Advanced Energy Materials E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: Advance Materials Series
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 859

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2014

Beschreibung

An essential resource for scientists designing new energy materials for the vast landscape of solar energy conversion as well as materials processing and characterization Based on the new and fundamental research on novel energy materials with tailor-made photonic properties, the role of materials engineering has been to provide much needed support in the development of photovoltaic devices. Advanced Energy Materials offers a unique, state-of-the-art look at the new world of novel energy materials science, shedding light on the subject's vast multi-disciplinary approach The book focuses particularly on photovoltaics, efficient light sources, fuel cells, energy-saving technologies, energy storage technologies, nanostructured materials as well as innovating materials and techniques for future nanoscale electronics. Pathways to future development are also discussed. Critical, cutting-edge subjects are addressed, including: * Non-imaging focusing heliostat; state-of-the-art of nanostructures * Metal oxide semiconductors and their nanocomposites * Superionic solids; polymer nanocomposites; solid electrolytes; advanced electronics * Electronic and optical properties of lead sulfide * High-electron mobility transistors and light-emitting diodes * Anti-ferroelectric liquid crystals; PEEK membrane for fuel cells * Advanced phosphors for energy-efficient lighting * Molecular computation photovoltaics and photocatalysts * Photovoltaic device technology and non-conventional energy applications Readership The book is written for a large and broad readership including researchers and university graduate students from diverse backgrounds such as chemistry, materials science, physics, and engineering working in the fields of nanotechnology, photovoltaic device technology, and non-conventional energy.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Half Title page

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

Chapter 1: Non-imaging Focusing Heliostat

1.1 Introduction

1.2 The Principle of Non-imaging Focusing Heliostat (NIFH)

1.3 Residual Aberration

1.4 Optimization of Flux Distribution Pattern for Wide Range of Incident Angle

1.5 First Prototype of Non-imaging Focusing Heliostat (NIFH)

1.6 Second Prototype of Non-imaging Focusing Heliostat (NIFH)

1.7 Conclusion

Acknowledgement

References

Chapter 2: State-of-the-Art of Nanostructures in Solar Energy Research

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Motivations for Solar Energy

2.3 Nanostructures and Different Synthesis Techniques

2.4 Nanomaterials for Solar Cells Applications

2.5 Advanced Nanostructures for Technological Applications

2.6 Theory and Future Trends in Solar Cells

2.7 Conclusion

References

Chapter 3: Metal Oxide Semiconductors and Their Nanocomposites Application towards Photovoltaic and Photocatalytic

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Metal Oxide Nanostructures for Photovoltaic Applications

3.3 TiO2 Nanomaterials and Nanocomposites for the Application of DSSC and Heterostructure Devices

3.4 ZnO Nanomaterials and Nanocomposites for the Application of DSSC and Heterostructure Devices

3.8 Metal Oxide Nanostructures and Nanocomposites for Photocatalytic Application

3.9 Conclusions

3.10 Future Directions

References

Chapter 4: Superionic Solids in Energy Device Applications

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Classification of Superionic Solids

4.3 Ion Conduction in Superionic Solids

4.4 Important Models

4.5 Applications

4.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 5: Polymer Nanocomposites: New Advanced Dielectric Materials for Energy Storage Applications

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Dielectric Mechanism

5.3 Dielectric Materials

5.4 Demand for New Materials: Polymer Composites

5.5 Polymer Nanocomposites: Concept and Electrical Properties

5.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives

References

Chapter 6: Solid Electrolytes: Principles and Applications

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Ionic Solids

6.3 Classification of Solid Electrolytes

6.4 Criteria for High Ionic Conductivity and Mobility

6.5 Electrical Characterization of Solid Electrolyte

6.6 Ionic Conductivity and Temperature

6.7 Concentration-Dependent Conductivity

6.8 Ionic Conductivity in Composite SE

6.9 Thermodynamics of Electrochemical System

6.10 Applications

6.12 Conclusion

References

Chapter 7: Advanced Electronics: Looking beyond Silicon

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Limitations of Silicon-Based Technology

7.3 Need for Carbon-Based Electronics Technology

7.4 Carbon Family

7.5 Electronic Structure of Graphene and CNT

7.6 Synthesis of CNTs

7.7 Carbon Nanotube Devices

7.8 Advantages of CNT-Based Devices

7.9 Issues with Carbon-Based Electronics

7.10 Conclusion

References

Chapter 8: Ab-Initio Determination of Pressure-Dependent Electronic and Optical Properties of Lead Sulfide for Energy Applications

