Advanced Textile Engineering Materials E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Advance Materials Series
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 900

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018

Beschreibung

A groundbreaking book on the recent advances in chemical finishing, innovative fabrication strategies frequently adopted for the mechanical finishing of textiles, as well as the environmental issues in textile sectors Advanced materials are undoubtedly becoming very popular as substitutes for traditional materials in the textile engineering field. Advanced textile engineering materials are giving way to innovative textile materials with novel functions and are widely perceived as offering huge potential in a wide range of applications such as healthcare, defense, personal protective equipment, textile antennas, garments for motion capture, and sensors, etc. Advanced Engineering Textile Materials contains 13 chapters written by high profile contributors with many years of experience in textile technology, and cover fundamental and advanced approaches associated with the design and development of textile implants, conductive textiles, 3D textiles, smart-stimuli textiles, antiballistic textiles and fabric structures designed for a medical application intrabody/extra-body, implantable/non-implantable) and various modification and processing techniques.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

Part 1: Chemical Aspects

Chapter 1: Application of Stimuli-Sensitive Materials in Smart Textiles

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Phase Change Materials

1.3 Shape Memory Materials

1.4 Chromic Materials

1.5 Conjugated Polymers

1.6 Conductive Polymers

1.7 Piezoelectricity

1.8 Optical Fibers

1.9 Hydrogels

1.10 Smart Textiles and Nanotechnology

1.11 Future Trends

References

Chapter 2: Functional Finishing of Textile Materials and Its Psychological Aspects

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Softeners

2.3 Oil- and Water-Repellent Finishes

2.4 Fire Retardants

2.5 Easy Care Finishing

2.6 Psychological Aspect of Functional Textiles

2.7 Challenges and Future Directions

2.8 Conclusion

References

Chapter 3: Recent Advances in Protective Textile Materials

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Application of the Protective Textile in the Defense Arena

3.3 Recent Advancements in Engineering to Create UV-Protective Textiles

3.4 Insect-Repellent Textiles

3.5 Microorganism Protective Textile Materials

3.6 Camouflage Application as Protective Textile

3.7 Challenges and Future Directions

References

Chapter 4: Antibacterial Aspects of Nanomaterials in Textiles: From Origin to Release

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Nanomaterial Properties

4.3 Release

4.4 Conclusion

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 5: Modification of Wool and Cotton by UV Irradiation for Dyeing and Finishing Processes

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Interaction of UV Radiation with Textile Fibers

5.3 Interaction of UV Radiation with Naturally Present Chromophores of Different Fibers

5.4 UV Irradiation on Wool

5.5 UV Irradiation on Cotton

5.6 Conclusions

5.7 Future Perspectives

References

Chapter 6: Electroconductive Textiles

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Electrical Conductivity

6.3 The Source of Conductivity in Conducting Polymers

6.4 Electroconductive Textiles Based on Metals

6.5 Electroconductive Textiles Based on Graphene

6.6 Electroconductive Textile Based on PPy

6.7 Conductive Polymer-Based Textiles

6.8 Effect of Various Yarns and Fabrics as Substrate

6.9 Applications of Electroconductive Textiles

6.10 Durability Properties of Conductive Polymer-Based Textiles

6.11 Future Scope and Challenges

6.12 Conclusions

References

Chapter 7: Coated or Laminated Textiles for Aerostat and Stratospheric Airship

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Global Competitors for Making Aerostat/Airship at Present

7.3 Working Atmosphere of Aerostats and High Altitude Airship (HAA)

7.4 Materials Used in LTA Envelopes

7.5 Case Studies on Different Coated or Laminated LTA Envelopes

7.6 Advanced Polymer Nanocomposites as Potential Material for LTA Envelopes

7.7 Models for Predicting the Performance and Service Life of Aerostats/Airships

7.8 Challenges and Future Scopes

7.9 Conclusion

References

Chapter 8: Woolen Carpet Industry: Environmental Impact and Recent Remediation Approaches

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Flowchart of the Manufacture of a Woolen Carpet, Its Use, and After-Use Disposal

8.3 Wool Fiber Production and Related Environmental Issues

8.4 Wool Fiber Cleaning and Related Environmental Issues

8.5 Woolen Carpet Yarn Manufacturing and Related Environmental Issues

8.6 Bleaching of Woolen Yarn and Related Environmental Issues

8.7 Dyeing of Woolen Carpet Yarn and Related Environmental Issues

8.8 Manufacture of Woolen Carpets and Related Environmental Issues

8.9 Washing of Carpets and Related Environmental Issues

8.10 Environmental Issues Related to the Usage of Woolen Carpets

8.11 Environmental Issues Related to the Disposal of Used Woolen Carpets

8.12 Some Remediation Approaches to Combat Environmental Issues of Wool Carpet Industry

8.13 Conclusion

References

Chapter 9: Intensification of Textile Wastewater Treatment Processes

9.1 Introduction

9.2 AOP Techniques

9.3 Process Intensification

9.4 Equipment and Processes

9.5 Catalyst Design and Modification

9.6 Economic Evaluation/Justification of AOPs

9.7 Industrial and Large-Scale Applications

9.8 Application of Nanostructures in Wastewater Treatment

9.9 Challenges and Future Directions

9.10 Conclusion

References

Chapter 10: Visible-Light-Induced Photocatalytic Degradation of Textile Dyes over Plasmonic Silver-Modified TiO

2

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Basic Principle of Photocatalysis

10.3 TiO

2

as a Versatile Photocatalyst

10.4 Silver (Ag)-Modified TiO

2

(Ag-TiO

2

) as Visible-Light-Induced Photocatalyst

10.5 Ag-Modified TiO

2

with Non-Metal Doping

10.6 Ag-TiO

2

with Other Plasmonic Metals

10.7 Conclusion

References

Part 2: Mechanical Aspects

Chapter 11: Application of Textile Materials in Composites

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Essential Properties of Fibers for Composite Applications

11.3 Textile Fibers Used for Composite Applications

11.4 Surface Modification of Fibers

11.5 Manufacturing of Textile Composite Materials

11.6 Application of Textile Composites in Various Industries

11.7 Conclusions

References

Chapter 12: Emerging Trends in Three-Dimensional Woven Preforms for Composite Reinforcements

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Three-Dimensional Fabrics

12.3 Challenges and Future Directions

12.4 Summary and Outlook

References

Chapter 13: Evolution of Soft Body Armor

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Constituents of Soft Body Armor

13.3 Performance Evaluation of Materials

13.4 Advancements in Soft Body Armor Technology

13.5 Conclusion

References

Index

End User License Agreement

Guide

Cover

Copyright

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1

Optical and SEM images of a PDA-embedded PVDF nanofiber mat (a) before UV irradiation, (b) after UV irradiation, (c) after annealing at 65°C, and (d) after annealing at 100°C for 1 min (PVDF concentration of 23 w/v%; mass ratio of PVDF to PDA of 1:5 w/w%) [42].

