Advances in Food Science and Technology, Volume 1 E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 488

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

Written in a systematic and comprehensive manner, the book reports recent advances in the development of food science and technology areas. Advances in Food Science and Technology discusses many of the recent technical research accomplishments in the areas of food science and technology, such as food security as a global issue, food chemistry, frozen food and technology, as well as state-of-the-art developments concerning food production, properties, quality, trace element speciation, nanotechnology, and bionanocomposites for food packing applications. Specifically, this important book details: * New innovative methods for food formulations and novel nanotechnology applications such as food packaging, enhanced barrier, active packaging, and intelligent packaging * Freezing methods and equipment such as freezing by contact with cold air, cold liquid, and cold surfaces, cryogenic freezing, and a combination of freezing methods * Chemical and functional properties of food components * Bionanocomposites for natural food packing and natural biopolymer-based films such as polysaccharide films and protein films * Regulatory aspects of food ingredients in the United States with the focus on the safety of enzyme preparations used in food

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Half Title page

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

List of Contributors

Chapter 1: Food Chemistry and Technology

1.1 Food Security

1.2 Nanotechnology in Food Applications

1.3 Frozen Food and Technology

1.4 Chemical and Functional Properties of Food Components

1.5 Food: Production, Properties and Quality

1.6 Safety of Enzyme Preparations Used in Food

1.7 Trace Element Speciation in Food

1.8 Bio-nanocomposites for Natural Food Packaging

References

Chapter 2: Food Security: A Global Problem

2.1 Food Security: Definitions and Basic Concepts

2.2 Main Causes of Food Insecurity

2.3 The Food Insecurity Dimension

2.4 Conclusions

References

Chapter 3: Nanotechnology in Food Applications

3.1 What is Nanotechnology?

3.2 Food Formulations

3.3 Food Packaging

3.4 Regulation Issues and Consumer Perception

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 4: Frozen Food and Technology

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Treatments: Pre-freezing

4.3 Freezing Process

4.4 Freezing Methods and Equipment

4.5 Effect of Freezing and Frozen Storage on Food Properties

4.6 Final Remarks

References

Chapter 5: Chemical and Functional Properties of Food Components

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Functional and Chemical Properties of Food Components

5.3 Nutritional Value and Sensory-Properties of Food

5.4 Postharvest Storage and Processing

5.5 Conclusion

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 6: Food: Production, Properties and Quality

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Food Production

6.3 Factors Affecting Production and Improvement of Food

6.4 Food Properties

6.5 Food Quality

References

Chapter 7: Regulatory Aspects of Food Ingredients in the United States: Focus on the Safety of Enzyme Preparations Used in Food

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Regulatory History of Food Ingredients: Guided by Safety

7.3 Scientific Advancement as Part of the Regulatory History of Enzyme Preparations

7.4 Safety Evaluation of Enzyme Preparations

7.5 Conclusion

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 8: Trace Element Speciation in Food

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Implications of Toxic Elements Speciation for Food Safety

8.3 Elemental Species and Its Impact on the Nutritional Value of Food

8.4 Elemental Species in Food Processing

8.5 Potential Functional Food Derived from Health Benefits of Elemental Species

8.6 Analytical Methods for Food Elemental Speciation Analysis

8.7 Conclusions

References

Chapter 9: Bionanocomposites for Natural Food Packing

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Natural Biopolymer-based Films

9.3 Modification of Film Properties

9.4 Environmental Impact of Bionanocomposites Materials

9.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives

References

Index

Advances in Food Science and Technology

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

ISBN 978-1-118-12102-3

Preface

“Advances in Food Science and Technology” summarizes many of the recent technical research accomplishments in the area of food science and technology, such as food security as a global problem, nanotechnology in food application, frozen food and technology food: production, properties & quality, trace element speciation in food, bionanocomposites for food packing application etc. It is written in a systematic and comprehensive manner and recent advances in the developments in food science area and food technologies are discussed here in detail. Therefore, the content of the current book is unique. It covers an up-to-date record on the major findings and observations in the field of food science and food technology and it is intended to serve as a “one stop” reference resource for important research accomplishments in this area. The various chapters in this book are contributed by prominent researchers from industry, academia and government/private research laboratories across the globe. This book will be a very valuable reference source for university and college faculties, professionals, post-doctoral research fellows, senior graduate students, food science technologists and researchers from R&D laboratories working in the area of food science.

The first chapter on food chemistry and technology gives an overview of the area of food science and technology such as food security a global problem, nanotechnology in food application, frozen food and technology food: production, properties & quality, trace element speciation in food, bionanocomposites for food packing application. This chapter is very essential for the beginners in these fields since it provides a basic yet thorough understanding of the food science field.

The following chapter provides an overview on food security as a global problem. The first part of this chapter reviews food security: definitions and basic concepts, main causes of food insecurity including social issues, economic issues, environmental issues and later in the chapter, the authors explain the various aspects of the food insecurity dimension such as current situation at global level, financial and economic crisis and their implications on food security Lastly, they look at food prices volatility, food sector numbers: trends in global food production and trade.

A survey on nanotechnology in food application is tackled in the third chapter. The authors concentrate on the importance of nanotechnology in food science, applications and also address some of the challenges. This chapter also brings out new innovative methods for food formulations and novel applications such as food packaging, enhanced barrier, active packaging, and intelligent packaging.

