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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
ADVANCES IN ENERGY STORAGE
An accessible reference describing the newest advancements in energy storage technologies
Advances in Energy Storage: Latest Developments from R&D to the Market is a comprehensive exploration of a wide range of energy storage technologies that use the fundamental energy conversion method. The distinguished contributors discuss the foundational principles, common materials, construction, device operation, and system level performance of the technology, as well as real-world applications. The book also includes examinations of the industry standards that apply to energy storage technologies and the commercial status of various kinds of energy storage.
The book has been written by accomplished leaders in the field and address electrochemical, chemical, thermal, mechanical, and superconducting magnetic energy storage. They offer insightful treatments of relevant policy instruments and posit likely future advancements that will support and stimulate energy storage.
Advances in Energy Storage also includes:
- A thorough introduction to electrochemical, electrical, and super magnetic energy storage, including foundational electrochemistry concepts used in modern power sources
- A comprehensive exploration of mechanical energy storage and pumped hydro energy storage
- Practical discussions of compressed air energy storage and flywheels, including the geology, history, and development of air energy storage
- In-depth examinations of thermal energy storage, including new material developments for latent and thermochemical heat storage
Perfect for practicing electrical engineers, mechanical engineers, and materials scientists, Advances in Energy Storage: Latest Developments from R&D to the Market is also an indispensable reference for researchers and graduate students in these fields.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022
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Advances in Energy Storage
Latest Developments from R&D to the Market
Edited by Andreas Hauer
ZAE-BayernGarching, Germany
This edition first published 2022
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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The right of Andreas Hauer to be identified as the author of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Hauer, Andreas, 1962- editor. Title: Advances in energy storage : latest developments from R&D to the market / edited by Andreas Hauer. Description: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2022. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2021020792 (print) | LCCN 2021020793 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119239352 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119760146 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119760108 (epub) | ISBN 9781119239390 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Energy storage. Classification: LCC TJ165 .A39 2022 (print) | LCC TJ165 (ebook) | DDC 621.31/26--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021020792LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021020793
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Contents
Cover
Title page
Copyright
List of Contributors
1 Energy Storage Solutions for Future Energy Systems
1.1 The Role of Energy Storage
1.2 The Definition of Energy Storage
1.2.1 What is an Energy Storage?
1.2.2 What is Actually Stored?
1.2.3 Energy Storage System and Its Application
1.2.4 Energy and Power Storage
1.2.5 Temporal Mismatch between Supply and Demand
1.3 Technologies for Energy Storage
1.3.1 How Can Energy be Stored?
1.3.2 Structure of Energy Storage Technologies
1.4 Applications for Energy Storage
1.4.1 List of Applications
1.4.2 Energy Storage Configurations and New Fields of Application
Part I Electrochemical, Electrical, and Super Magnetic Energy Storages
2 An Introduction to Electrochemistry in Modern Power Sources
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Electrode Reactions
2.3 Electrochemical Cells
2.4 The Case for Electrochemical Power Sources
2.5 The Thermodynamics of Electrochemical Cells
2.6 The Actual Cell Voltage: Thermodynamic, Electrode Kinetic, and Ohmic Losses
2.7 Faraday’s Laws and Charge Capacity
2.8 The Performance of Cells: Charge Capacity and Specific Energy Capability
2.9 Types of Electrochemical Device for Energy Conversion
3 Standalone Batteries for Power Backup and Energy Storage
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Standalone Battery Technologies
3.2.1 Lead-acid Battery
3.2.2 Lithium-ion Battery
3.2.3 Redox Flow Batteries
3.2.4 Sodium-Sulfur Battery
3.3 Comparisons
3.4 Conclusions
4 Environmental Aspects and Recycling of Battery Materials
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Classical Batteries
4.3 Summary
4.4 Future Perspectives
4.5 Future Developments
5 Supercapacitors for Short-term, High Power Energy Storage
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Electrode Materials
5.2.1 Carbons
5.2.2 Conducting Polymers
5.2.3 Metal Oxides/Hydroxides
5.2.4 Other Metal Compounds
5.3 Supercapacitor Devices
5.3.1 Symmetric Supercapacitors
5.3.2 Asymmetric (Hybrid) Supercapacitors
5.4 Conclusions
5.4.1 Materials
5.4.2 Devices
5.5 Outlook
5.5.1 The Importance of Materials
6 Overview of Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Technology
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Principle of SMES
6.2.1 The Configuration of SMES
6.2.2 The Components of SMES
6.3 Development Status of SMES
6.3.1 SMES with LTc Superconductor
6.3.2 SMES with HTc Superconductor
6.3.3 Simulation Research about the Application of SMES in a Power Grid
6.4 Development Trend of SMES
6.4.1 Promising Ways to Develop SMES
6.4.2 Promising Applications of SMES
6.5 Research Topics for Developing SMES
6.5.1 Key Problems Concerned with SMES Components
6.5.2 Key Problems Concerned with SMES Operation
6.6 Conclusions
7 Key Technologies of Superconducting Magnets for SMES
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Key Parameters of SMES Magnets
7.1.2 Structures of SMES Magnets
7.2 The Development of SMES Magnets
7.2.1 LTS SMES
7.2.2 HTS SMES
7.3 Considerations in the Design of SMES Magnets
7.3.1 The Current-carrying Capacity
7.3.2 Mechanical Properties
7.3.3 AC Loss and the Cooling Design
7.3.4 Insulation Design
7.3.5 The Optimization Design and the Field-circuit Coupling Design
7.4 Current Leads of SMES Magnets
7.4.1 Classification of Current Leads
7.4.2 The Method of Designing Current Leads
7.4.3 Cases of Current Leads
7.5 Quench Protection for SMES Magnets
7.6 Summary
8 Testing Technologies for Developing SMES
8.1 Introduction
8.2 HTS Tape Property Test Method
8.2.1 HTS Tapes Critical Current Measurement
8.2.2 AC Loss Measurement of High Temperature Superconducting Tapes
8.3 Magnet Coils Experimental Methods
8.3.1 AC Loss Measurements of the Superconducting Coil
8.3.2 SMES Superconducting Magnet’s Inductance Measurement
8.3.3 SMES Superconducting Magnet’s Insulation Measurement
8.4 SMES Test
8.4.1 Preparation Work
8.4.2 Test of the Magnet
8.4.3 Test of Power Regulation Characteristic
8.4.4 Response Characteristic of an SMES System Test
8.5 Conclusions
9 Superconducting Wires and Tapes for SMES
9.1 Introduction
9.2 A Brief Explanation of Superconductivity
9.2.1 Zero Resistance and the Messiner Effect
9.2.2 Critical Parameters of a Superconductor
9.2.3 Type I and Type II Superconductors
9.2.4 Flux Motion and AC Loss
9.2.5 Stability of Superconducting Wires
9.2.6 Key Paramaters for Evaluating a Superconducting Wire
9.3 Wires Made from LTc Superconductors
9.3.1 NbTi
9.3.2 Nb
3
Sn
9.4 Wires or Tapes Made from HTc Superconductors
9.4.1 BSCCO-2223/Ag Tapes
9.4.2 REBCO Coated Conductors
9.4.3 BSCCO-
9.4.4 Research on Larger Current HTS Conductors
9.4.5 MgB
2
9.5 Discussion
10 Cryogenic Technology
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Function of Cryogenic for SMES
10.1.2 Cool-down Method of Superconducting Magnets
10.2 Cryogens
10.2.1 Cryogenic Media
10.2.2 Helium (He)
10.2.3 Nitrogen (N
2)