Figure 1.2

An example of an optic fiber-knitted fabric display [69].

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1

Textile auxiliaries distribution by market share [2].

Figure 2.2

Functional finishing agent market share [3].

Figure 2.3

Fatty acid amide formation [5].

Figure 2.4

Structure of poly(dimethyl siloxane) [5].

Figure 2.5

Structure of perfluorinated acrylate [9].

Figure 2.6

The direct bonding of the fluorocarbon finish to cotton [9].

Figure 2.7

The cross-linking reaction between fluorocarbon finish and cotton via citric acid [9].

Figure 2.8

MDPA structure [14].

Figure 2.9

Formation of covalent bond between MDPA and cotton [14].

Figure 2.10

Synthesis of DMDHEU [4].

Figure 2.11

Acid catalyzed reaction of

N

-methylol compounds [4].

Figure 2.12

Cross-linking of cellulose with DMDHEU [1].

Figure 2.13

Alkylated DMDHEU [4].

Figure 2.14

Modification of DMDHEU by using polyols [4].

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1

Flame-retardant behavior of the control and the spinach juice-treated cotton fabric [6].

Figure 3.2

Thermogravimetry and the char morphology of the control and the DNA-treated cotton fabric [2, 5].

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1

TEM images of different silver nanoparticle shapes, adapted from Pal

et al.

[35].

Figure 4.2

A silver-coated nanomaterial with enhanced antibacterial activity, adapted from Budama

et al.

[42].

Figure 4.3

A schematic of the enhanced antibacterial activity of TiO

2

nanofibers by controlling the crystalline structure, adapted from Lee

et al.

[47].

Figure 4.4

Damage to the mitochondria induced by Ag nanoparticles and Ag ions. ROS may be released from damaging the mitochondria damaging the DNA, adapted from Franci

et al.

[58].

Figure 4.5

Release kinetics of Ag

+

in two different concentrations (300 and 600 mg/L) and three different sizes (20, 40, and 80 nm), adapted from Zhang

et al.

[92].

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1

Formation of yellow chromophore hydroxykynurenine (reprinted with permission of John Wiley and Sons from Dyer

et al.

[51]).

Figure 5.2

Photochromism of cellulose (reprinted with permission of Elsevier from Choudury

et al.

[53]).

Figure 5.3

(a and b) Static UV irradiation apparatus (reprinted from Migliavacca [11]).

Figure 5.4

Dynamic UV irradiation equipment (reprinted from Migliavacca [11]).

Figure 5.5

Structure of Reactive Blue 72 (reprinted from Migliavacca [11]).

Figure 5.6

Structure of Acid Black 52 (reprinted from Migliavacca [11]).

Figure 5.7

Structure of Reactive Blue 38 (reprinted from Migliavacca [11]).

Figure 5.8

Octahedral complex (reprinted from Migliavacca [11]).

Figure 5.9

Wool fabrics dyed with classical 1:1 metal-complex dyes at 1% o.w.f. at 85°C for 90 min (upper side, untreated; lower side, UV treated). (1) Yellow Neolan RE 250%, (2) Yellow Kemalene GR 150%, (3) Orange Kemalene G, (4) Red Kemalene GRE 150%, (5) Pink Kemalene BE 600%, (6) Pink Neolan BE 200%, (7) Bordeaux Neolan RM 200%, (8) Violet Kemalene 5RL 150%, (9) Blue Kemalene 2G 250%, (10) Navy Neolan 2RLB 150%, (11) Black Kemalene BW 364% (reprinted with permission of John Wiley and Sons from Migliavacca

et al.

[69]).

Figure 5.10

Wool fabrics dyed with 1:1 metal-complex dyes and acid dyes at 85°C for 90 min (upper side, untreated; lower side, UV treated). The composition of the recipes is detailed in Table 5.5 (reprinted with permission of John Wiley and Sons from Migliavacca

et al.

[69]).

Figure 5.11

Dyeings with 0.5% selected dyes: (a) Levafix Amber CA, (b) Remazol Orange RR, (c) Remazol Red RB 133%, (d) Remazol Navy GG 133%, (e) Remazol Black B 133%, (f) Remazol Blue RR (for each shade: untreated yarn on the left side, UV faded on the right side) (reprinted from Ferrero

et al.

[13]).

Figure 5.12

Cotton knitwears made from yarns submitted to free UV treatment (reprinted from Migliavacca [11]).

Scheme 5.1

Formation of α-carbon radicals (reprinted from Migliavacca [11]).

Scheme 5.2

Formation of α-ketoacids (RCOCOOH) through hydrolysis (reprinted from Migliavacca [11]).

Scheme 5.3

Formation of yellow chromophore beta-carboline carboxylic acids (reprinted from Migliavacca [11]).

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1

Conductivity ranges of insulators, metals, and conducting polymers.

Figure 6.2

(a) Formation of sp

2

hybridization. (b) Trigonal planar structure of graphene.

Figure 6.3

Chemical formulas of conductive polymers.

Figure 6.4

In situ

chemical polymerization via the single-bath process.

Figure 6.5

In situ

chemical polymerization via the double-bath process.

Figure 6.6

Schematic diagram of the experimental setup of electrochemical polymerization: (1) polymerization bath, (2) monomer and electrolyte solution, (3) anode, (4) cathode, (5) electrical wire, (6) power supply, (7) textile fabric affixed on anode surface.

Figure 6.7

Experimental setup of

in situ

vapor phase polymerization.

Figure 6.8

PPy-coated cotton fiber (a) before coating and (b) after PPy coating [82].

Figure 6.9

Cross sections of PPy-coated wool yarn using the continuous vapor phase method [61, 63].

Figure 6.10

SEM picture of cross section of PPy-coated wool yarn, fibers (1000 × 2000 in the box). A broken PPy-coated wool fiber (1720×), prepared by chemical polymerization [45].

Figure 6.11

Cross sections of PPy-coated silk fibers from silk yarn and fabric; (a) silk yarn, add-on 16.8%; (b) warp thread taken from the silk fabric, add-on 13.5%; and (c) close-up of (b). The magnification bar is 10 μm [94].

Figure 6.12

SEM images of PPy-coated viscose fiber. Longitudinal view (a) vapor phase sample, (b) liquid phase sample, cross-sectional view of (c) vapor phase and (d) liquid phase sample [68].

Figure 6.13

Cross section of PPy-deposited polyester fibers at various FeCl

3

concentrations: (a) 0.2 mol/L, (b) 0.4 mol/L, (c) 0.6 mol/L, and (d) 0.8 mol/L [112].

Figure 6.14

Cross section of PPy-coated nylon 66 yarn using the continuous vapor phase method [63].

Figure 6.15

Cross section of nylon 6 fiber treated with PPy. The dark area shows the PPy coating. Magnification, 960× [80].