The fourth chapter on frozen food and technology comprises several subtopics. The first topic looks at pre-freezing treatments of different food products such as fruits, vegetables, fish, and meat products. In the another topic, the authors explain about the freezing methods and equipment such as freezing by contact with cold air, freezing by contact with cold liquid, freezing by contact with cold surfaces, cryogenic freezing and combination of freezing methods. The last section of this chapter, the authors explain the effect of freezing and frozen storage on food properties such as physical changes, chemical changes, microbiological aspects

The following chapter on chemical and functional properties of food components provides the basic understanding of food components, nutritional value and sensory, post harvest storage and processing. This chapter gives an overview of functional and chemical properties of food components with some subtopics such as functional foods: historical perspective and definitions, legislation on functional food claims, classification of functional foods and functional properties of food components.

Another chapter examines the new aspects on food production, food properties and food quality. In this chapter the authors mainly focus on the food production factors sSuch as, soil, climate, population, income and technology, plant source foods and animal source foods.

The following chapter is based on regulatory aspects of food ingredients in the United States with the focus on the safety of enzyme preparations used in food. The authors explain the various aspects such as regulatory history of food ingredients, scientific advancement as part of the regulatory history of enzyme preparations, safety evaluation of enzyme preparations, identity of the enzyme and manufacturing process and composition.

In the chapter on trace element speciation in food, the authors discuss the implications of toxic elements such as arsenic, mercury, tin, chromium, cadmium on speciation for food safety. Elements such as selenium iron, cobalt, zinc, impact on the nutritional value of food are also discussed. Moreover, the authors examine the analytical methods for food elemental speciation analysis, species separation and species detection.

The book concludes with a chapter on bionanocomposites for natural food packing which discusses the natural biopolymer-based films such as polysaccharide films and protein films. Sections are given over to the modification of film properties such as natural nanoreinforcements, cellulose-based nanoreinforcements, starch nanocrystals/starch nanoparticles, chitin/chitosan nanoparticles, plant-protein nanoparticle, plasticizers, clays and active agents. The chapter concludes with a section on the environmental impact of bionanocomposites materials, their safety and toxicology, biodegradability and compostability.

The editors of this unique volume would like to express their sincere gratitude to all the contributors of this book, who made excellent support to the successful completion of this venture. We are grateful to them for the commitment and the sincerity they have shown towards their contributions in the book. Without their enthusiasm and support, the compilation of this book could not have been realized. We would like to thank all the reviewers who have taken their valuable time to make critical comments on each chapter. We also thank the publisher Scrivener-Wiley for recognizing the demand for such a book, and for realizing the increasing importance of the area of food science and technology.

Visakh. P. MSabu ThomasLaura B.IturriagaPablo Daniel RibottaJanuary 1, 2013

List of Contributors

Elisabete Alexandre obtained her PhD in food science and technology from the College of Biotechnology, Portuguese Catholic University, Porto, Portugal, in 2011. She is currently working on chemical and physical phenomena in foods during processing. She has authored 2 book chapters, published 6 articles in referred international journals and co-authored 17 communications in scientific meetings.

Paula Berton is a PhD student in analytical chemistry, and is Laboratory Instructor at the National University of Cuyo, Mendoza, Argentina. She has co-authored 13 papers and 2 book chapters. Her research is focused on the use of ionic liquids for microextraction-based analytical methodologies for elemental speciation analysis.

Teresa R.S. Brandão is a chemical engineer with a PhD in biotechnology from the College of Biotechnology, Portuguese Catholic University. She is a researcher at the Centre for Biotechnology and Fine Chemistry of the Portuguese Catholic University. Her research interests have been focused on food processing, modelling quality and safety attributes of food products with emphasis in statistical experimental design procedures. She authored 8 book chapters, published 45 articles in referred international journals and-co-authored more than 80 communications in scientific meetings.

Bibin Mathew Cherian is a scientist in the Department of Natural Resources at São Paulo State University. He has a PhD in chemistry, MSc in analytical chemistry and BSc in industrial chemistry, chemistry and mathematics. He is active in the field of biobased nanoreinforcments, nanocomposites, nanomedicine, membranes and medical implants.

Ligia Maria Manzine Costa is a PhD scholar at the Federal University of ABC. She has an MSc in materials engineering and a BSc in chemistry. Her research interests include electrospinning, polymeric nanofibers, resorbable polymers, bacterial cellulose, natural rubber latex.

Marcia Rodrigues de Morais Chaves is a faculty member at the University of Sagrado Coração. She has a PhD in chemical engineering, MSc in materials engineering and a BSc in chemistry. Her research interests are in cellulose separation from different vegetable fiber sources and agro-industrial waste, as well on fiber-composite polymers and environmental aspects of these materials.

Giuseppe Cirillo received his PhD in 2008 from the University of Calabria, Italy. He is currently in a post-doctoral position at the same university and a visiting researcher at IFW Dresden, Germany, working on polymeric nanotechnologies and biomaterials. He is the author and co-author of more than 60 publications and the co-editor of the book Antioxidant Polymers.