10.3 Cryo-cooler
10.3.1 Stirling Refrigerator
10.3.2 GM Refrigerator
10.3.3 Pulse Tube Refrigerator
10.3.4 Development Trends
10.4 Cryogenic System
10.4.1 Cryogenic System of Large-scale Magnet
10.4.2 Forced Cooling by Supercritical Helium
10.4.3 Conduction-cooled Method
10.5 Vacuum Technology
10.5.1 Vacuum Pump
10.5.2 Measurement of Vacuum
10.6 An Evaluation Method for Conduction-cooled SMES Cryogenic Cooling Systems
10.6.1 Definition of Factor δ
10.6.2 Evaluation Procedure
10.7 Case Study
10.7.1 Circulating Liquid Helium Cooling System
10.7.2 Cryo-cooler-cooled System
10.7.3 Cryo-cooler and Liquid-nitrogen/Gas-helium Combined Cooling System
11 Control Strategies for Different Application Modes of SMES
11.1 Overview of the Control Strategies for SMES Applications
11.2 Robust Control for SMES in Coordination with Wind Generators
11.2.1 Problem Formulation: Stability Issues Brought by Renewable Sources
11.2.2 System Modeling and Analysis
11.2.3 Robust Coordinative Control Strategy
11.2.4 Simulation, Observations, and Conclusion
11.3 Anti-windup Compensation for SMES-Based Power System Damping Controller
11.3.1 Major Concern on the Capacity of SMES
11.3.2 Problem Formulation
11.3.3 Anti-windup Compensation Scheme
11.3.4 Simulation Validation
11.4 Monitoring and Control Unit of SMES
11.4.1 General Functionalities of the MCU for SMES
11.4.2 Design and Implementation
11.4.3 Laboratory and Field Tests
11.5 Conclusion
Part II Mechanical Energy Storage and Pumped Hydro Energy Storage
12 Overview of Pumped Hydro Resource
12.1 Pumped Hydro Storage Basic Concepts
12.1.1 PHS Schematic Drawing
12.1.2 Pumping and Generating Cycles
12.1.3 PHS Basic Math. Calculation
12.1.4 Sub-types of PHS
12.1.5 PHS A Complex and Multidisciplinary Project
12.2 Historic Perspective
12.2.1 Before and
A
round 1900
12.2.2 From 1920 to 1960
12.2.3 From 1960 tto 2000
12.2.4 After 2000
12.3 Worldwide Installed Base
12.4 The Future for PHS
13 Pumped Storage Machines – Motor Generators
13.1 Synchronous Machine Fixed Speed
13.1.1 Operating Principle and Components
13.1.2 Excitation System
13.1.3 Converters for Grid Connection
13.1.4 Power Chart
13.1.5 Load Change (P/M/n – Curve)
13.1.6 Advantages/Disadvantages
13.2 Doubly fed Induction Machine Adjustable Speed (DFIM)
13.2.1 History
13.2.2 Operating Principle and Components
13.2.3 Converters for Grid Connection
13.2.4 Load Chance (P/M/n – Curve)
13.2.5 Advantages/Disadvantages
13.2.6 Comparison of Doubly Feed Induction Machine (DFIM) with Fixed Speed Synchronous Machine
13.3 Synchronous Machine Adjustable Speed (FFIM)
13.3.1 Operating Principle and Components
13.3.2 Converters for Grid Connection
13.3.3 Advantages/Disadvantages
13.3.4 Comparison of DFIM and FFIM
14 Pumped Storage Machines – Ternary Units
14.1 Ternary Units
14.1.1 Introduction
14.1.2 System of Pumped Storage Plant with Ternary Units
14.1.3 Arrangement and Machine Concepts of Ternary Units
14.1.4 Advantages of Ternary Units and Comparison to Pump Turbines
14.1.5 Examples of Pumped Storage Plants with Ternary Units
15 Hydro-Mechanical Equipment
15.1 Steel-lined Pressure Conduits
15.1.1 Introduction
15.1.2 General Layout of Pumped Storage Pressure Conduits
15.1.3 Loading Conditions and Main Analytical Approaches
15.1.4 Safety Concepts and Application of Standards
15.1.5 Aspects of Material Choice
15.2 Typical Control and Shut-Off Devices for Pumped Storage Plants
15.2.1 General Arrangement of Control and Shut-Off Devices
15.2.2 Gates and their Main Applications
15.2.3 Valves and their Main Applications
16 Pumped Storage Machines - Hydraulic Short-circuit Operation
16.1
Hydraulic Short-circuit Operation
16.1.1 Introduction
16.1.2 Regulation of Hydro Turbines and Storage Pumps
16.1.3 Example of Hydraulic Short-circuit
16.1.4 Purpose and Efficiency
16.1.5 Different Power Plant Concepts
16.1.6 Hydraulic Short-circuit with Ternary Units
16.1.7 Hydraulic Short-circuit with Multi-shaft Arrangements
16.1.8 Comparison of Concepts
16.1.9 Implementation Hydraulic Short Circuit in Existing Plants
Part III Mechanical Energy Storage, Compressed Air Energy Storage, and Flywheels
17 Compressed Air Energy Storage: Are the Market and Technical Knowledge Ready?
17.1 Introduction
17.1.1 Need for Electricity Storage