Figure 6.16

Surface resistivity of PANi-coated fabrics [135].

Figure 6.17

Experimental setup diagram for measuring the heating effect of a textile composite [139].

Figure 6.18

Behavior of the voltage and temperature of the PPy-coated sample as a function of the current [139].

Figure 6.19

Behavior of the impedance and power developed by the PPy-coated textile composite as a function of the current [139].

Figure 6.20

Voltage–temperature characteristics of PPy-coated polyester needle punched nonwoven fabric [140].

Figure 6.21

Plot of temperature versus applied voltage for different vapor phase polymerized samples [68].

Figure 6.22

Typical resistance versus strain curve of PPy-coated Lycra fibers [69].

Figure 6.23

Effect of tensile strain on electrical resistance of PPy-coated cotton yarns [82].

Figure 6.24

Change of PPy-coated Spandex/nylon fabric conductivity with extension [122].

Figure 6.25

Effect of strain and strain rate on electrical resistivity of PPy-coated PA-6 fibers [67].

Figure 6.26

Sensor response as a function of NH

3

concentration [172].

Figure 6.27

pH dependence of the absorption spectra of a PPy film: (a) pH 3.0, (b) pH 6.0, (c) pH 7.0, (d) pH 9.0, and (e) pH 11.0 [181].

Figure 6.28

Effect of moisture sensitivity of PPy-coated textile fabrics [133].

Figure 6.29

Resistivity of a PPy-coated cellulosic film as a function of humidity [98].

Figure 6.30

Shielding effectiveness of various metalized nonwovens [198].

Figure 6.31

Shielding effectiveness of laminated SS/PET (40/60) woven fabrics [198].

Figure 6.32

EMI SE of a woven fabric at various layers [201].

Figure 6.33

Shielding effectiveness of PANi-coated fabrics in the frequency range 100–1000 MHz [210].

Figure 6.34

EMI SE absorbance (A) and reflectance (R) of PET fabric/PPy composites with various specific volume resistivities [202].

Figure 6.35

Shielding effectiveness of the PPy film [214].

Figure 6.36

EMI SE of a PPy-coated glass fabric as a function of electrical resistivity [208].

Figure 6.37

EMI SE of PPy-coated fabrics with various FeCl

3

concentrations [113].

Figure 6.38

Reflection (bottom three) and absorption (top three) percentages for three selected samples. PTSA concentrations and polymerization times are indicated [204].

Figure 6.39

The shielding effectiveness (SE), absorbance (Ab), and reflectance (Re) of PPy-chitosan composite films with various electrical conductivities and different concentrations of chitosan [129].

Figure 6.40

Fe–Cu thermocouple.

Figure 6.41

Diagram of the experimental setup for measuring the Seebeck effect of the PPy/PET-Cu thermocouple [139].

Figure 6.42

Electromotive force measured for a PPy-PET/copper thermocouple as a function of the temperature difference between the actual hot junction temperature and room temperature. The figure reports two different scanning in temperature [139].

Figure 6.43

Log(conductivity) versus Seebeck coefficient [224].

Figure 6.44

An experimental setup for cooling effect; (a) P-type conductive polymer fabric, (b) N-type MWNT composite material, and (c) copper metal plates [226].

Figure 6.45

Peltier effect experiments with temperature versus time [226].

Figure 6.46

Logarithmic normalized resistivity ratio versus number of washing cycles [88].

Figure 6.47

The changes of surface resistivity versus storage time of PPy-coated nylon Lycra. Broken line: stored in open air; bold line: stored in a desiccator [41].

Figure 6.48

Room temperature stability curves of PPy-coated polyester fabrics with and without DHBP [234].

Figure 6.49

Conductivity decay of PPy-coated fabrics at 100°C. (■) AQSA, (□) N2SA, (♦) NDSA, (◊) PTSA, and (▲) Cl [25].

Figure 6.50

Thermal aging plots of PPy-coated polyester fabrics at 100°C with varying pyrrole/DHBP ratios [234].

Figure 6.51

TGA analyses of uncoated and PPy-coated nylon Lycra fabrics [41].

Figure 6.52

Resistivity ratio (

R/R

0

) versus exposure time to light and temperature of PPy-coated wool textiles [88].

Figure 6.53

DSC thermograms of nylon 6 and PAN-nylon 6 fabrics [122].

Figure 6.54

DSC curves of (a) untreated silk yarn and (b) PPy-coated silk yarn [147].

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1

Different types of airships and their components [5].

Figure 7.2

Different layers of typical multilayered coated (a) and laminated (b) structures for LTA systems.

Figure 7.3

Different fabric construction: (a) plain weave, (b) “rib stop” weave, and (c) basket weave.

Figure 7.4

Chemical structure (repeat unit) of some commercial and high-performance fibers: (a) Nylon 6,6, (b) polyester, (c) Zylon

®

, (d) Kevlar

®

, (e) Vectran

®

, and (f) M5

®

.

Figure 7.5

Schematic of coated (a) and laminated (b) textiles.

Figure 7.6

Microstructure of film-fabric laminate developed jointly by Lighter-Than-Air Vehicle Group (Korea Aerospace Research Institute), Department of Structural Systems and CAE (Chungbuk National University, Korea), and Department of Aerospace Engineering (Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology): (a) SEM image of the cross section and (b) schematic of CAD modeling and detailed specification of each layer [4].

Figure 7.7

Multicomponent laminate material for a high-altitude balloon developed by Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California, USA [26].

Figure 7.8

Gas diffusion through (a) neat polymer without any restriction and (b) polymer nanocomposites where “tortuosity” is increased by nanoplatelets.

Figure 7.9

(a) Layout of the mixture design with an upper bound constraint for one component (values in brackets define the weight proportion of each component at that specific point); SEM images of (b) the base fabric, (c) the coated fabric with optimized formulation, (d) the coated fabric with optimized formulation and exposed under artificial weathering for 100 h, and (e) the coated fabric that performed worst [8].

Figure 7.10

(a) Total absorbance at 340 nm and (b) color change (ΔE), as a function of exposure time for the PU-based clear coats containing different amount of nano-ceria [48].

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1

Flowchart describing the manufacture of a woolen carpet, its use, and after-use disposal.

Figure 8.2

Sheep farming: an environment-friendly self-sustainable system.

Figure 8.3

Double drum opener with self-cleaning ability.

Figure 8.4

WRONZ comprehensive wool scouring system.

Figure 8.5

Nonylphenol polyethylene oxide detergent molecule.

Figure 8.6

Fearnought.

Figure 8.7

Washing of a woolen carpet.

Figure 8.8

Wedge wire screen.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1

Typical amount of water consumed (in m

3

/1000 L of product) in a conventional continuous process [6].

Figure 9.2

Selection criteria of suitable methodology for effective treatment of textile effluent [13].

Figure 9.3

Number of research articles appearing on textile wastewater treatment technologies per year [20].