Rui M.S. Cruz holds a PhD in biotechnology-food science and engineering. He works in the area of food preservation, particularly in active packaging to improve food products quality and extend shelf-life. He has published 12 peer-reviewed papers, 6 book chapters and 1 book edition, and he is also a reviewer for several scientific journals in the area of food science and technology.

Gabriel Molina de Olyveira is a PhD scholar at the Federal University of ABC. He has an MSc and BSc in materials engineering. He has experience in the rubber industry and manufacturing plastic packaging. His research interests include bioelectrochemistry, bionanotechnology, bionanocomposite and bionanomedicine.

Sivoney Ferreira de Souza is a PhD scholar at the Federal University of ABC. She has an MSc in energy in agriculture and BSc in chemical engineering. Her research interests include nanostructured materials especially cellulose nanofibers in biomedical application.

Ana Cristina Figueira is a coordinating professor of chemistry at the University of the Algarve, Portugal. Her scientific interests are in food chemistry with a focus on food authenticity and the study of bioactive components of food and food by-products. She has co-authored 1 book, 7 book chapters and 11 scientific papers.

Igor Khmelinskii holds a PhD and Habilitation in chemistry. He has authored more than 150 peer-reviewed papers and 5 book chapters. His research interests include food analysis, photophysics, photochemistry, magnetic field effects, and climate change.

Tatik Khusniati is a senior food microbial biochemist, awarded as PhD from Hokkaido University, Japan in 2008. For the past 18 years she has been developing more intensive dairy food-microbial biochemistry research. She has a number of publications both in national and international journals in relation to dairy microbiology.

Alcides Lopes Leão is a Professor of College of the Agricultural Sciences at São Paulo State University. He has PhD in forestry, MSc in energy in agriculture and a BSc in agricultural engineering. He is the co-founder of ONG INFO, and International Natural Fibers Organization, based in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. He is active in the field of composites, natural fibers, recycling, biomass energy and agricultural and municipal garbage.

Estefanía Martinis holds a post-doc position at the National University of Cuyo, Argentina. She is the co-author of 14 publications and 1 book chapter. She works in the field of development of analytical methods for toxic elements determination at trace levels using functionalized nanomaterials and ionic liquids.

Rafael Germán Campos Montiel is a researcher at the Autonomous University of Hidalgo State, Argentina and has experience in extraction of bioactive compounds from microorganisms and plants used as additives in foods. He has published 3 books, 8 chapters and 11 scientific papers in several journals. He has also worked in the Hidalgo state government solving food industries problems.

Suresh Narine is the Ontario Research Chair in Green Chemistry and Engineering and NSERC/GFO/ERS Industrial Research Chair in Lipid Derived Biomaterials, is a professor of physics and astronomy and chemistry at Trent University and Director of the Trent Centre for Biomaterials Research in Canada. He has a PhD in food science, a MSc in condensed matter physics and a BSc in chemical physics.

Ortensia Ilaria Parisi obtained her PhD in environment, health and eco-friendly processes with a thesis on “Polymeric Materials for Biomedical Applications: Synthesis and Characterisation”. Her research interests are in the areas of biomaterials, molecularly imprinted polymers, graft polymers, functional polymers, stimuli responsive hydrogels as well as functional foods and nutraceutics. She is author of more than 40 publications regarding the above-mentioned topics.

Nevio Picci received his degree in chemistry in 1975 from the University of Pisa and he is currently full professor in pharmaceutical technology at the University of Calabria, Italy. His research interest involves the application of functional polymers, biomaterials and nanotechnologies in biomedical, pharmaceutical and food sciences. He is the author and co-author of more than 150 publications.

Diana Pimentel is a researcher at the Autonomous University of Hidalgo State, Argentina and has experience in food technology with specific expertise encapsulating bioactive compounds and probiotics. She has published 16 scientific papers in several journals. She has received Pan-American and Latin-American awards for her pioneering contributions recognized by international companies like Bimbo and Kellogs.

Francesco Puoci earned his BS in chemistry from the University of Calabria in 1999 and his PhD in 2002. His research activities focus on the synthesis of polymeric functional materials for pharmaceutical and technological applications as well as functional foods and nutraceutics.

Endang Sutriswati Rahayu is a senior lecturer at the Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. She received her PhD in agricultural chemistry from the University of Tokyo, Japan in 1991. Her research and publications are mainly related to lactic acid bacteria (fermented foods and probiotics) and food safety (foodborne fungi and mycotoxin). She belongs to several professional associations such as the Asian Federation Society for Lactic Acid Bacteria and the Indonesian Society for Lactic Acid Bacteria, Microbiologist, and Food Technologist.

Javiera F. Rubilar is a researcher at the Department of Chemical Engineering and Bioprocesses of the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. She holds a PhD in chemistry and has published 3 peer-reviewed papers. In 2011 she won third place in the best research presentation award at the ISEKI Food conference.

Donatella Restuccia is an assistant professor of commodity sciences at the Department of Pharmacy and Health and Nutrition Sciences of the University of Calabria. Research activity is principally focused on food quality and safety evaluation and in particular on the determination of natural contaminates and bioactive compounds in foods. She is the author or co-author of about 60 publications.