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Computational Details

8.3 Results and Discussion

8.4 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 9: Radiation Damage in GaN-Based Materials and Devices

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Fundamental Studies of Radiation Defects in GaN and Related Materials

9.3 Radiation Effects in Other Ill-Nitrides

9.4 Radiation Effects in GaN Schottky Diodes, in AlGaN/GaN and GaN/InGaN Heterojunctions and Quantum Wells

9.5 Radiation Effects in GaN-Based Devices

9.6 Prospects of Radiation Technology for GaN

9.7 Summary and Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 10: Antiferroelectric Liquid Crystals: Smart Materials for Future Displays

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Theories of Antiferroelectricity in Liquid Crystals

10.3 Molecular Structure Design/Synthesis of AFLC Materials

10.4 Macroscopic Characterization and Physical Properties of AFLCs

10.5 Conclusions and Future Scope

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 11: Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) Membrane for Fuel Cell Applications

11.1 Introduction

11.2 PEEK Overview

11.3 PEEK as Fuel Cell Membrane

11.4 Modified PEEK as Fuel Cell Membrane

11.5 Evaluation of Cell Performance

11.6 Market Size

11.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 12: Vanadate Phosphors for Energy Efficient Lighting

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Some Well-Known Vanadate Phosphors

12.3 Our Approach

12.4 Experimental Details

12.7 Conclusions

References

Chapter 13: Molecular Computation on Functionalized Solid Substrates

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Molecular Logic Gate on 3D Substrates

13.3 Molecular Logic Gates and Circuits on 2D Substrates

13.4 Combinatorial and Sequential Logic Gates and Circuits using Os-polypyridyl Complex on SiOx Substrates

13.5 Multiple Redox States and Logic Devices

13.6 Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 14: Ionic Liquid Stabilized Metal NPs and Their Role as Potent Catalyst

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Applications of Metal Nanoparticles

14.3 Shape of Particles

14.4 Aggregation of Particles

14.5 Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles

14.6 Stability against Oxidation

14.7 Stabilization of Metal Nanoparticles in Ionic Liquid

14.8 Applications of Metal NPs as Potent Catalyst in Organic Synthesis

14.8 Conclusion

References

Chapter 15: There’s Plenty of Room in the Field of Zeolite-Y Enslaved Nanohybrid Materials as Eco-Friendly Catalysts: Selected Catalytic Reactions

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Types of Zeolites

15.3 Methodology

15.4 Characterization Techniques

15.5 Exploration of Zeolite-Y Enslaved Nanohybrid Materials

15.6 Conclusions

References

Index

Advanced Energy Materials

Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915–6106

Advance Materials Series

The Advance Materials Series provides recent advancements of the fascinating field of advanced materials science and technology, particularly in the area of structure, synthesis and processing, characterization, advanced-state properties, and applications. The volumes will cover theoretical and experimental approaches of molecular device materials, biomimetic materials, hybrid-type composite materials, functionalized polymers, superamolecular systems, information- and energy-transfer materials, biobased and biodegradable or environmental friendly materials. Each volume will be devoted to one broad subject and the multidisciplinary aspects will be drawn out in full.

Series Editor: Dr. Ashutosh TiwariBiosensors and Bioelectronics CentreLinkoping UniversitySE-581 83 LinkopingSweden

E-mail: [email protected] Editors: Swapneel Despande, Sudheesh K. Shukla and Yashpal Sharma

Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Copyright © 2014 by Scrivener Publishing LLC. All rights reserved.

Co-published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey, and Scrivener Publishing LLC, Salem, Massachusetts.Published simultaneously in Canada.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

ISBN 978–1-118-68629-4

Preface

Energy plays a critical role in the developmental progression of an emerging society. A high standard of living and an increasing world population require more and more amounts of energy. At the same time, the standard energy sources based on fossil fuels are limited and pollute the environment, leading to climate change on a global scale. In order to avoid an energy crisis, the research efforts of many scientific centers around the globe are being directed towards searching for new solutions and improving those already existing in the energy sector. In parallel with the growth rate of renewable energy, essential attention is being paid to the development of advanced methods and materials for effective utilization of energy resources. Technological advantages will help to overcome energy-related difficulties. Among the main criteria for the viability of new energetic techniques are efficiency, cost, usability and environmental influence.