Figure 9.4

The mechanism of the electro-Fenton process [69].

Figure 9.5

Removal and COD decay during electrolysis of Novacron Blue (NB) dye [70].

Figure 9.6

Photocatalytic rotating packed bed reactor [109].

Figure 9.7

Profiles for predicated values for photocatalytic percentage of binary mixture of dyes [109].

Figure 9.8

Response surface (3D) plots for photocatalytic degradation process versus between independent variables. (a) MB concentration with photocatalyst dosage, (b) rotational speed with aeration rate, (c) flow rate with AO concentration, (d) ER concentration with illumination time [124].

Figure 9.9

Sonophotocatalytic reactor setup: 1, ultrasonic bath; 2, reactor vessel; 3, LED source; 4, peristaltic pump; 5, reservoir; 6, sampling valve; 7, aeration pump; 8, magnet stirrer [94].

Figure 9.10

Profiles for predicated values and desirability function for sonophotocatalytic degradation. Dashed line shows optimum values [94].

Figure 9.11

Decolonization efficiency under different processes under optimum conditions: 25 mg/L of each dye, solution flow rate of 70 mL/min, irradiation and sonication time of 25 min, pH 6.0, and photocatalyst dosage of 0.25 g/L [94].

Figure 9.12

Response surface plots of central composite design: (a) DB concentration–photocatalyst dosage; (b) illumination time–RB concentration; (c) pH–flow rate [131].

Figure 9.13

Performance of different types of AOPs for treatment of Directive according to 2013/39/EU [178].

Figure 9.14

Flow diagram of a pilot-scale combined process for textile wastewater treatment [179].

Figure 9.15

Structure representations of (a) SWCNTs and (b) MWCNTs [184].

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1

The mechanism of semiconductor-mediated photocatalytic edox reactions (where

E

is the excitation energy,

g

is the band gap,

A

denotes acceptor molecules, and

D

indicates donor molecules).

Figure 10.2

The mechanism of photooxidation of RhB under visible irradiation (reproduced from Ref. [36]).

Figure 10.3

The mechanism of photocatalytic degradation of MB and MO (reproduced from Ref. [50]).

Figure 10.4

Photocatalytic mechanism of Ag/TNTs under UV light (a) and visible light (b) (reproduced from Ref. [51]).

Figure 10.5

Schematic illustration of the synthesis and structure of the Ag-TiO

2

photocatalyst (reproduced from Ref. [66]).

Figure 10.6

Degradation rate of MO aqueous solutions under simulated sunlight irradiation in the presence of 1% Ag-TiO

2

, 3% Ag-TiO

2

, 5% Ag-TiO

2

, 7% Ag-TiO

2

, 9% Ag-TiO

2

, pristine TiO

2

nanofibers, and without catalyst for varying irradiation times; the initial concentration of the MO solution (C

0

) was 20 mg L

–1

and the catalyst loading was 10 mg (reproduced from Ref. [66]).

Figure 10.7

Ag-N-TiO

2

-YSM showing the enhanced photocatalytic degradation of dyes under solar light (reproduced from Ref. [81]).

Figure 10.8

Schematic representation of continuous tank reactor: 1, Methylene blue tank; 2, advection pump; 3, O

2

cylinder; 4, gas rotameter; 5, photocatalytic reactor; 6, liquid distributor; 7, nanostructured photocatalysts; 8, glass support plate; 9, fastener; 10, O

2

inlet; 11, product outlet (reproduced from Ref. [97]).

Figure 10.9

The growth mechanism of rod-like Ag-N-TiO

2

(reproduced from Ref. [99]).

Figure 10.10

Preparation of Au@Ag@TiO

2

core–shell NPs with flower-like structure (reproduced from Ref. [112]).

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1

Schematic diagrams representing the effect of: (a) concentration, (b) orientation, (c) distribution and shape of fibers reinforced matrix.

Figure 11.2

(a) Fiber orientation angle of adjacent fiber cloth layers and (b) carbon fiber preform prototype [34].

Figure 11.3

Microstructure of 2D-Cf/Al composite under different fiber orientation angles: (a) 30°, (b) 45°, (c) 60°, and (d) 90° [34].

Figure 11.4

UTS comparison of the matrix and composites under different fiber orientation angles [34].

Figure 11.5

Classification of natural fibers.

Figure 11.6

Chemical structure of (a) Nomex and (b) Kevlar [56].

Figure 11.7

Classification of textile preform [1].

Figure 11.8

Types of braids: (a) diamond braid, (b) regular braid, and (c) Hercules braid [76].

Figure 11.9

Bag molding procedures: (a) pressure bag molding and (b) vacuum bag molding [7].

Figure 11.10

Resin transfer molding [91].

Figure 11.11

Vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding [93].

Figure 11.12

Compression molding [95].

Figure 11.13

Schematic diagram of pultrusion [97].

Figure 11.14

Schematic of the filament winding process [99].

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1

Cross-sectional view of 3D woven solid structures.

Figure 12.2

Line diagram depicting the weaving principle and fabric formation.

Figure 12.3

3D hollow structures of (a) even/flat outer surfaces and (b) uneven surfaces.

Figure 12.4

(a) A typical sandwich structure model and (b) the most probable failure mode (image modified and reproduced from Ref. [58]).

Figure 12.5

Woven spacer fabric integrally woven with (a) vertical pile yarn and (b) vertical woven fabric between the outer fabric layers (image modified and reproduced from Ref. [60]).

Figure 12.6

Principle of rectangular spacer structure formation.

Figure 12.7

Phases of stiffener fabric formation (image modified and reproduced from Ref. [69]).

Figure 12.8

Repeat unit of a honeycomb structure depicting the four regions attributed to structural development.

Figure 12.9

Cross-sectional weave architecture of a honeycomb structure.

Figure 12.10

Development of dome structure in fabrics through combination of weaves (image modified and reproduced from Ref. [30]).

Figure 12.11

Molding process flow to develop a curved dome structure from 2D fabric preforms (image modified and reproduced from Refs. [30, 90]).

Figure 12.12

Fabric width divided into sections with their respective take-up arrangement depicting the overview of the differential take-up system (image modified and reproduced from Ref. [89]).

Figure 12.13

Add-on device used in continuation to the regular take-up mechanism (image modified and reproduced from Ref. [82]).

Figure 12.14

Phases of corner-fitting plies formation (image modified and reproduced from Ref. [90]).

Figure 12.15

Line diagram of a single-layer cylindrical tube structure.

Figure 12.16

Structural attributes of T-nodal structures in three dimensions and approximately converted two dimensions.

Figure 12.17

Nodal boundaries and node segmentation of a T-nodal structure.

Figure 12.18

Strut-to-strut angle variation on a graphical template.

Figure 12.19

3D nodal structures developed from full-width 2D planar weaving and fragmental weaving (image modified and reproduced from Refs. [30, 97]).

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1

Wave propagation in a transversely impacted fiber [17].