Cristina L.M. Silva is a chemical engineer with PhD in Biotechnology from the College of Biotechnology, Portuguese Catholic University. She is an associate professor at the College of Biotechnology and a senior researcher at the Centre for Biotechnology and Fine Chemistry of the Portuguese Catholic University. She is the leader of a research team involved in thermal and non-thermal food processing, focusing on process optimisation and development of strategies for food quality and safety. She has authored 11 book chapters, published 80 articles in referred international journals and co-authored more than 150 communications in scientific meetings.

U. Gianfranco Spizzirri received his PhD from the University of Calabria in 2005. His research is focussed on the synthesis of polymeric functional materials for technological applications. Particular interest is devoted to development of specific experimental protocols in the evaluation of active components in nutraceutical supplements and food matrices. He is the author and co-author of more than 50 publications.

Jannavi Srinivasan is a review chemist in the FDA’s Office of Food Additive Safety. Her expertise includes bioengineered crops and enzymes added to food. She has a PhD from Wayne State University Detroit. She was a postdoctoral fellow at University of Michigan and has worked for ten years in the industry.

Margarida C. Vieira is a Professor Coordinator (PhD) and Head of the Department of Food Engineering (ISE-UAlg) since 2009. Her main research area is innovative technologies for food preservation. She has published 16 peer-reviewed papers, 10 book chapters and edition of 2 books. In 1999 she won the first place in the Product Development Division’s Poster Competition at the IFT Annual Meeting.

Giuliana Vinci is an associate professor of commodity science at the Department of Management of Sapienza University of Rome. The author of several publications (150) in national and international journals relating food quality, food security and sustainable development.

Shayla West-Barnette is a consumer safety officer in FDA’s Office of Food Additive Safety where she serves on the Enzyme Review Team as well as a microbiology reviewer. She holds a bachelor’s degree in biology from Bennett College and a PhD in microbiology and immunology from Wake Forest University.

Yantyati Widyastuti is a highly distinguished animal nutritionist. She obtained her PhD from Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan in 1989. She is a leader of animal nutrition research group and head of Applied Microbiology laboratory in the Research Center for Biotechnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences. She has published a number of papers in several international journals.

Rodolfo Wuilloud is a Professor at the National University of Cuyo and Researcher at the National Council for Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET) of Argentina. He is the author of 79 papers and 3 book chapters. His research focuses on development of analytical methods for elemental speciation based on microextraction techniques using ionic liquids and solid-phase preconcentration.

Chapter 1

Food Chemistry and Technology

State of the Art, New Challenges and Opportunities

Visakh P. M.1,2, Sabu Thomas1,2, Laura B. Iturriaga3 and Pablo Daniel Ribotta4

1Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India

2School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India

3Institute of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Agronomy, National University of Santiago del Estero, Santiago del Estero, Argentina

4Department of Science and Technology, National University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina

Abstract

This chapter presents a brief account of the various categories of food chemistry and technology along with the different parameters associated with them. Included in the discussion of food chemistry and technology are such issues as food security, nanotechnology in food applications, frozen food and technology, chemical and functional properties of food components, the production, properties and quality of food, safety of enzyme preparations used in food, trace element speciation in food, bionanocomposites for natural food packing, etc.

Keywords: Food security, nanotechnology, frozen food, functional properties of food components, food production, trace element speciation in food, food packing

1.1 Food Security

Nutritional status in food consumption is generally identified by three indicators: calorie, protein, and fat intake while food consumption is mainly related with domestic food production and food imports achieved by international trade. The concept of food security has developed over the past three decades. Concerns about food security up to the end of the 1970s were mostly directed at the national and international level and concerned the ability of countries to secure adequate food supplies. It was only later that the level of analysis shifted to include a focus on food security at local level, even down to households and individuals [1].

Definitions of food security identify the outcomes of food security and are useful for formulating policies and deciding on actions, but the processes that lead to desired outcomes also matter. Most current definitions of food security therefore include references to processes as well as outcomes and, taken together, these processes constitute the complexity of the food system.

A variety of factors, both internal and external, affect the food security of a country, and straightforward explanations for world hunger should be treated with caution. Food security is, in fact, a multifaceted concept that goes far beyond the number of people that can be sustained by the earth’s limited food resources, to encompass a broad range of aspects which are, however, related in some fashion to two basic causes: insufficient national food availability and insufficient access to food by households and individuals. Population growth over the past century has been accompanied by enormous increases in food production [2].

Among economic issues related with food insecurity, neglect of agriculture and world trade rules are the most severe. Despite the evidence that investment in agriculture results in growth and poverty reduction, spending on agriculture as a share of total public spending in developing countries fell by half between 1980 and 2004 [3]. By 2050 it is estimated that the world will need to increase food production by 70 percent to feed a larger, more urban, and, it is hoped, wealthier population [4, 5]. The Green Revolution, and “industrialized” agriculture more generally, has often been associated with problems of environmental degradation and pollution [6].