17.1.2 Isothermal Compressed Air Energy Storage and Adiabatic Compressed Air Energy Storage
17.2 Historical Developments
17.2.1 Huntorf, Germany
17.2.2 McIntosh
17.2.3 Other Large-scale Projects
17.3 Challenges Raised by Air Storage in Salt Caverns
17.3.1 Introduction
17.3.2 Thermomechanical Behavior of Salt Caverns
17.3.3 Materials
17.4 (Selected) Recent Projects
17.5 Business Case
17.5.1 Various Possible Sources of Revenue
17.5.2 Number of Days in Operation
17.5.3 Cost Structure of Isothermal and Adiabatic CAES
17.5.4 (Simple) Revenue Models of Both Plants
17.6 Conclusion
18 The Geology, Historical Background, and Developments in CAES
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Operational Modes – Diabatic, Adiabatic, Isothermal (Heat), Isochoric, and Isobaric (Pressure) Operations
18.3 Brief Review of the Historical Origins of CAES – How It All Began and Where It Is Now
18.4 Overview of Underground (Geological) Storage Options
18.4.1 Solution-mined Salt Caverns
18.4.2 Porous Rock – Depleted Hydrocarbon Fields and Saline Aquifers
18.4.3 Abandoned Mines – Salt and Non-salt
18.4.4 Mined Voids (URC) – Unlined New Rock Caverns in Halite and Non-halite Rocks
18.4.5 Lined Rock Caverns (LRC)
18.5 Summary
19 Compressed Air Energy Storage in Aquifer and Depleted Gas Storage Reservoirs
19.1 Introduction
19.2 History of CAES Development
19.3 Power Train Requirements
19.3.1 Required Air Mass Flow Rate
19.3.2 Required Flowing Air Pressure
19.4 How Does a CAES Energy Storage System Work? Matching the Storage System to CAES Power Train Requirements
19.4.1 CAES in a Depleted Gas Reservoir
19.4.2 Matching the CAES Storage System to the Turbo-machinery
19.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of CAES in Aquifer Structures and Depleted Gas Reservoirs
19.5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of CAES in Aquifer Structures
19.5.2 Advantage of CAES in Depleted Gas Reservoirs
19.5.3 Disadvantages of CAES in Depleted Gas Reservoirs
19.6 CAES Storage System Design Tools, Development, and Operation
19.7 Summary
20 Open Accumulator Isothermal Compressed Air Energy Storage (OA-ICAES) System
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Open Accumulator Isothermal Compressed Air Energy Storage (OA-ICAES) System Architecture
20.3 Liquid Piston Isothermal Compressor/Expander
20.3.1 Porous Media Heat Exchange Modelling and Design
20.3.2 Optimization of Compression/Expansion Trajectory, Porous Medium Distribution, and Chamber Shape
20.3.3 Efficient Power-take-off via an Adjustable Linkage Liquid Piston Pump/Motor
20.4 Using Water Droplet Spray to Enhance Heat Transfer
20.5 Systems and Control
20.6 Discussion
20.7 Conclusions
Part IV Chemical Energy Storage
21 Hydrogen (or Syngas) Generation – Solar Thermal
21.1 Introduction
21.1.1 Storage of Solar Energy in Chemical Bonds
21.1.2 Solar Concentration and Absorption as Heat
21.2 Solar Thermochemical Processes
21.2.1 Solar Reforming Processes
21.2.2 Solar Driven Thermolysis
21.2.3 Thermochemical Redox Cycles – Background
21.2.4 Reaction Equilibrium
21.2.5 Iron Oxide Based Thermochemical Redox Cycles
21.2.6 Other Redox Cycles
21.2.7 Ceria-based Nonstoichiometric Redox Cycles
21.2.8 Efficiency of Redox Cycles
21.2.9 Experimental Demonstration of the Ceria Based Cycle
21.2.10 Emerging Redox Materials
22 Power-to-Liquids – Conversion of CO2 and Renewable H2 to Methanol
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Methanol Synthesis
22.3 Catalysts for Methanol Synthesis
22.4 Transitioning to Sustainable Methanol Production
22.5 Elaboration of a Methanol Economy
22.5.1 Sourcing Carbon for the “Circular” Production of Methanol
22.5.2 Example 1 – Steel Mill Gases
22.5.3 Example 2 – Carbon Recycling International (CRI)®
22.6 Conclusion and Summary
23 Hydrogenation Energy Recovery – Small Molecule Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers and Catalytic Dehydrogenation
23.1 Introduction
23.1.1 The Arguments for LOHCs
23.1.2 An Overview of High Potential C
1
Molecules as LOHCs
23.1.3 The Ideal Concept Based on C
1
Substrates
23.2 Methanol (CH
3
OH)
23.2.1 Homogeneous Catalytic Dehydrogenation
23.3 Formaldehyde/Methanediol (CH
2
O/CH
2
OHOH)
23.4 Formic Acid (HCO
2
H)