This book summarizes the current status of know-how in the fields of advanced materials for energy-associated applications, in particular, photovoltaics, efficient light sources, fuel cells, energy saving technologies, nanostructured materials, etc. Tendencies for future development are also discussed. A good understanding of the excited state reactivity of photoactive materials would help to prepare new materials and molecules capable of absorbing light over a given wavelength range for use in driving electron transfer. There has been scientifically and technologically well-equipped materials science exploration into the possibility of developing and optimizing charge separation in light-harvesting architectures. However, it has yet to bear fruit due to the difficulty of transporting electrons and holes to corresponding electrodes. Modeling charge mobility in semiconductors is complicated due to the presence of bulk heterogeneity in the structure. The understanding of the interface between the metal electrode and the active materials, where charge collection takes place, is even more intriguing.

The design and fabrication of molecular-based information processing devices on conducting substrates have been key areas of research in materials science. One particularly attractive application in this area is the conversion of solar energy into fuel, which is currently being proposed as a cheaper alternative for energy conversion. Energy storage technologies are dealt with in some chapters. High energy density capacitors are of particular significance, for example, in defense-related applications, where tasks in remote areas without traditional energy resources demand novel approaches to energy storage. Polymer nanocomposites offer attractive, low-cost potential storage systems for high-energy density capacitors. Their tailored characteristics offer unique combinations of properties which are expected to play a vital role in the development of new technologies for energy storage applications.

Other chapters consider the aspects of solar energy. Rapid progress in photovoltaic science and technology during the last decades is a reason that solar cells came out of the laboratories and are becoming a part of our everyday life. And this is only the beginning of the era of solar energy. The number of reports about new approaches in this field is increasing dramatically. Among the reported topics are nanostructure compositions, transparent conductors, inclusion of metal oxide as well as metal-based thin films, light-trapping schemes that enable increased conversation efficiency, various concentrators and solar tracking systems, etc. Chapters two through ten are devoted to consideration of innovative materials and techniques for future nanoscale electronics. Two allotropic forms of carbon, carbon nanotubes and graphene, are able to replace conducting channels and silicon in elements of integrated circuits, thereby opening a new era of carbon-based electronics which will lead to denser, faster and more power-efficient circuitry. A possible attractive alternative to the semiconductor components in digital processing devices is chip-based molecular logic gates—molecules possessing the property to perform logical operations where a chemical or physical binary input to the molecules causes a binary output. Surface-confined materials showing switching behavior along with changes in physical properties (i.e., optical, orientation, magnetism) make it possible to create integrated complex circuits for massive networking systems. Significant attention is being paid to the development of fuel cells—devices that convert chemical energy from a fuel into electricity through a chemical reaction with oxygen or another oxidizing agent. Because there is no combustion in the energy conversion process, fuel cells are efficient and environmentally friendly. The fuel cell market is also growing at a fast pace, and according to Pike Research, the stationary fuel cell market is predicted to reach 50 GW by 2020. There is a chapter describing the problems related to energy efficient lighting, In particular, vanadate phosphors are considered—luminescent materials that have excellent thermal and chemical stability. Phosphor layers provide most of the light produced by fluorescent lamps, and are also used to improve the balance of light produced by metal halide lamps.

Also discussed in the book is the role of materials engineering in providing much needed support in the development of photovoltaic devices with new and fundamental research on novel energy materials with tailor-made photonic properties. This book is written for a large readership, including university students and researchers from diverse backgrounds such as chemistry, materials science, physics, pharmacy, medical science and engineering. It can be used not only as a textbook for both undergraduate and graduate students, but also as a review and reference book for researchers in materials science, nanotechnology, photovoltaic device technology and non-conventional energy. We hope the chapters herein will provide readers with valuable insight into the state-of-the-art of advanced and functional materials and cutting-edge energy technologies. The main credit for this book must go to the authors of the chapters who have summarized information in the field of advanced energy-related materials.