Figure 13.2

The sliding of primary yarns as a response to impact [23].

Figure 13.3

The proportion of energy dissipated by secondary yarns and primary yarns [23].

Figure 13.4

Microscopic view of level of crimp in (a) warp and (b) weft of a woven fabric [64].

Figure 13.5

Two-dimensional representation of shapes of dome formed in (a) biaxial and (b) traixial fabrics upon impact.

Figure 13.6

Schematic view of arrangement of cross-plied filaments in a UD fabric/laminate [13].

Figure 13.7

Impact load distribution in (a) woven fabric and (b) UD fabric [75].

Figure 13.8

Basic hydrocluster mechanism of shear thickening fluid.

Figure 13.9

Parameters affecting the rheological performance of STF.

Figure 13.10

Effect of particle aspect ratio on viscosity.

Figure 13.11

Effect of particle size distribution on shear thickening properties [104].

Figure 13.12

Schematic representation of interparticle interactions on STF performance.

Figure 13.13

Schematic view of hydrocluster formed by the interaction between fumed silica and solvation layer of liquid PEG media [126].

Figure 13.14

Schematic representation of STF–fabric interaction before and after impact.

Figure 13.15

Experimental setup for ballistic evaluation [143].

Figure 13.16

Schematic arrangement for back face signature assessment.

Figure 13.17

(a) Sample dimension of yarn pull-out test; (b) yarn pull-out experimental setup: 1, movable jaw; 2, yarn to be pulled; 3, frame; 4, fabric sample; 5, adjustable screw; 6, fastener (to fix fabric); 7, clamp holder [33].

Figure 13.18

Schematic representation of quasi-tropic arrangement of fabric panels with different numbers of plies [150].

Figure 13.19

3D weave patterns: (a) orthogonal, (b) angle interlock, and (c) warp interlock [167].

Figure 13.20

Scheme of STF mechanism in the presence of nano-fibrillated cellulose.

Figure 13.21

Schematic representation of STF with and without SiC nanowires.

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1

Examples of application of stimuli-responsive materials in textile.

Chapter 2

Table 2.1

Critical surface tension of various substrates [7].

Table 2.2

Flammability properties of the commonly used fibers [17].

Table 2.3

Ignition, flame spread, and heat release properties of widely used fibers [18].

Table 2.4

Classification of commercial cross-linkers [1].

Chapter 3

Table 3.1

Flammability parameters of the control and the plant bioproduct-treated textile material [11–16].

Chapter 4

Table 4.1

The effects of nanomaterials’ properties in their antibacterial activity.

Table 4.2

Factors that influence the released nanomaterials from textile.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1

Percent gaseous product evolved from wool in vacuo by irradiation of light of various wavelengths and by heat.

Table 5.2

CIE

Lab

parameters for static UV irradiation on wool fabric dyed with 1% o.w.f. Acid Blue 185 (Telon Turquoise M5-G 85% from Dystar), pH 4, for 90 min at 90°C.

Table 5.3

Comparison between

K/S

at 670 nm of two dyeings at 85°C for 90 min (NT untreated sample, UV5 sample subjected to UV irradiation for 5 min at 37 mW/cm

2

).

Table 5.4

Comparison between

K/S

at two wavelengths of wool samples subjected to xanthoproteic reaction (NT untreated sample, UV5 sample subjected to UV irradiation for 5 min at 37 mW/cm

2

).

Table 5.5

Composition of the recipes used to dye the wool fabric samples of Figure 5.10 (reprinted with permission of John Wiley and Sons from Migliavacca

et al.

[69]).

Table 5.6

Chromatic differences obtained by dyeing the irradiated fabrics with mixtures of acid and metal-complex dyes (recipes detailed in Table 5.5).

Chapter 6

Table 6.1

Conductivities of conductive polymers with selected dopants [6].

Table 6.2

Surface resistance of the GO-cotton fabric, after treatment of different reducing agents.

Table 6.3

Shielding effectiveness of various conductive textiles.

Table 6.4

Antimicrobial properties of PPy-treated cotton fabrics [84].

Table 6.5

Mechanical properties of untreated and PPy-coated silk yarn [147].

Chapter 7

Table 7.1

Properties of some commercial and high-performance fibers [18–21].

Table 7.2

Helium or hydrogen gas permeability through polyurethane nanocomposite-based flexible films or coated fabrics.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1

Different types of pesticides used in wool.

Table 8.2

Summary of common dyestuffs used in dyeing of wool.

Table 8.3

Carpet fabric construction.

Table 8.4.

Optimized recipe for chemical washing of woolen carpets.

Chapter 9

Table 9.1

Performance of the O

3

/UV system for the degradation of textile pollutants.

Table 9.2

Performance of the UV/H

2

O system for the degradation of textile pollutants.

Table 9.3

Performance of the O

3

/H

2

O

2

/UV system for the degradation of textile pollutants.

Table 9.4

Performance of the Fe

2+

/H

2

O

2

/UV system for the degradation of textile pollutants.

Table 9.5

Performance of the US/O

3

system for the degradation of textile pollutants.

Table 9.6

Performance of the H

2

O

2

/O

3

system for the degradation of textile pollutants.

Table 9.7

Performance of the electrochemical oxidation system for the degradation of textile pollutants.

Table 9.8

Performance of plasma-based oxidation methods for the degradation of textile pollutants.

Table 9.9

Performance of the electro-Fenton process for the degradation of textile pollutants.

Table 9.10

Performance of O

3

in alkaline medium for the degradation of textile pollutants.

Table 9.11

Performance of the O

3

/H

2

O

2

system for the degradation of textile pollutants.

Table 9.12

Performance of the catalytic ozonation process for the degradation of textile pollutants.

Table 9.13

Performance of the photocatalytic ozonation process for the degradation of textile pollutants.

Table 9.14

Performance of the photocatalysis process for the degradation of textile pollutants.

Table 9.15

Performance of the sonophotocatalysis process for the degradation of textile pollutants.

Table 9.16

Performance of the Sono-Fenton process for the degradation of textile pollutants.

Table 9.17

Comparison of different reactors’ performance for photocatalytic degradation process [115].

Table 9.18

Synergy index for hybrid system and individual processes [94].

Table 9.19

Photocatalytic performance of various MOFs for the degradation of different dyes under UV irradiation.

Table 9.20

Photocatalytic performance of various MOFs for the degradation of different dyes under visible-light irradiation.

Table 9.21

Comparison of power consumption and cost-effectiveness of various processes [92].

Table 9.22

Cost of textile wastewater treatment techniques [171].

Table 9.23

Examples of nanomaterial applications for drinking water treatment [188].

Chapter 11

Table 11.1

Mechanical properties of different fibers [38, 39].

Table 11.2

Composition and properties of different glass fibers [53].

Table 11.3

Composite components used in helicopters [100].