Trade and financial factors have been also considered as a driving force in food crisis. Although fundamental factors were clearly responsible for shifting the world to a higher food price equilibrium in the years leading up the 2008 food crisis, there is little doubt that when food prices peaked in June of 2008, they soared well above the new equilibrium price. By March 2009, prices of staple grains had fallen by 30 percent from their peak in May 2008, while energy prices fell by around 50 percent, before stabilizing and then increasing again. At the moment, the global food prices remain high, partly due to increasing fuel prices, and the World Bank’s Food Price Index is around its 2008 peak. However, the current global food price situation seems to possess both similarities and differences with 2008 [7]. It is similar in four respects. First, global grain stocks are low, driven by lower production. Second, higher oil prices have impacted agricultural commodity prices, and the recent events in the Middle East and North Africa add to the current uncertainty. Crude oil prices underpin production costs of agricultural products relying on fertilizers and petroleum, in particular in developed and emerging economies and transport costs in many developing countries

The Eastern European countries, after recording bumper crops in 2008, were unable to sustain potential growth in the subsequent years, and the 2010 drought led to substantially reduced levels of crop production in the region. On the contrary, Latin America and the Caribbean suffered weather-related production shortfalls in 2008 but recovered in 2009 and 2010. In Asia, growth in food production remained strong throughout the last decade, generally in the range of 2–4 percent per year, although they faced a slowdown in 2009 and 2010. Production failed to grow in 2009 in sub-Saharan Africa, which had seen growth in the range of 3–4 percent per year over the previous decade, while the region registering the slowest growth in food production in recent years is Western Europe. Production did increase in 2007 and 2008 under the effect of high prices and reduced set-aside requirements in the European Union, but declined by around 2 percent in 2009 as a result of lower prices and unfavorable weather conditions. In this regard, the prospect for an expansion in grain production in 2011 is particularly related with the expectation of a return to regular climatic conditions firstly in the Russian Federation, after last year’s devastating dryness. Encouragingly, the country has announced the lifting of its export ban from July 2011 and weather permitting, excellent crops are also anticipated in Ukraine. However, other important producing regions (Europe and North America) are now facing difficult weather situations which eventually, may hamper yields.

1.2 Nanotechnology in Food Applications

Nanotechnology is an important tool that is influencing a large number of industrial segments. The food industry is investing in mechanisms and procedures to use nanotechnology to improve production processes and produce food products with better and more convenient functionalities [8].

One of the functions of food packaging is to increase the shelf life of foods, protecting it from microbial and chemical contamination and other factors, such as oxygen and light. The use of nanotechnology in food packaging is a promising application aimed at achieving longer shelf life of food products, rendering them safer [9]. In 2006, about 400 companies around the world included in the agricultural and food industry segment actively invested in the research and development of nanotechnology, and by 2015 this is expected to happen in more than 1,000 companies [10].

The use of nanomaterials in food formulations has the potential to produce stronger flavorings, colorings, and nutritional additives, and also improve production operations, lowering the costs of ingredients and processing [11]. Nestlé reported that they recognize the potential of nanotechnology to improve the properties of food and food packaging. However, the company declares no research in the field of nanotechnology [12].

New solutions can be provided for food packaging through the modification of the permeability behavior of the packaging systems. Some of these include: enhanced barrier (mechanical, microbial and chemical), antimicrobial, and heat-resistance properties [13, 14]. In the late 1980s, the concept of polymer-clay nanocomposites (PCN) was developed and first commercialized by Toyota [15], but only since the late 1990s have works been published on the development of PCN for food packaging [16].

There are different forms to improve the plastic materials’ barrier. One of them is the incorporation of clays or silicates in the polymer matrix. These layered inorganic solids have drawn the attention of the packaging industry due to their availability, low cost, significant enhancements and relatively simple processing [17].

Controlled release of active and bioactive compounds in food packaging applications, and nanoencapsulation of functional added-value food additives are other possible applications [18, 19]. Metal and metal oxide nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes are the nanoparticles most used for the development of active packaging with antimicrobial properties [20].

Silver is the most common nanoadditive used in antimicrobial packaging, with several advantages such as strong toxicity to a wide range of microorganisms, high temperature stability and low volatility [21].

Several mechanisms were proposed to explain the antimicrobial properties of silver nanoparticles. The adhesion to the cell surface, degrading lipopolysaccharides and forming “pits” in the membranes, largely increasing permeability [22], penetration inside bacterial cell, damaging DNA; and releasing antimicrobial Ag+ ions by Ag-nanoparticles dissolution [23] are some of the proposed hypotheses.

1.3 Frozen Food and Technology

Freezing is one of the oldest and most frequently used processes for long-term food preservation. Nowadays, the freezing process is strongly implemented worldwide, being one of the most common preservation methods used for all kinds of commercialized foods: fruits (whole, puréed or as juice concentrates) and vegetables; fish fillets and seafood, including prepared dishes; meats and meat products; baked goods (i.e., bread, cakes, pizzas); desserts and an endless number of precooked dishes [24].

Food preservation by freezing occurs through different mechanisms. When temperature is lowered below 0°C, there is a reduction in the microbial loads and microbial activity; therefore, the deterioration rate of foods decrease. Freezing temperatures affect biological materials in various ways depending on their chemical composition, microstructure and physical properties. The low temperatures also have a strong impact in enzymatic activity and oxidative reactions that help products avoid deterioration. In addition, with ice crystal formation, less water will be available to support deteriorative reactions and microbial viability [25, 26].

Upon placing the food (whole or in pieces) in solutions of high sugar or salt concentration, the water inside the food moves to the concentrated solution and, simultaneously, the solute from the concentrated solution is transferred into the food. Osmotic concentration of fruits and vegetables prior to freezing improves their quality in terms of color, texture and flavor, and the combination of this treatment with partial air drying requires less energy consumption than air drying alone [27, 28].