23.4.1 General Aspects, Thermodynamics, and Reversibility
23.4.2 Mechanistic Considerations
23.4.3 Homogeneous Catalysts for Formic Acid Dehydrogenation
23.5 Other Alcohols, Diols, and Amino Alcohols
23.5.1 General Aspects, Thermodynamics, and Reversibility
23.5.2 Mechanistic Considerations
23.5.3 Homogeneous Catalysts for Hydrogen Liberation from Alcohols, Diols, and Amino Alcohols
23.6 Summary and Outlook
24 Hydrogen Energy Recovery – H2-Based Fuel Cells
24.1 Introduction
24.1.1 Market Shares
24.2 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells
24.2.1 Structure of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells
24.3 Topics of Research
24.3.1 Contamination
24.3.2 Water Management
24.3.3 Degradation
24.3.4 Estimation of Material Properties
24.4 Characterization Techniques
24.4.1 Electrochemical Techniques
24.4.2 Physical Techniques
24.5 Conclusions
Part V Thermal Energy Storage
25 Thermal Energy Storage – An Introduction
25.1 Introduction
25.1.1 Relevance of Thermal Energy Storage
25.1.2 Fields of Application
25.2 Characteristic Parameters of Thermal Energy Storage
25.2.1 Prologue: What Is Thermal Energy?
25.2.2 Storage Capacity
25.2.3 Thermal Power
25.2.4 Storage Efficiency
25.2.5 Storage Cycles
25.3 The Physical Storage Principle – Sensible, Latent, and Thermochemical
25.3.1 Sensible Storage of Thermal Energy
25.3.2 Latent Heat Storages
25.3.3 Thermochemical Storage Processes
25.4 Design of a Thermal Energy Storage and Integration into an Energy System
25.4.1 From the Storage Material to the System
25.5 Thermal Energy Storage Classification
25.5.1 Which Demands Should the Storage Meet in Application?
25.6 Conclusions
26 New Phase Change Materials for Latent Heat Storage
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Fundamentals, Materials, Groups, and Properties
26.2.1 Fundamentals
26.2.2 PCMs Classification and Criteria for Selection
26.3 Currently Used and Emerging Phase Change Materials
26.3.1 Extensively Investigated PCMs
26.3.2 Emerging PCMs
26.4 Approaches to Improve PCMs’ Properties
26.4.1 Composite PCMs Classification and Short Description
26.4.2 Advantages and Drawbacks Analysis
26.5 Commercial Status
26.6 Future Development Directions
27 Sorption Material Developments for TES Applications
27.1 Introduction
27.1.1 Thermochemical Heat Storage (TCS)
27.1.2 Basic Criteria for Suitable Sorption Materials
27.1.3 Determination of Sorption Properties
27.2 Sorption Materials
27.2.1 Traditional Sorption Materials
27.2.2 Innovative Sorption Materials
27.3 Future Developments
28 Vacuum Super Insulated Thermal Storage Systems for Buildings and Industrial Applications
28.1 Introduction
28.1.1 Thermal Storage Efficiency, Thermal Losses, and Temperature Decay
28.1.2 Conventional Storage Insulation
28.1.3 Development of Vacuum Super Insulated Storages
28.2 VSI with Expanded Perlite for Highly Efficient and Economical Thermal Storages
28.2.1 Fundamentals of VSI Storages
28.2.2 VSI Heat Storages for Temperatures up to 160°C
28.2.3 VSI Storage with Expanded Perlite at Medium and High Temperatures
28.3 Storage Media for Medium and High Temperatures
28.4 VSI and VSI Storages in Industrial Applications
28.4.1 Applications
28.4.2 Economic Considerations
28.4.3 Energetic Amortization Time
28.5 Conclusions
29 Heat Transfer Enhancement for Latent Heat Storage Components
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Heat Transfer Enhancement Techniques
29.2.1 Heat Transfer Enhancement between the HTF and the PCM
29.2.2 Heat Transfer Enhancement Within the PCM
29.3 Technology Development and Commercial Status
30 Reactor Design for Thermochemical Energy Storage Systems
30.1 Requirements for TCM Reactors
30.2 Charging and Discharging Processes in TCM Reactors
30.2.1 Heat Transfer
30.2.2 Mass Transfer
30.2.3 Pressure
30.3 Types of Reactors and Examples of Design Solutions
30.3.1 Fixed Bed
30.3.2 Fluidized Bed
30.3.3 Moving Bed
30.3.4 Liquid Flow
30.4 Conclusions and Outlook
31 Phase Change Materials in Buildings – State of the Art
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Materials
31.2.1 Overview Encapsulation Technologies
31.2.2 Overview on Products
31.3 Example of Building Integration of PCM
31.3.1 Example of Passive Decentral PCM System: Office Building in Tübingen from the 1950s Modernized to a Passive-house Standard [2]
31.3.2 Example of Passive Central PCM System: Courtyard Building Düsseldorf
31.3.3 Example of Active Decentral PCM System: Chilled Ceilings with Integrated PCMs in Würzburg
31.3.4 Example of Active Central Cold Storage: Office Building Stuttgart
31.3.5 Example of Active Central Heat Storage: Residential Building Weberstedt
31.4 Planning Boundary Conditions
31.4.1 RAL Quality Association PCM
31.4.2 ASTM C
31.4.3 VDI
31.4.4 ISSO
31.5 Long Term Experience
31.5.1 Material Stability
31.5.2 Planning vs. Usage
32 Industrial Applications of Thermal Energy Storage Systems
32.1 Why Thermal Energy Storage in Industry?
32.1.1 Maximizing the Use of Renewable Energy Sources through TES
32.1.2 Process Integration and Storage
32.1.3 Industrial Surplus Heat as a Resource in a Sustainable Energy System
32.2 Integration of TES in Industrial Scale Applications
32.2.1 Combined Heat and Power and District Heating
32.2.2 District Cooling
32.2.3 Steel Industry
32.2.4 Pulp and Paper Industry
32.3 Mobile TES in Innovative Energy Distribution
32.4 Concluding Remarks
33 Economy of Thermal Energy Storage Systems in Different Applications
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Methods to Evaluate Thermal Energy Storage Economics
33.2.1 Top-down Approach
33.2.2 Bottom-up Approach
33.3 Comparison of Acceptable and Realized Storage Capacity Costs in Different TES Applications
33.4 Discussion on the Major Influencing Factors on the Economics of Thermal Energy Storage
33.5 Conclusions
Part VI Energy Storage Concepts, Regulations, and Markets
34 Energy Storage Can Stop Global Warming
34.1 Introduction
34.1.1 Energy Storage for Resilience of Critical Infrastructures
34.1.2 Energy Storage for Mitigating Climate Change
34.2 Energy Storage Technologies
34.3 Energy Storage Systems
34.4 The Potentials of Energy Storage
34.4.1 Optimizing Renewable Integration
34.4.2 Increasing Energy Efficiency
34.4.3 Energy Grid Stability
34.4.4 Flexibility in Energy Form
34.5 Policy Frameworks
34.6 Cross-cutting Aspects
34.7 Conclusions
35 Energy Storage Participation in Electricity Markets
35.1 Introduction
35.2 Classification of Energy Storage Options
35.2.1 Pumped-hydro Storage (PHS)
35.2.2 Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)
35.2.3 Flywheels
35.2.4 Supercapacitors and Superconducting Magnet Energy Storage (SMES)
35.2.5 Battery Storage
35.2.6 Fuel Cells
35.2.7 Power-to-Gas (P2G)
35.3 Techno-economic Energy Storage Characteristics
35.3.1 Charge and Discharge Power and Duration
35.3.2 Losses and Efficiency
35.3.3 Lifetime
35.3.4 Volume and Mass
35.3.5 Cost
35.4 Energy Storage Applications
35.4.1 Energy Services
35.4.2 Grid Services
35.4.3 Reliability Services
35.4.4 Aggregation of Services
35.5 Interaction Market Opportunities and Technical Characteristics – Illustrative Case Studies
35.5.1 Efficiency and Cycle-life – Arbitrage
35.5.2 Energy-to-power Ratio – Arbitrage
35.5.3 Energy-to-power Ratio – Frequency Control
35.6 Conclusions
36 Public Perceptions and Acceptance of Energy Storage Technologies
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Why Resistance?