Table 11.4

Comparison of mechanical properties of wood, a composite, and a nanocomposite used to manufacture field hockey sticks [107].

Chapter 13

Table 13.1

Typical properties of high-performance fibers [48].

Table 13.2

The NIJ Standard 0101.06 performance test summary [142].

Pages

ii

iii

iv

xvii

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

114

115

116

117

118

119

120

121

122

123

124

125

126

127

128

129

130

131

132

133

134

135

136

137

138

139

140

141

142

143

144

145

146

147

148

149

150

151

152

153

154

155

156

157

158

159

160

161

162

163

164

165

166

167

168

169

170

171

172

173

174

175

176

177

178

179

180

181

182

183

184

185

186

187

188

189

190

191

192

193

194

195

196

197

198

199

200

201

202

203

204

205

206

207

208

209

210

211

212

213

214

215

216

217

218

219

220

221

222

223

224

225

226

227

228

229

230

231

232

233

234

235

236

237

238

239

240

241

242

243

244

245

246

247

248

249

250

251

252

253

254

255

256

257

258

259

260

261

262

263

264

265

266

267

268

269

270

271

272

273

274

275

276

277

278

279

280

281

282

283

284

285

286

287

288

289

290

291

292

293

294

295

296

297

298

299

300

301

302

303

304

305

306

307

308

309

310

311

312

313

314

315

316

317

318

319

320

321

322

323

324

325

326

327

328

329

330

331

332

333

334

335

336

337

338

339

340

341

342

343

344

345

346

347

348

349

350

351

352

353

354

355

356

357

358

359

360

361

362

363

364

365

366

367

368

369

370

371

372

373

374

375

376

377

378

379

380

381

382

383

384

385

386

387

388

389

390

391

392

393

394

395

396

397

398

399

400

401

402

403

404

405

406

407

408

409

410

411

412

413

414

415

416

417

418

419

420

421

422

423

424

425

426

427

428

429

430

431

432

433

434

435

436

437

438

439

440

441

442

443

444

445

446

447

448

449

450

451

452

453

454

455

456

457

458

459

460

461

462

463

464

465

466

467

468

469

470

471

472

473

474

475

476

477

478

479

480

481

482

483

484

485

486

487

488

489

490

491

492

493

494

495

496

497

498

499

500

501

502

503

504

505

506

507

508

509

510

511

512

513

514

515

516

517

518

519

520

521

522

523

524

525

526

527

528

529

530

531

532

533

534

535

536

537

538

539

540

541

542

543

544

545

546

547

548

549

550

551

552

553

554

555

556

557

558

559

560

561

Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915

Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Advanced Textile Engineering Materials

Edited by

Shahid-ul-Islam

B.S. Butola

This edition first published 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA © 2018 Scrivener Publishing LLC For more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

Wiley Global Headquarters 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA

For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials, or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Ul-Islam, Shahid, author. | Butola, B.S. (Bhupendra Sing) author. Title: Advanced textile engineering materials / Shahid-Ul-Islam, B.S. Butola. Description: First edition. | Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; Salem, Massachusetts : Scrivener Publishing LLC, [2018] | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Identifiers: LCCN 2018030235 (print) | LCCN 2018032115 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119488071 (ePub) | ISBN 9781119488118 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781119487852 (hardcover) Subjects: LCSH: Textile fabrics. Classification: LCC TS1765 (ebook) | LCC TS1765 .U425 2018 (print) | DDC 677–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018030235

Preface

Advanced materials are undoubtedly becoming very popular as substitutes for traditional materials in textile engineering field. Advanced textile engineering materials are giving way to innovative textile materials with novel functions and are widely perceived as offering huge potential in a wide range of applications such as healthcare, defense, personal protective equipment, personal communication, textile antennas, garments for motion capture, and sensors. This book contains 13 chapters that cover fundamental and advanced approaches associated with the design and development of textile implants, conductive textiles, 3D textiles, smart-stimuli textiles, antiballistic textiles and fabric structures designed for a medical application intrabody/extra-body, implantable/non-implantable) and various modification and processing techniques. Global research & development and also some funding agencies, such as the Indian Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), are also providing substantial funding for research in this area. The book is intended to be of interest and useful to a wide group of people: researchers, post and undergraduates in the field of textile engineering, functional finishing, chemical processing and material sciences.

We thank Mr. Martin Scrivener who did a great deal of work to bring this book to completion. Finally, we wish to acknowledge our sincere appreciation to the authors who have written in-depth and informative chapters that collectively has made this book a reality.

Shahid-ul-Islam and B.S. Butola Indian Institute of Technology Delhi (IITD), Hauz Khas, New Delhi, India July 2018

Part 1CHEMICAL ASPECTS

Chapter 1Application of Stimuli-Sensitive Materials in Smart Textiles

Ali Akbar Merati

Advanced Textile Materials and Technology Research Institute and Textile Engineering Department, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

Email:[email protected]

Abstract

Stimuli-sensitive materials have the ability to sense and respond to various kinds of physical and chemical or biochemical stimuli in their environment. These materials are a convergence of different sciences such as material sciences, physics, chemistry, electrical engineering, wireless and mobile telecommunications, and nanotechnologies. They have many potential applications in smart textiles in the fields of medicine, protection, security communication, and textile electronics. Smart textiles are an interesting class of materials that can be prepared by a variety of methods. The functionality of smart textiles consists of many fields such as informing, protecting, and relaxing the wearer. The objective of this chapter is to present the latest research results together with basic concepts related to the preparation methods, characterizations, and applications of stimuli-sensitive materials in smart textiles and their importance in clothing. Future trends in this area of research are presented and issues regarding technology development and its uptake are highlighted.

Keywords: Smart textile, chromic materials, conductive materials, electronic textiles, phase change materials, shape memory materials

1.1 Introduction

Processability and flexibility are usually the two most important parameters of fine and elastic fibers used in order to make comfortable fabric and clothing. The wearable and comfortable fibrous materials such as yarn, fabric, and garments should be able to withstand handling in processing and end use without damaging functionality. The smart wearable textiles are fibrous materials made of smart materials such as shape memory materials (SMMs), phase change materials (PCMs), chromic materials, optic fibers, conductive materials, mechanical responsive materials, hydrogels, intelligent coating/membranes, micro and nanomaterials, and piezoelectric materials able to sense both the human body and external environment thanks to the presence of various kinds of sensors in their structure [1–4]. In other words, a smart textile allows the user to wear functionalized common clothes in which the user can access information about his personal biophysical data and/or environmental data. The potential of smart textile is enormous. One could think of smart clothing that makes us feel comfortable at all times, during any activity and in any environmental condition. A suit that protects and monitors, that warns in case of danger and even helps to treat diseases and injuries, is an example of smart clothing. Such clothing could be used from the moment we are born till the end of our life. These clothes should be like ordinary clothes providing special functions in various situations according to their design and application [5].