The freezing process involves four main stages: (i) pre-freezing stage – sensible heat is removed from the product, reducing the temperature to the freezing point; (ii) super-cooling – temperature falls below the freezing point, which is not always observed; (iii) freezing – latent heat is removed and water is transformed into ice (i.e., crystallization) in all product; (iv) sub-freezing – the food temperature is lowered to the storage temperature.

There are many factors that will determine the success of the freezing operation. Freezing methods and type of equipment used, composition and shape of product to be frozen, packaging materials, freezing rates and ice crystallization, product moisture content, specific heat, heat transfer coefficients and packaging, are examples of factors that will determine freezing efficiency and product quality.

In cryogenic freezing the food is in direct contact with the refrigerant through three different ways: (i) the cryogenic liquid is directly sprayed on the food in a tunnel freezer, (ii) the cryogenic liquid is vaporized and blown over the food in a spiral freezer or batch freezer, or (iii) the food product is immersed in cryogenic liquid in an immersion freezer. However, the most common method used is the direct spraying of cryogenic solutions over the product while it is conveyed through an insulated tunnel [29].

Jalté et al. [30] studied the effects of pulsed electric fields pre-treatment on the freezing, freeze-drying and rehydration behavior of potatoes, and concluded that the quality and rehydration of the samples improved. LeBail et al. [31] reviewed the application of high pressure in the freezing and thawing of foods. Alizadeh et al. [32] froze salmon fillets by pressure shift freezing and verified that ice crystals were smaller and more regular than the ones obtained with conventional freezing methods.

During freezing, changes in temperature and concentration (due to ice formation) play an important role in enzymatic and nonenzymatic reactions rates. Ice crystals may release the enclosed contents of food tissues, such as enzymes and chemical substances, affecting the product quality during freezing and frozen storage. The main chemical changes verified during freezing and frozen storage are related to lipid oxidation, protein denaturation, enzymatic browning and degradation of pigments and vitamins.

Freezing is one of the oldest and most common processes used in food preservation and one of the best methods available in the food industry. There are several methods and various equipment that can be used and adapted according to the different types of foods. Freezing usually retains the initial quality of the products. However, during freezing and frozen storage, some physical, chemical and nutritional changes may occur. To avoid this impact on fresh products, mainly in fruits and vegetables, some pretreatments may be required to inactivate enzymes and microorganisms.

1.4 Chemical and Functional Properties of Food Components

The concept of functional foods has spread around the world and has become increasingly popular [33–35]. However, at present, an internationally accepted definition for functional foods is inexistent.

A worldwide accepted classification for the functional foods that have been developed and are available can’t be found, to date. Some have, however, suggested a common classification based on the functional foods’ origin or modification [36–39]. Polyphenols are classified into phenolic acids, flavonoids, and less commonly into stilbenes and lignans. Many studies have focused on the antioxidant activities of flavonoids. Although several flavonoids are highly efficacious free radical scavengers in vitro, there is little information on the importance of dietary flavonoids as antioxidants in vivo, or evidence for such activity in vivo. Moreover, there have been few studies on phenolic acids compared to the number of studies on flavonoids, despite the high content of phenolic acids in fruits, cereals, and some vegetables [40].

Factors included in physical properties that may be affected by food processing such as shape, color, size, surface condition, texture, freshness, total solids, etc., can change the appearance of the product. In biological terms, we can talk about total bacteria, total coliform bacteria, total mold, free of pathogenic microorganisms, etc.; in sensory aspects, flavor, aroma, taste, texture, etc., are involved; finally, in the chemical properties are included the nutritional value, moisture content, functional value, pH, chemical contaminants and food additives, etc. Food composition is determined by proximate analysis of carbohydrate, lipid, and protein contents, as well as minerals and vitamins. Actually, researchers have focused on further evaluation of amino-acid content and its quality, fatty and acid profiles, simple and complex carbohydrates, soluble and insoluble fibers, and other content like functional additives such as antioxidants, known as nutraceutical ingredients

Nowadays there is a lot of research involved in the improvement of the nutritional value of foods. One of the topics that is more useful in the development and improvement of the nutritional value of foods is the soybean. Soybean is a good substitute since it is a good source of protein (about 40%), edible oil of high quality that is cholesterol free (about 21%) and carbohydrate (34%) [41]. It is one of the most promising foods in the world, available to improve the diet of millions of people. Cereals are the most important source of food and have a significant impact in the human diet throughout the world. Since the 90s, in India and Africa, cereal products comprise 80% or more of the average diet, 50% in Central and Western Europe, and between 20–25% in the US [42]. Cereals like maize, rice, millet and sorghum can supply sufficient qualities of carbohydrate, fat, protein and many minerals, but diets consisting primarily of cereals are high in carbohydrate and deficient in vitamins and protein. The sensory characteristics of foods, especially appearance, texture, and flavor influence the food purchasing decisions of consumers. Therefore, a major concern is to increase the nutritional composition of products without negatively compromising the sensory qualities [43].