36.3 Who Will Resist?
36.3.1 Politicians and Public Authorities
36.3.2 Public Interest Groups (NGOs)
36.3.3 Groups in Direct Connection to the Projects
36.4 Cases
36.4.1 Borehole Storage (BTES) and Solar Thermal
36.4.2 Pit Heat Storage (PTES) and Solar Thermal I
36.4.3 Pit Heat Storage (PTES) and Solar Thermal II
36.4.4 Biogas Plant I
36.4.5 Biogas Plant II
36.4.6 Biogas Plant III
36.5 Drivers for Positive Public Perceptions and Acceptance
36.5.1 Drivers for Politicians and Public Authorities
36.5.2 Drivers for Public Interest Groups (NGOs)
36.5.3 Drivers for Groups in Direct Opposition to the Project
36.6 Is There a Manual for Citizen Involvement?
36.7 Perception of Acceptance of Energy Storage Technologies
37 Business Case for Energy Storage in Japan
37.1 Energy Consumption in Japan
37.2 Electricity Situation
37.2.1 Total Electric Power Generation by Energy Source
37.2.2 Daily Electric Demand and Annual Electric Load Factor
37.3 Climate Condition and Cooling/heating Load
37.4 Situation of Thermal Energy Storage (TES) Spread
37.5 Variation of TES
37.6 Water Storage
37.6.1 Temperature-Stratified Thermal Storage Tank
37.6.2 Multi-connected Mixing Type Tank
37.7 Ice Storage
37.7.1 Background
37.7.2 Classification of Freezing and Melting Methods
37.7.3 Low Temperature HVAC System
38 Energy Storage in the Electricity Market: Business Models and Regulatory Framework in Germany
38.1 Introduction
38.2 Business Models in Germany
38.2.1 Business Models “Before-the-meter”
38.2.2 Business Models “Behind-the-meter”
38.2.3 Mixed Business Models
38.3 Legal and Regulatory Framework – Opportunities and Barriers
38.3.1 Funding Programs
38.3.2 Legal and Regulatory Barriers to Energy Storage in Germany
38.3.3 Necessary Adjustments to Pave the Way into the Market
38.4 Conclusion and Outlook
39 Integration of Renewable Energy by Distributed Energy Storages
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Usage of Variable Renewable Energies and Induced Problems
39.3 Energy Balancing Technologies and Options
39.3.1 Demand-Side Flexibility/Demand Respond (DR) – Without New Electric Energy Storage
39.3.2 Supply-Side Flexibility – Without New Electric Energy Storage
39.4 Applications for Electric Energy Storages (Adapted from [4])
39.5 Business Cases for Electric Energy Storages
39.6 Distributed Storage Concepts
39.7 Summary
40 Thermal Storages and Power to Heat
40.1 Introduction
40.2 Why Power to Heat?
40.2.1 The German Energy System
40.2.2 The Danish Energy System
40.3 Technologies for Power to Heat
40.3.1 Large-scale Heat Pumps
40.3.2 Small-scale Heat Pumps
40.3.3 Electric Boilers
40.4 Examples of Power to Heat Concepts
40.4.1 The SUNSTORE® Concept (Long-term Thermal Storage)
40.4.2 Heat Pump Using Ground Water in Rye, DK (Short-term Thermal Storage)
40.5 The Future. Smart Energy Systems
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 The three steps of a storage process...
Figure 1.2 Electricity input, conversion to potential...
Figure 1.3 Power-to-gas storage with different outputs...
Figure 1.4 Dynamic behavior of power (left) and...
Figure 1.5 Supply and demand management...
Figure 1.6 Structure of energy storage...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 A fundamental electrochemical cell...
Figure 2.2 Energy conversion in electrochemical...
Figure 2.3 Components of cell potential with...
Figure 2.4 Specific energy density...
Figure 2.5 A Ragone plot showing the typical...
Figure 2.6 A Ragone plot indicating the energy...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 I-V characteristics of the reactions...
Figure 3.2 Main components of the VRLA [1]
Figure 3.3 Lead-acid installation at the...
Figure 3.4 Basic design of a LCO Li-ion cell...
Figure 3.5 Tehachapi Wind Energy Storage Plant...
Figure 3.6 Typical structure of a redox flow battery.
Figure 3.7 Bipolar plates of stacked redox cells [20].
Figure 3.8 Sumitomo Electric Industries VRFB...
Figure 3.9 Schematic for the ZBFB, showing 2-phase...
Figure 3.10 Primus Power EnergyPod-2 zinc bromine battery...
Figure 3.11 Phase diagram for sodium polysulfide [67].
Figure 3.12 Schematic design of NAS battery [69].
Figure 3.13 The NGK NAS four-container unit...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 LIB market for new energy...
Figure 4.2 The technical route for...
Figure 4.3 Schematic diagram of the separation...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 a) Comparison of Ragone plots...
Figure 5.2 Fabrication scheme for the nanoporous...
Figure 5.3 Current-potential curves of Ni2P, Ni5P4, and NiO.
Figure 5.4 Schematic of two-electrode configuration...
Figure 5.5 Typical voltage profiles for an EDLC cell...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 The general structure of SMES.
Figure 6.2 Circuit topology of power conditioning...
Figure 6.3 Topology of cooperated hybrid energy...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Three types of configurations of SMES magnets:
Figure 7.1 100MJ solenoid superconducting coil...
Figure 7.1 Four-pole solenoid superconducting coil system.
Figure 7.1 Overview of the 100 MVA/2 GJ class YBCO SMES. [9]
Figure 7.1 11 Two kinds of high current...
Figure 7.1 Force-balanced coil:
Figure 7.1 Main factors for multi-field coupling...
Figure 7.1 Classification of current leads.
Figure 7.1 Schematic views of three kinds of current leads.
Figure 7.1 Schematic view of 1 kA gas-cooled current lead. [16]
Figure 7.1 Schematic view of 1.1 kA conduction...
Figure 7.1 52/68 kA HTS current lead.
Figure 7.1 The basic form of superconducting...
Figure 7.1 Superconducting magnet segmented...
Figure 7.1 Bridge circuit detection method.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 HTS tapes critical current measurement schematic:
Figure 8.2 Tensile properties test schematic...
Figure 8.3 HTS tape measurement with current...
Figure 8.4 AC loss of superconducting tape...
Figure 8.5 AC loss superconducting coil...
Figure 8.6 Superconducting magnet’s...
Figure 8.7 Superconducting magnet DC...
Figure 8.8 Field current rising waveform diagram.
Figure 8.9 Current rate change schematic...
Figure 8.10 Magnet AC loss measuring circuit.
Figure 8.11 Superconducting magnet frequency...
Figure 8.12 Substation circulation flow process diagram.
Figure 8.13 Dynamic model test system.147
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 The distribution of flux penetrating a superconductor.152
Figure 9.2 Relations between Ic, Hc, and Tc.153
Figure 9.3 Comparison of magnetization...
Figure 9.4 Distribution of fluxes in mixed...
Figure 9.5 Compassion of V-I curve with...
Figure 9.6 Irreversible magnetization curve...
Figure 9.7 General construction of the...
Figure 9.8 Current shared by normal stabilizer.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 The basic structure of an SMES.
Figure 10.2 P-T phase diagram of gas.
Figure 10.3 P-T phase diagram of nitrogen.170
Figure 10.4 Three ways of supercritical forced cooling.
Figure 10.5 Structure principle of indirect...
Figure 10.6 Schematic diagram of the current...
Figure 10.7 Flow chart of an evaluation of the...
Figure 10.8 A circulating liquid helium cooling system. [1]
Figure 10.9 The conduction cooling scheme of the...
Figure 10.10 The 150-kJ/100-kW SMES magnet.
Figure 10.11 The schematic diagram of the...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Power system model with wind generator...
Figure 11.2 Eigenvalues affected by variation of parameters...
Figure 11.3 Multi-objective damping controller...
Figure 11.4 Desired and resulting pole placement.
Figure 11.5 Closed-loop system response.198
Figure 11.6 Performance under different...