All smart materials involve an energy transfer from the stimuli to response given out by the material. They have the ability to do some sort of processing, analyzing, and responding. The amount of energy transferred to the response is determined by the properties of the material. For example, a material’s specific heat (property) will determine how much heat (energy) is needed in order to change its temperature by a specified amount. The smart materials can be incorporated into the textile substrates at any of the levels, namely, fiber spinning level, yarn/fabric formation level, and finishing level [6]. Numerous scientists are researching to develop products with the emerging demand of smart textiles in various phases of life.

This chapter highlights all the main fields of applications of stimuli-responsive smart materials in textiles in various fields of applications such as healthcare, health monitoring, medicine, personal protective equipment, personal communication, textile antennas, garments for motion capture, and sensors (Table 1.1).

Table 1.1 Examples of application of stimuli-responsive materials in textile.

Stimuli-sensitive materials

Benefits of treating textile

Examples of potential applications

Phase change materials (PCMs)

Cooling, insulation, thermoregulating

Blankets, bed sheets, dress shirts, T-shirts, jackets, vests, undergarments, socks, gloves, helmets, shoes and boots, earmuffs, hats and rainwear, seat covers in cars and chairs in offices, firefighters protective clothing, bulletproof fabrics, space suits, sailor suits, and other textile products

Shape memory materials (SMMs)

Insulation, shape forming, protection, compression, moisture management

Shoes, breathable fabrics, thermal insulating clothes, crease- and shrink-resistant fabrics, fishing yarn, shirt neck bands, cap edges, casual clothing and sportswear, shape-formed dresses, protective clothing, flame-retardant fabrics, compression stocking, aesthetic effects, etc.

Chromic materials

Color change

Fancy clothes, sports garments, workwear, soldier and weapons camouflage fabrics, technical and medical textiles

Conjugated polymers

Sensing

Sensors for various biologically and chemically important target molecules, scaffolds for nerve tissue engineering

Conductive materials

Electrically conducting

Electrically conductive textiles (fibers, yarns, fabrics), wearable electronics and fashion for healthcare, safety, homeland security, computation, thermal purposes, protective clothing, child monitoring, health monitoring, space programs, interior design

Piezoelectric materials

Energy harvesting, energy conversion, sensing, electricity generating

E-textiles and wearable computing, electricity generation for various device applications, motion sensor

Optic fibers

Sensing, illumination, radiation, signal transmission

Flexible flat panel displays, optic fiber fabric display

Hydrogels

Swelling/shrinkage change

Water vapor-permeable fabrics, thermal-responsive hygroscopic fabrics

1.2 Phase Change Materials

Phase change materials (PCMs) are theoretically able to change state at nearly a constant temperature and therefore to store a large quantity of energy to regulate temperature fluctuations [4, 7]. PCMs can exist in at least two different phases (an amorphous and one or more crystalline phases), and they can be switched repeatedly between these phases. The thermal energy storage in PCMs occurs when they change from solid to liquid and the energy dissipates when they change back from liquid to solid. The different phases of PCMs have distinctly different physical properties such as electrical conductivity, optical reflectivity, mass density, or thermal conductivity. PCMs keep people comfortable through the absorbing, storage, and releasing of the heat. Without PCMs, the thermal insulation capacity of clothing depends on the thickness and density of the fabric. Incorporating microcapsules of PCMs into textile structures improves the thermal performance of the textiles [4]. There are many thermal benefits of treating textile structures with PCM microcapsules such as cooling, insulation, and the thermoregulating effect. PCMs are applicable in blankets and comforters, bed sheets, dress shirts, T-shirts, undergarments, swaddling blankets, and other textile products. There are several factors that need to be considered when selecting a PCM. An ideal PCM will have high heat of fusion, high thermal conductivity, high specific heat and density, long-term reliability during repeated cycling, and dependable freezing behavior.

Paraffin waxes are the most common PCMs, which can be microencapsulated and then either integrated into fiber or used as a coating in textiles that have a high heat of fusion per unit weight, large melting point selection, and a low thermal conductivity; provide dependable cycling; are noncorrosive; and are chemically inert. When designing with paraffin PCM, void management is important due to the volume change from solid to liquid. Hydrated salts are another category of PCMs. These PCMs have a high heat of fusion per unit weight and volume, have a relatively high thermal conductivity for non-metals, and show small volume changes between solid and liquid phases. There are many other classes of PCMs. PCMs that have a melting point from 15 to 35°C are the most effective useful PCMs in textile fields. Other required properties for a PCM for a high-efficiency cooling system in textile fields are the slight temperature difference between the melting point and the solidification point, having low toxicity and being harmless to the environment, being non-flammable, ease of availability, and low price. The specified roles of PCMs in outdoor and protective smart textiles are the absorption of body heat surplus, insulation effect caused by heat emission of the PCM into the fibrous structure, and thermoregulating effect, which maintains the microclimate temperature to nearly constant [8].

The incorporation of PCMs within a fiber in the spinning process, coating, and laminating on the fabric are various methods of using PCMs in textiles [4]. In manufacturing the fiber, the selected PCM microcapsules are added to the liquid polymer or polymer solution, and the fiber is then expanded according to the conventional methods such as dry or wet spinning of polymer solutions and extrusion of polymer melts. Fabrics can be formed from the fibers containing PCMs by conventional weaving, knitting, or nonwoven methods, and these fabrics can be applied to numerous applications including apparel and clothing, home textiles, and technical textiles [9–11]. In this method, the PCMs are permanently locked within the fibers, the fiber is processed with no need for variations in yarn spinning, fabric weaving/knitting, or dyeing, and properties of fabrics (drape, softness, tenacity, etc.) are not altered in comparison with fabrics made from conventional fibers. The small content of PCM microcapsules incorporated into the fibers in this method (upper loading limit of 5–10%) and the improvement of thermal capacity of the textile are limited.

A larger amount of PCM microcapsules (from 20% to 60% by weight) can be incorporated by coating on the smart textile surface. In this method, PCM microcapsules are embedded in a coating compound such as acrylic, polyurethane, and rubber latex, and applied to the surface of a fabric. In the lamination of foam containing PCMs onto a fabric, the selected PCM microcapsules can be mixed into a polyurethane foam matrix, from which moisture is removed, and then the foam is laminated on a fabric [12]. PCM microcapsules should be added to the liquid polymer or elastomer prior to hardening. After foaming, microcapsules will be embedded within the base material matrix. The application of the foam pad is particularly recommended because a greater amount of PCM microcapsules (from 20% to 60% by weight) can be introduced into the smart textile. In the foam coating method, different PCMs can be used, giving a broader range of regulation temperatures. Additionally, microcapsules may be anisotropically distributed in the layer of foam. The foam pad with PCMs may be used as a lining in a variety of clothing such as gloves, shoes, hats, and outerwear. Before incorporation into clothing or footwear, the foam pad is usually attached to the knitted/woven fabric by any conventional means such as glue, fusion, or lamination.