1.5 Food: Production, Properties and Quality

Most production of food comes from land, although there is great potential for the sea to provide various seafoods. From land, food production traditionally is closely related to agriculture and generally refers to cultivation of plants or crops and rearing of animals. Their productivity is strongly affected by the genotype of plants or crops and animals. Food production is faced with a very difficult situation relating to climate change all around the world. The impact of climate change is very severe and includes an increase in temperature. Drought affects all stages of crop growth and development, since absorption of nutrients from the soil is influenced by temperature condition and moisture. Soil and climatic conditions including the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil, the rates at which nutrients are supplied, and applied fertilizer affect the growth of crops and their product.

Certain regions suffer from increased incidents of heat waves and droughts without the possibility for shifting crop cultivation [44]. The physiological responses of crops suggest that they will grow faster, with slight changes in development, such as flowering and fruiting, depending on the species. Changes in food quality in a warmer and high CO2 situation are to be expected. These include, for example, decreased protein and mineral nutrient concentration as well as altered lipid composition [45]. Organic farming is a method in agriculture based on ecology and naturally occurring biological processes. By this technology the perception among consumers is that organically produced crops possess higher nutritional quality. Herencia et al. [46] found that organic crops showed higher phosphorus and dry matter content and lower nitrogen and nitrate content than conventional crops. They also found crops with opposite trends in nutrient content depending on cultivation cycle. This seems to indicate that conditions in which the crop was developed is more influential than the type of fertilization. The limitation of fertilization applied in organic farming can lead to an available nitrogen shortage for plants and possibly less nitrogen content.

Fruits and vegetables are rich in minerals and vitamins which serve an array of important functions in the body. Vitamin A maintains eye health and boosts the body’s immunity to infectious diseases. B vitamins are necessary for converting food into energy. Folate, one of the most common B vitamins can also significantly reduce the risk of neural tube birth defects in newborns and contribute to the prevention of heart disease. Vitamin C and vitamin E are important micronutrients in fruits and vegetables that serve as powerful antioxidants that can protect cells from cancer-causing agents. Vitamin C, in particular, can increase the body’s absorption of calcium and iron from other foods. Calcium is an essential mineral for strong bones and teeth, while low iron levels can lead to anaemia, one of the most severe nutrition-related disorders. Many fruits and vegetables are also very high in dietary fiber, which can help move potentially harmful substances through the intestinal tract and lower blood cholesterol levels. Much fruit and vegetable potency is believed to also come from substances known as phytochemicals. Phytochemical antioxidants from fruits, vegetables and legumes can significantly inhibit the development of cardiovascular disease. Combinations of phytochemical antioxidants from different plant categories such as fruits, vegetables and legumes may possess complementary cardiovascular disease fighting activities [47].

Since more attention is being paid to the role of food in human health and in food safety and security [48, 49], secondary metabolites content is a factor which must be considered during the assessment of agricultural systems. Antioxidants and probiotics have recently attracted the attention of consumers and the food industry because of their potential health benefits. The natural dietary antioxidants in fruits, vegetables and legumes promote vascular health. The different food categories possess different bioactive compounds with various antioxidant capacities.

1.6 Safety of Enzyme Preparations Used in Food

Since ancient times, enzymes have been used in the preparation of various foods such as cheese, yogurt, bread, and alcoholic beverages [50]. Although these uses have spanned thousands of years, scientific understanding of how enzymes function did not formally develop until the 19th century [50]. One of the earliest observations of enzyme activity occurred in 1814, when Kirchoff noted the decomposition of starch by germinated barley [51]. In 1833, the first clear observance of a specific enzyme-catalyzed reaction was made by Puyen and Persey, who found that a precipitate from malt extract contained a heat-stable substance that could convert starch to sugar [52].

During the early 1950s, a committee led by James Delaney held hearings to address the use of food ingredients [53]. In a report based on these hearings, the committee estimated that nearly 840 ingredients were used in food. Of these, only about 420 were considered safe, and many had never been evaluated for safety. This report, along with the incidents of chemical contamination of food that occurred in 1954 and 1958, prompted Congress to amend the 1938 Act with the 1958 Food Additives Amendment. It is generally accepted that pathogenic microorganisms would not be used in the production of enzymes intended for use in food [54]. A nonpathogenic microorganism is one that is very unlikely to produce disease under ordinary circumstances [55].

1.7 Trace Element Speciation in Food

Enzymes are ubiquitous in nature and have been used in foods and in food processing for millennia. In response to changes in consumer demand, new developments in molecular biology and manufacturing technologies have paved the way for faster, more efficient routes in food enzyme manufacturing and in the production of food using enzymes. These new developments have also allowed for adjustment of enzyme properties to manufacturing conditions, and production of enzyme preparations that contain lower levels of undefined contaminants from the production process. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has continuously adjusted its regulatory procedures to keep up with these evolving technologies. However, regardless of the technology used to manufacture food enzymes, safety has been, and will always remain, at the core of the FDA’s evaluations.

Food safety depends not only on the determination of total levels, but also on the speciation of trace elements occurring in foodstuffs. Thus, the biochemical and toxicological properties of a chemical element critically depend on the form in which it occurs in food [56, 57]. Human exposure to metal compounds in the general environment is usually greater through food and drink than through air [58]. Elemental species can be present in food due to anthropogenic or natural sources. In the first case it is a result of external contamination because of environmental pollution, food processing or leaching from packaging materials. In the second case it results from an endogenous synthesis by a plant or an animal (methylmercury or organoarsenic species) [59]. The role of elemental speciation and speciation analysis in human health hazard and risk assessment is critical for several toxic heavy metals and metalloids like arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), tin (Sn), chromium (Cr) and cadmium (Cd). For all of these elements, some considerations regarding their sources, presence in food and toxicity are reviewed in the following sections.