Figure 11.7 Schematic diagram for anti-windup...
Figure 11.8 System performance degraded by ...
Figure 11.9 System performance improved by AWC...
Figure 11.10 Performance comparison under different...
Figure 11.11 Schematic diagram of the MCU for SMES.
Figure 11.12 ISA and serial communication within the MCU.
Figure 11.13 Dynamic system response under 3-phase fault.
Figure 11.14 The field experiment circuit [11].
Figure 11.15 Field test results, the generator...
Figure 11.16 Field test results.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Operating principles of PHS (ClimatechWiki.org).
Figure 12.2 Basic storage mechanism for PHS.217
Figure 12.3 Energy flow diagram (Figures from Escher Wyss).
Figure 12.4 Layout of calculation example.222
Figure 12.5 Schematics of a closed-loop PHS.
Figure 12.6 Turlough Hill, closed-loop PHS...
Figure 12.7 Schematics of semi-open PHS.
Figure 12.8 Yanbaru seawater PHS, (DOE,...
Figure 12.9 Schematics of open loop PHS.
Figure 12.10 The machine hall of Saurdal PHS...
Figure 12.11 The upper reservoir of Saurdal...
Figure 12.12 Worldwide installed PHS capacity...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Single-phase-equivalent circuit...
Figure 13.2 Simplified single-phase-equivalent circuit.
Figure 13.3 Over and under excitation of a...
Figure 13.4 Conventional synchronous machine...
Figure 13.5 Conventional synchronous machine...
Figure 13.6 Power chart of a synchronous...
Figure 13.7 Synchronous machine – active power...
Figure 13.8 DFIM – Circuit principle.
Figure 13.9 DFIM – active power and...
Figure 13.10 Comparison fixed speed vs variable...
Figure 13.11 FFIM – circuit principle...
Figure 13.12 FFIM – circuit principle...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 System of pumped storage power...
Figure 14.3 Example of vertical machine...
Figure 14.2 Nomenclature.
Figure 14.4 3D view of the five...
Figure 14.5 Cross section of the...
Figure 14.6 Typical characteristics...
Figure 14.7 3D view of the five-stage...
Figure 14.8 Typical transition time...
Figure 14.9 Pumped storage plant Haeusling...
Figure 14.10 Cross section of cavern and...
Figure 14.11 Machine arrangement of Obervermuntwerk...
Figure 14.12 Control band of ternary units...
Figure 14.13 Cross section of cavern and...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 General layout of pumped storage...
Figure 15.2 Example of a typical manifold consisting...
Figure 15.3 Left: Model of downstream transition...
Figure 15.4 Nant de Drance Pumped Storage HPP...
Figure 15.6 Kops II Pumped Storage HPP...
Figure 15.5 Limberg II Pumped Storage...
Figure 15.7 Typical design pressure...
Figure 15.8 General arrangement of gates and valves.
Figure 15.9 Design range of shut-off valves; .
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Full- and part load flexibility...
Figure 16.2 Characteristic and intersection...
Figure 16.3 Store pump characteristic...
Figure 16.4 Pumped storage plant equipped...
Figure 16.5 Operation characteristic of pump...
Figure 16.6 Simplified diagram...
Figure 16.7 Cross section of the cavern...
Figure 16.8 Plant- set up of Kopswerk...
Figure 16.9 Storage plant set-up, Kraftwerke...
Figure 16.10 Reversible Francis four stage...
Figure 16.11 CFD flow simulation...
Figure 16.12 CFD flow simulation, quantitative...
Figure 16.13 On site measurement of vibration...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Adiabatic CAES principle...
Figure 17.2 Isothermal CAES principle...
Figure 17.3 Left: Schematic layout of the Huntorf plant...
Figure 17.4 Schematic layout of the McIntosh...
Figure 17.5 Caverns in a salt layer (left)...
Figure 17.6 Cavern contour (left) and temperature...
Figure 17.7 Thermal fractures at the wall of a ventilation shaft [22].
Figure 17.8 Typical well completion that can be imagined...
Figure 17.9 Fractured fiber glass...
Figure 17.10 Indicative schedule of selected...
Figure 17.11 Cycles per year at Huntorf plant...
Figure 17.12 Cost breakdown in net presen...
Figure 17.13 Summary of [23] business case...
Figure 17.14 Revenues and costs net present...
Figure 17.15 Revenues and costs net present...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Map illustrating locations...
Figure 18.2 Map illustrating the locat...
Figure 18.3 Map illustrating locations...
Figure 18.4 Map illustrating the locat...
Figure 18.5 Map illustrating the locat...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Elements of a CAES storage...
Figure 19.2 Sketch of a typical CAES...
Figure 19.3 Sketch of a typical CAES...
Figure 19.4 Reservoir fluid pressure...
Figure 19.5 Diagram showing distribution...
Figure 19.6 Diagram illustrating...
Figure 19.7 Sketch of distribution...
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Open Accumulator Isothermal...
Figure 20.2 Pressure–volume plot...
Figure 20.3 Schematic of a near-isothermal...
Figure 20.5 Interrupted plate heat exchanger...
Figure 20.4 Two styles of porous media heat...
Figure 20.6 Temperature and wall heat flux...
Figure 20.7 Dimensionless volume heat transfe...
Figure 20.8 Tilted matrix, interrupted plate...
Figure 20.9 Comparison of measured and...
Figure 20.10 Efficiency vs. power-density...
Figure 20.11 Sample optimal compression...
Figure 20.12 Diagram of the adjustable...
Figure 20.13 Three-cylinder inline VDLP.
Figure 20.14 Predicted efficiency of the...
Figure 20.15 Concept of direct injection...
Figure 20.16 Left: Pressure ratio vs. piston...
Figure 20.17 Sample results with a stochastic...
Figure 20.18 Sample supervisory control...
Chapter 21
Figure 22.1 Solar spectral irradiance versus...
Figure 22.2 Potential pathways to convert...
Figure 22.3 Schematic depicticing solar...
Figure 22.4 Dashed lines represent the...
Figure 22.5 Thermochemical fuel production...
Figure 22.6 On the left is the STARS solar...
Figure 22.7 From Kruesi et al. Solar driven...
Figure 22.8 Left) Gibbs free energy change...
Figure 22.9 (Left) ΔG° shown...
Figure 22.10 Standard Gibbs free energy...
Figure 22.11 Equilibrium H2 yields...
Figure 22.12 Ceria (CeO2-δ) oxygen nonstoichiometry...
Figure 22.13 Partial molar enthalpy (Δho)...
Figure 22.14 Partial molar Gibbs free energy change...
Figure 22.15 H2 produced as a result of oxidation...
Figure 22.17 From [67]. a) H2 productivity versus...
Figure 22.16 Heat and mass flows that accompany...
Figure 22.18 Schematic of ceria based cavity...
Figure 22.19 Experimental results during...
