removing of unwanted metallic areas and photoresist layer [34].

During etching process, only a small part of material is used and the rest is either thrown away or recycled. Thus, a lot of waste materials and chemicals are created what makes etching technique environmental-unfriendly method.

Bearing in mind capability of printed electronics and its advantages against conventional electronics technologies, it may seem that possibility to fabricate different electronics components, devices, or even systems with printing techniques should revolutionize the modern electronic branch and contribute to its rapid development, i.e. in the field of low-cost, disposable consumer electronics. However, its further development is hindered by lack of materials or its limited availability or its high price.

In this chapter, recent advances in the field of composite materials used for manufacturing of printed electronics devices (mainly with using screen printing and ink-jet printing) are discussed. These materials comprise different types of fillers, such as recently discovered graphene, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphite nanofibers (GNFs), silver nanopowder, or well-known and widely utilized in commercial application silver flakes. Properties of layers fabricated from these materials will be described, i.e. based on results obtained from scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and surface profilometry. Their thermal and mechanical durability will also be discussed as it is crucial factor from practical point of view. Assuming that a device printed on flexible substrate, such as display, is considered it should be taken into account that it can undergo cyclic bending when is rolled up und then unrolled and it should withstand this type of exposure to be ready for commercialization. Moreover, this display should also exhibit high durability on thermal shocks because it may be used indoors and outdoors and temperature in these two zones can vary considerably, especially in countries with very hot and very cold climates.

1.2 Filler Materials

One of the most interesting filler materials developed in the recent years is graphene. For groundbreaking investigations of its properties, Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov from University of Manchester were awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 2010. From that time graphene has been widely examined in almost every field of science and engineering. As a result, novel materials based on this type of filler are supposed to find application in optoelectronic and electronic devices, nanocomposites, energy storage, and authentication systems.

In general, graphene is an infinite two-dimensional layer built from sp2-bonded carbon atoms which are formed in a two-dimensional honeycomb lattice consisting of two interpenetrated triangular sub-lattices. The atoms of one sub-lattice are at the center of the triangles determined by the other with a C–C inter-atomic length of 1.42 Å. The unit cell consists of two carbon atoms and is unchanging at an angle of 120° around any atom. It is worth to mention that there are also other pseudo-two-dimensional sp2-hybridized carbon structures, such as bilayer and few-layer graphene. These pseudo-structures exhibit different properties than graphene or graphite [35].

Electrical properties of graphene depend on the number of layers. For few-layer graphene, there is a linear band where the number of layers is odd. When this number grows, the band structure is getting more complicated, i.e. valence and conduction bands overlap substantially and numerous charge carrier appear [36, 37]. It was also reported [38] that electrical properties of multilayer graphene are strongly dependent on stacking order or disorder.

Electrical properties of graphene are also determined by mechanical stresses. During bending of 1 mm (in diameter) graphene, its resistance in the bent direction grows approximately one order of magnitude. Similar behavior was observed when graphene was stretched. Difference of one order of magnitude was noticed between resistance measured in perpendicular and in parallel to stretching direction [39]. When mechanical strength of an individual graphene sheet is concerned, it was reported in [40] that a breaking strength of this sheet is 200 times larger than of steel with a Young’s modulus of approximately 1 TPa.

Thermal properties of graphene were recently discussed in [41, 42]. According to data presented in the literature, a suspended graphene sheet could exhibit high thermal conductivity in the range of 4840–5300 W/m·K. It is noteworthy that these values are higher than for diamond (3320 W/m·K). Thus, graphene can find application in polymer composites with high thermal conduction as a filler material.

Another interesting filler material that has attracted attention of many research teams is CNT. The most often investigated are its two types: single-wall (SWCNTs) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) [43]. The first type is an individual graphene sheet rolled into a tube and consisted of hexagonal rings of carbon atoms. Its diameter is equal to a few nanometers (typically about 1.4 nm), and length is even up to 105 µm. MWCNTs are composed of concentric graphene layers with a constant space of 0.34 nm between each layers. Their diameters are in the range of 10–200 nm, and lengths are up to hundreds of microns [44].

CNTs exhibit unusual properties, i.e. tensile strength – 45 billion Pa (high-strength steel alloys break at approximately 2 billion Pa), current carrying capacity – about 1 billion A/cm2 (copper wires are damaged at about 1 million A/cm2