The addition of PCM foam to the back of a fabric significantly increases the weight, thickness, stiffness, flammability, insulation value, and evaporative resistance value. It is more effective to have one layer of PCM foam on the outside of a tight-fitting, two-layer ensemble than to have it as the inside layer. This may be because the PCMs closest to the body do not change phase. PCM protective garments should improve the comfort of workers as they go through these environmental step changes (e.g., warm to cold to warm, etc.). For these applications, the PCM transition temperature should be set so that the PCMs are in the liquid phase when worn in the warm environment and in the solid phase in the cold environment [13]. The effect of PCMs in clothing on the physiological and subjective thermal responses of people would probably be maximized if the wearer was repeatedly going through temperature transients or intermittently touching hot or cold objects with PCM gloves.

The PCM microcapsules are also applied to a fibrous substrate using a binder (e.g., acrylic resin). All common coating processes such as knife over roll, knife over air, screen-printing, gravure printing, and dip coating may be adapted to apply the PCM microcapsules dispersed throughout a polymer binder to fabric. The conventional pad–mangle systems are also suitable for applying PCM microcapsules to fabrics. The formulation containing PCMs can also be applied to the fabric by the direct nozzle spray technique.

The application of PCMs to a garment provides an active thermal insulation effect acting in addition to the passive thermal insulation effect of the garment system [6, 14]. The active thermal insulation of the PCM controls the heat flux through the garment layers and adjusts the heat flux to the thermal circumstances. The active thermal insulation effect of the PCM results in a substantial improvement of the garment’s thermophysiological wearing comfort [15]. The intensity and duration of the PCMs’ active thermal insulation effect depend mainly on the heat-storage capacity of the PCM microcapsules and their applied quantity. In order to ensure a suitable and durable effect of the PCMs, it is necessary to apply proper PCMs in sufficient quantity into the appropriate fibrous substrates of proper design [16]. The PCM quantity applied to the active wear garment should be matched with the level of activity and the duration of garment use [8]. Furthermore, the garment construction needs to be designed such that it assists the desired thermoregulating effect. Thinner textiles with higher densities readily support the cooling process. In contrast, the use of thicker and less dense textile structures leads to a delayed and therefore more efficient heat release of PCMs. Further requirements on the textile substrate in a garment application include sufficient breathability, high flexibility, and mechanical stability.

In order to determine a sufficient PCM quantity, the heat generated by the human body has to be taken into account, carrying out strenuous activities under which the active wear garments are worn. The heat generated by the body needs to be entirely released through the garment layers into the environment. The necessary PCM quantity is determined according to the amount of heat, which should be absorbed by the PCMs to keep the heat balance equalized. It is mostly not necessary to put PCMs in all parts of the garment. Applying PCM microcapsules to the areas that provide problems from a thermal standpoint and thermoregulating the heat flux through these areas are often enough. It is also advisable to use different PCM microcapsules in different quantities in distinct garment locations.

PCMs are used in winter and summer clothing not only in high-quality outerwear and footwear but also in the underwear, socks, gloves, helmets, and bedding of worldwide brand leaders [17]. Seat covers in cars and chairs in offices can consist of PCMs. In outdoor apparels, PCMs are being used in a variety of items such as smart jackets, vests, men’s and women’s hats and rainwear, outdoor active-wear jackets and jacket lining, golf shoes, trekking shoes, ski and snowboard gloves, ski boots, and earmuffs. In protective garments, PCMs are being used in a variety of items such as firefighter protective clothing, bulletproof fabrics, space suits, sailor suits, and so on.

A new generation of military fabrics features PCMs that are able to absorb, store, and release excess body heat when the body needs it, resulting in less sweating and freezing, while the microclimate of the skin is influenced in a positive way and efficiency and performance are enhanced [4]. In the medical textile field, a blanket with PCMs can be useful for gently and controllably reheating hypothermia patients. Also, using PCMs in bed covers regulates the micro climate of the patient. In domestic textiles, blinds and curtains with PCMs can be used for reduction of the heat flux through windows.

One example of the practical application of PCM smart textile is the cooling vest (TST Sweden Ab) [18]. This is a comfort garment developed to prevent elevated body temperatures in people who work in hot environments or use extreme physical exertion. The cooling effect is obtained from the vest’s 21 PCM elements containing Glauber’s salt, which starts absorbing heat at a particular temperature (28°C). Heat absorption from the body or from an external source continues until the elements have melted. After use, the cooling vest has to be charged at room temperature (24°C) or lower. When all the PCMs are solidified, the cooling vest is ready for further use.

Although the current focus of smart textile designers is mostly on fashion and appearance of the clothing, from the perspective of the human physiology–clothing–environment system and thermal physiology, the safety and protection engineers and physiologists emphasize functions in terms of developing functional and protective clothing by using phase change materials (PCMs) [8].

1.3 Shape Memory Materials

Shape memory materials (SMMs) are smart materials that can remember and recover substantial programmed deformation upon activation and exposure to an external stimulus such as temperature, magnetic field, electric field, pH value, and UV light [19]. They can be used comfortably with human skin because of their low weight and softness. The application of both alloys and polymers of SMMs in textile has gained momentum to shape memory smart textiles and they have been used in many areas of textiles [20, 21]. The shape memory polymers have a wider application in textile applications and polymers are more advantageous than alloys in terms of their ease of use, aesthetics, and price [20]. Commercialized shape memory products have been based mainly on metallic shape memory alloys (SMAs), taking advantage of the shape change due to either shape memory effect or the super-elasticity of the material, the two main phenomena of SMAs. Shape memory polymers (SMPs) offer a number of potential technical advantages that surpass other SMMs such as shape memory metallic alloys and shape memory ceramics. The advantages include high recoverable strain (up to 400%), low density, ease of processing and the ability to tailor the recovery temperature, programmable and controllable recovery behavior, and, more importantly, low cost.

An example of a natural shape memory textile material is cotton, which expands when exposed to humidity and shrinks back when dried. Such behavior has not been used for aesthetic effects because the changes, though physical, are generally not noticeable to the naked eye.

Shape memory polyurethane (SMPU) is an example of SMPs, which is based on the formation of a physical cross-linked network as a result of entanglements of the high molecular weight linear chains and on the transition from the glassy state to the rubber–elastic state. It is a class of polyurethane that is different from conventional polyurethane in that these have a segmented structure and a wide range of glass transition temperature (Tg). The long polymer chains entangle each other and a three-dimensional network is formed. The polymer network keeps the original shape even above Tg in the absence of stress. Under stress, the shape is deformed and the deformed shape is fixed when cooled below Tg. Above the glass transition temperature, polymers show rubber-like behavior. The material softens abruptly above the glass transition temperature Tg. If the chains are stretched quickly in this state and the material is rapidly cooled down again below the glass transition temperature, the polynorbornene chains can neither slip over each other rapidly enough nor become disentangled.