Figure 22.20 Measured amounts of evolved...
Figure 22.21 From Cooper et al. Predicted...
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 The chemical product cradle-to-cradle...
Figure 22.2 A generalized design of a future...
Figure 22.1 Overview of the six different...
Figure 22.4 A potential “Power-to-Liquid”...
Figure 22.2 Electron microscopy images of the materials...
Figure 22.3 TEM micrographs of a) a Fritz-Haber-Insitute...
Figure 22.4 a) Reaction pathway of CO2 hydrogenation...
Figure 22.8 The “Waste-to-Chemicals”...
Figure 22.5 An Anthropogenic Carbon Cycle based...
Figure 22.10 Energy density per unit weight...
Figure 22.11 (a) A chronology depiction...
Figure 22.07 Production of methanol based...
Figure 22.08 Estimation for the future development...
Figure 22.14 Gas composition of steel mill gas...
Figure 22.15 Systematic overview of the...
Figure 22.10 (a) The George Olah Renewable...
Figure 22.17 “Future Hydrogen Value...
Chapter 23
Figure 23.1 C1 substrates with potential...
Figure 23.2 Potential routes for methanol...
Figure 23.3 Mechanism for dehydrogenative...
Figure 23.4 Selected catalytic systems...
Figure 23.5 Mechanism for ruthenium hydride...
Figure 23.6 Mechanism for the aqueous...
Figure 23.7 Proposed catalytic cycle for...
Figure 23.8 Catalyst B for the dehydrogenation...
Figure 23.9 Mechanism for the catalytic aqueous...
Figure 23.10 Ligand promoted iridium catalysed...
Figure 23.11 Selected catalytic systems for...
Figure 23.12 Concept of combining enzymatic...
Figure 23.13 Activation of a dimeric ruthenium...
Figure 23.14 Formaldehyde as a polymer...
Figure 23.15 Catalytic dehydrogenation...
Figure 23.16 Dehydration and dehydrogenation...
Figure 23.17 A hydrogen storage cycle based...
Figure 23.18 Hydrogenation reactions of...
Figure 23.19 Reactions taking place...
Figure 23.20 Generalized elementary...
Figure 23.21 Selected examples of homogenous...
Figure 23.22 Thermodynamic data for selected...
Figure 23.23 Reaction pathways in the dehydrogenative...
Figure 23.24 Dehydrogenation of primary and secondary...
Figure 23.25 Selected examples of homogeneous catalysts...
Figure 23.26 Selected examples for homogeneous catalysts...
Figure 23.27 Selected examples for homogeneous catalysts...
Figure 23.28 Selected examples for homogeneous catalysts...
Chapter 24
Figure 24.1 The different types of Fuel Cell...
Figure 24.2 Schematic and operation principles...
Figure 24.3 A fuel cell system consists...
Figure 24.4 A demonstrative polarization...
Figure 24.5 SEM images of TORAY-TPGH-120, a commonly ...
Figure 24.6 Effect of Teflon loading on the pore...
Figure 24.7 (a) Cross-section of the reconstructed...
Figure 24.8 Sources of degradation in PEM fuel cell...
Figure 24.9 Schematic voltammogram illustrating...
Figure 24.10 A typical electrochemical...
Figure 24.11 (I) Identical Location-TEM of two...
Chapter 25
Figure 25.1 Thermal energy storage is a combination...
Figure 25.2 The concept of exergy and anergy...
Figure 25.3 When heat is stored and consumed...
Figure 25.4 When using heat pumps the temperature...
Figure 25.5 Dependency between stored heat...
Figure 25.6 Closed heat storage via...
Figure 25.7 Open thermochemical heat storage.
Figure 25.8 Schematic representation of storage...
Figure 25.9 Rough classification of temperature...
Chapter 26
Figure 26.1 Schematic A-B binary phase diagrams...
Figure 26.3 Transition temperature (°C) distribution...
Figure 26.2 Classification of solid–liquid and...
Figure 26.4 Covered transition temperature...
Figure 26.5 Latent heat values for unit volume...
Figure 26.6 SEM images of μEPCMs:...
Figure 26.7 SPCMs classification according...
Chapter 27
Figure 27.1 Schematic presentation of adsorption...
Figure 27.2 Adsorption isotherms classification...
Figure 27.3 Framework structure of Zeolite X
Figure 27.4 Mobile heat storage system...
Figure 27.5 TEM photograph of silica gel.
Figure 27.6 Dehydrated aluminophosphate...
Figure 27.7 MIL-100(Fe) as water adsorbent...
Figure 27.8 TEM photograph of hexagonal pore...
Chapter 28
Figure 28.1 Sketch of a typical cryogenic storage...
Figure 28.2 (left) Expanded perlite...
Figure 28.3 Experimentally determined...
Figure 28.4 Temperature decrease...
Figure 28.5 Setup of the VSI storage...
Figure 28.6 Solar fraction fsav...
Figure 28.7 (left) Experimental spectral...
Figure 28.8 Measured solid thermal...
Figure 28.9 Sum of radiative and solid thermal...
Figure 28.10 Thermal conductivity as a function...
Chapter 29
Figure 29.1 Classification of the heat transfer...
Figure 29.2 (a) Longitudinal (left) and radial...
Figure 29.3 Effect of modifying...
Figure 29.4 (a) TES system without...
Figure 29.5 Hairy fin enhancement...
Figure 29.6 Embedded heat pipes...
Figure 29.7 Heat pipes modules...
Figure 29.8 Prototypes of the forced...
Figure 29.9 Working principle...
Figure 29.10 Classification of the enhancement...
Figure 29.11 Processing of graphite from natural...
Figure 29.12 Influence on the thermal conductivity...
Chapter 30
Figure 30.1 Schematic representation...
Figure 30.2 Three geometries of the...
Figure 30.3 Two zeolite fixed bed...
Figure 30.4 Disc reactor developed...
Figure 30.5 Cross section of the...
Chapter 31
Figure 32.1 Overview on some...
Figure 32.2 Overview on some salt...
Figure 32.3 Outside view of the...
Figure 32.4 Air treatment at...
Figure 32.5 Left: CSM module as PCM...
Figure 32.6 opened chilled ceiling...
Figure 32.7 Simplified schematic...
Figure 32.8 PCM storage filled...
Figure 32.9 Demonstration building...
Figure 32.10 Results of DSC measurements...
Chapter 32
Figure 32.1 Principle RES power portfolio.
Figure 32.2 Examplifying heat demand pattern...
Figure 32.3 Accumulated energy demand and availability vs. time.
Figure 32.4 Surplus of industrial process...
Figure 32.5 Co-generation-based district...
Figure 32.6 Example of variation of spot...
Figure 32.7 CO2 emission reduction potential...
Figure 32.8 A) Load leveling with...
Figure 32.9 Steel making process...