EditorsAshutosh Tiwari, Docent, PhDSergiy Valyukh, Docent, PhD

Chapter 1

Non-imaging Focusing Heliostat

Kok-Keong Chong

Faculty of Engineering and Science, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

* Corresponding [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract

Overcoming astigmatism has always been a great challenge in designing a heliostat capable of focusing the sunlight on a small receiver throughout the year. In this chapter, a non-imaging focusing heliostat with dynamic adjustment of facet mirrors in a group manner is presented for optimizing the astigmatic correction in a wide range of incident angles. Non-imaging focusing heliostat that consists of m × n facet mirrors can carry out continuous astigmatic correction during sun-tracking with the use of only (m + n − 2) controllers. A further simplified astigmatic correction of non-imaging focusing heliostat is also discussed which reduces the number of controllers from (m + n − 2) to only two. A detailed optical analysis is carried out and the simulated result has shown that the two-controller system can perform comparably well in astigmatic correction with a much simpler and more cost effective design. The new heliostat is not only designed to serve the purpose of concentrating sunlight to several hundreds of suns, but also to significantly reduce the variation of solar flux distribution with incident angle.

Keywords: Non-imaging focusing heliostat, new heliostat, optical analysis, solar flux

1.1 Introduction

There are two fundamental designs of solar concentrator technologies for harnessing high concentration solar energy: on-axis and off-axis focusing techniques. The most popular devices for on-axis focusing include parabolic dish, parabolic trough, spherical bowl (or so-called Fixed Mirror Distributed Focus), Fresnel lens, etc. [1, 2]. The off-axis focusing device involves the use of heliostat to focus sunlight onto a fixed receiver in the systems such as the central power tower, the solar furnace, etc. [2–7]. The on-axis focusing devices are usually used for distributed and smaller scale power generation (in the range from several kW to tens of kW) compared to that of off-axis focusing devices in the application of a central receiver system. For the central power tower, the concave mirrors used for the heliostat encounter a serious deterioration in focused image due to the off-axis aberration.

Off-axis aberration or astigmatism is a key factor in limiting the solar concentration ratio, especially for the central tower system that consists of a stationary receiver located in a field of focusing heliostats [8]. Full correction of the astigmatism requires a continuous adjustment in the local curvature of the reflector in both space and time. Although this method has been implemented in extremely large telescopes, it is obviously impractical for solar energy application because it would impose a very expensive and complicated control system with a total of 2 × m × n motors to orient each facet to its own unique direction for the heliostat composed of m × n facets. As a result, a new non-imaging focusing heliostat, that employs a clever approach to maneuver the facets in group manner for astigmatic correction has been proposed. Many research works on non-imaging focusing heliostat have been carried out by Chen et al. [9–15], Chong et al. [16–22] and Lim et al. [23] to establish the principle and technology of the new heliostat. Overall, there are two major advancements achieved in the new heliostat compared to the conventional heliostat that has remained unchanged for many decades [24]. One is the first mathematical derivation of the new spinning-elevation tracking formula to replace the commonly used azimuth-elevation tracking. Even the principle of spinning-elevation or target-aligned tracking method was first discussed by Ries et al. [25] and Zaibel et al. [26], but they did not propose any method of implementation in their papers such as derivation of new sun-tracking formula or construction of a prototype to implement the new tracking method. The second advancement is the correction of the first order astigmatism with the innovative line movements of the facets instead of trivial individual movements that would lead to complex and expensive mechanics.

1.2 The Principle of Non-imaging Focusing Heliostat (NIFH)

In the design of the non-imaging focusing heliostat (NIFH), mirrors are arranged into rows and columns. The central column is maintained in the optical plane by rotating the frame. The master mirror is fixed at the center with slave mirrors surrounding it, they share the same frame but the slave mirrors have two extra moving freedoms about their pivot points. To focus all the mirror images into one fixed target, each slave mirror is angularly moved about its pivot point to reflect sunrays onto the same target as the master mirror. The result at the target is the superposition of individual mirror images. As the sunlight is not coherent, the result is the algebra sum of the energy of the beams without a specific optical image.

1.2.1 Primary Tracking (Global Movement for Heliostat Frame)

The purpose of primary tracking is to target the solar image of the master mirror into a stationary receiver. Then, this image acts as a reference for secondary tracking where all the slave mirror images will be projected on it. In Figure 1.1(a), we define as the vector normal to the reflector surface; as the vector that points to the sun; as the vector that points to a fixed target. Figure 1.1(b) shows the rotation of the plane of reflection, that plane which contains the three vectors (, and ), during primary tracking. In Figure 1.1(b), the vector points to the new position of the sun and the vector ’ is the reflector normal of the new orientation so that the sunlight is still reflected towards the target. The tracking movement can be studied by two independent components ():