Figure 32.10 The Kraft pulping process...
Figure 32.11 Mobile TES concept...
Chapter 33
Figure 33.1 Annuity factor ANF...
Figure 33.1 Maximum acceptabl...
Figure 33.1 Maximum acceptable...
Figure 33.1 Maximum acceptable storag...
Figure 33.1 Maximum acceptable storage ...
Figure 33.1 Maximum acceptable storage...
Figure 33.1 Fraction of costs of the heat...
Figure 33.1 Sensitivity analysis...
Chapter 34
Figure 34.1 Energy transformations and...
Figure 34.2 Energy storage technologies...
Figure 34.3 Potential of energy storage.
Chapter 35
Figure 35.1 Illustration of the variable...
Figure 35.2 The energy-to-power ratio...
Chapter 36
Figure 36.1 Process for elaboration...
Figure 36.2 From gravel pit to PTES...
Figure 36.3 From TTES to a hill...
Chapter 37
Figure 37.1 Energy consumption by...
Figure 37.2 Total electric power...
Figure 37.3 Daily electricity...
Figure 37.4 Change of the annual...
Figure 37.5 Climograph of several...
Figure 37.6 Total number of TES by...
Figure 37.7 Total capacity of TES...
Figure 37.8 History of energy storage...
Figure 37.9 Classification of ice...
Figure 37.10 Outline of External...
Figure 37.11 Outline of Internal Melt...
Figure 37.12 Outline of ice harvesting.
Figure 37.13 Outline of Super Cooling storage.
Figure 37.14 Advantage of low temperature...
Chapter 39
Figure 39.1 Ternary plot of installed...
Figure 39.2 Electric energy demand...
Figure 39.3 Electric energy prices...
Figure 39.4 As the number of PV plants...
Figure 39.5 Conceptual figure that shows...
Figure 39.6 Overview of storage...
Figure 39.7 DES and level of grid...
Figure 39.8 Increase of PV-self...
Chapter 40
Figure 40.1 Sorted annual EBD for...
Figure 40.2 Geographical spread...
Figure 40.3 Scheme of a future...
Figure 40.4 Sankey diagram of the CEESA...
Figure 40.5 The electrical power consumption...
Figure 40.6 The SUNSTORE® concept...
Figure 40.7 The energy plant in Marstal...
Figure 40.8 Principal diagram...
Figure 40.9 Smart Energy System...
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Energy storage technologies and their...
Table 1.2 List of relevant energy storage...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 A general comparison of four...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Key performance indicators for the...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Summary of parameters of electrolytic...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 LTc-SMES projects.
Table 6.2 HTc-SMES projects.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Optimization design of pure copper...
Table 7.2 A typical example of superconducting...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Some well known superconductors and...
Table 9.2 The websites of some companies manufacturing 2G wire.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 The boiling point and freezing...
Table 10.2 Basic physical parameters of several cryogenic media.
Table 10.3 Hectowatt/kilowatt Stirling refrigerator at...
Table 10.4 Pressure ranges of each quality...
Table 10.5 Classification and working ranges of...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Mode analysis of the power system.
Table 11.2 Weighing functions for mixed sensitivity.
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Global installed base by continent...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Main data of the pumped storage plant Haeusling.
Table 14.2 Main data Kopswerk II.
Table 14.3 Main data Obervermuntwerk II.
Table 14.4 Main data Veytaux II.
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Compressed air or CAES projects...
Table 18.2 Compressed air or CAES projects...
Table 18.3 Compressed air or CAES projects...
Table 18.4 Compressed air or CAES projects...
Table 18.5 Compressed air or CAES projects...
Table 18.6 Compressed air or CAES projects...
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Effect of optimization of porosity...
Table 20.2 Energy captured, efficiency, and revenues...
Chapter 22
Table 22.1 Properties of a range of...
Chapter 23
Table 23.1 Potential small liquid organic hydrogen...
Table 23.2 Hydrogen liberation from small molecule...
Chapter 24
Table 24.1 Fuel cell by type, its...
Table 24.2 H
2
fuel...
Chapter 26
Table 26.1 Criteria for the selection of...
Table 26.2 Advantages and disadvantages of salt...
Table 26.3 Frequently encountered problems, consequences and...
Table 26.4 Frequently encountered problems and benefits...
Chapter 29
Table 29.1 Main characteristics of the heat...
Table 29.2 Main materials considered for fins...
Table 29.3 Main characteristics of the heat...
Table 29.4 Influence of the porosity and...
Table 29.5 Technology readiness levels summary. Based...
Table 29.6 Technology readiness levels of the...
Chapter 31
Table 31.1 Overview on required properties for...
Table 31.2 Pros and cons for the...
Table 31.3 Matrix of Applications
Table 31.4 Overview of manufacturers of PCM...
Chapter 32
Table 32.1 World-wide examples of large...
Chapter 33
Table 33.1 Economic boundary conditions: costs of...
Table 33.2 Specifications of thermal energy storages...
Chapter 35
Table 35.1 System classification based on design...
Table 35.2 Categorization of storage technologies...
Chapter 40
Table 40.1 Data for large-scale heat...
Table 40.2 Data for air to water...
Table 40.3 Data for large-scale electric...
Guide
Cover
Title page
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Contributors
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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List of Contributors
Fouzia Achchaq
Institut de Mécanique et d’Ingénierie (UMR CNRS 5295), Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, Talence, FR
Thomas Beikircher
Bavarian Center for Applied Energy Research (ZAE Bayern), Divison Energy Storage, Garching, Germany
Andreas Belderbos
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Leuven (KU Leuven), Heverlee, Belgium
EnergyVille Research Institute, Genk, Belgium
Ronnie Belmans
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Leuven (KU Leuven), Heverlee, Belgium
EnergyVille Research Institute, Genk, Belgium
Pierre Bérest
LMS, Ecole Polytechnique, Palaiseau, France
Léonard E.A. Berlouis
Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
Tom Brijs
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Leuven (KU Leuven), Heverlee, Belgium
EnergyVille Research Institute, Genk, Belgium
Benoît Brouard
Brouard Consulting SAS, Paris, France
Declan Bryans
Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
Luisa F. Cabeza
GREiA Research Group, Universitat de Lleida, Lleida, Spain
Jianyun Cao
School of Materials, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
Shijie Cheng
State Key Laboratory of Advanced Electromagnetic Engineering and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
Ningwei Justin Chiu
KTH-Royal Institute of Technology, Dept. of Energy Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
Jong-Hoo Choi
Universität zu Köln, Department für Chemie, Köln, Germany
Andrew Cruden
Energy Technology Group, Engineering Sciences, Southampton University, UK
Alvaro de Gracia
GREiA Research Group, Universitat de Lleida, Lleida, Spain
Elena Palomo del Barrio
CIC energiGUNE, Álava, Spain
Christian Doetsch