Arsenic (As) occurs in food as inorganic, as well as organic, compounds. Toxicity varies greatly between individual species. In general, organic As compounds are significantly less toxic than inorganic As compounds. Mobility in water and in body fluids largely determines species toxicity. It is reported that the toxicity conforms to the following order (highest to lowest toxicity): arsines > inorganic arsenites > organic trivalent compounds (arsenooxides) > inorganic arsenates > organic pentavalent compounds > arsonium compounds > elemental As [60, 61]. For organic species, generally, the toxicity decreases as the degree of methylation increases [62].

Mercury (Hg) is one of the most toxic elements impacting human health. Because of its high bioaccumulation, Hg is among the most highly bioconcentrated trace metals in the human food chain. For example, predatory fish can have up to 106-fold higher Hg concentrations than ambient water and up to 95% of this Hg can be in the form of methylmercury [63]. The chemical form of Hg controls its bioavailability, transport, persistence and impact on the human body. All Hg species are toxic, while organic Hg compounds are generally more toxic than inorganic species. Tin (Sn) is one of the essential elements at trace levels involved in various metabolic processes in humans. It may be introduced into food either as inorganic or as organotin compounds. Most of the inorganic Sn compounds are nontoxic because of their low solubility and absorption [64]. However, organic Sn compounds are mostly toxic [65].

Canned foods, such as tomato sauce and fruit juices, are known to contain high concentrations of Sn. Other sources of Sn are cereal grains, dairy, meat, vegetables, seaweed and licorice. When inorganic Sn is introduced to foodstuff, there is a possibility of it turning into an organic Sn compound [66]. Additionally, dietary exposure to organotin compound may result from the consumption of organotin-contaminated meat and fish products. The butyltin and phenyltin compounds accumulate within the marine food chain, eventually accumulating in aquatic food products such as fish, oysters, and crab. Chromium (Cr) is extensively used in the chemical industry as a catalyst, pigment, and other applications such as metal plating. As a result, different species of Cr can be released into the environment (soil, surface, and ground waters) and are then available to humans (67).

Cadmium (Cd) is mainly present in foodstuffs as inorganic Cd salts. Because organic Cd compounds are unstable, Cd can be found in all types of food, and particularly high amounts occur in organs of cattle, seafood, and some mushroom species. This metal is found in all parts of food plants, but in animals and humans it is found in liver, kidney, and milk.

Food is the primary source of essential elements for humans. To exert an effect, essential elements must be bioavailable from food, i.e., available both for absorption and for subsequent utilization by the body. On the other hand, essential elements can also be toxic if taken in excess. The margin between deficiency and toxicity can be narrower for some elements (iron and selenium) than for others (cobalt or zinc).

Selenium (Se) is an essential trace element for man and animals. It is an integral part of the antioxidant enzymes (gluthatione peroxidase and iodothyronine deiodinase) which protect cells against the effects of free radicals formed during normal oxygen metabolism.

Iron is the most abundant transition metal in the human body (4–5 g in a human adult of 70 kg weight) and its deficiency is the most frequent nutritional problem in the world. It is an essential element required for growth and survival because it is involved in a broad spectrum of essential biological functions such as oxygen transport, electron transfer and DNA synthesis.

1.8 Bio-nanocomposites for Natural Food Packaging

Bio-nanocomposites are groups of polysaccharides (e.g., starch, cellulose), proteins (e.g., soy protein isolates, gelatin), and polyesters (e.g., polyhydroxyalkanoates, PHAs), among others. Materials obtained only with the raw material properties are unsatisfactory. To this end, some additives are needed for the polymer matrix to improve its mechanical properties (tensile strength, elongation and modulus), water absorption (solubility, vapor barriers, swelling), and morphology (homogeneity, porosity). Further study opens the possibility to add package active agents with antibacterial, antiviral, antioxidants, among others, called active packaging.

Nanomaterials used in the cultivation, preparation, storage and packaging of food and drink has enabled the obtainment of products with better characteristics such as materials for the controlled release of medicines and agrochemicals, containers with higher mechanical strength and antimicrobial properties, smart packaging capable of preserving food for longer periods of time, among others [68]. Nanotechnology is increasingly being used in agriculture, food processing, and food packaging. Nanomaterials as nanoparticles, nano-emulsions and nano-capsules are found in agricultural chemicals, processed foods, food packaging and food contact materials, including food storage containers, cutlery and chopping boards. Despite rapid developments in food nanotechnology, little is known about the occurrence, fate, and toxicity of NPs [69]. Nanotechnology for food packing is based on organic and inorganic nanomaterials added into a polymer matrix. Nanoparticles such as metals and metal oxides, cellulose nanofibers, chitin and chitosan, and exfoliated clay are used as mechanical reinforcing, barriers to gas diffusion, and antimicrobial additives [70].

Nanoparticles of Ag, ZnO, TiO2 and SiO2 are commonly used in food plastic wrapping in a polymer-based nanocomposite. These NPs present excellent UV blocking and gas diffusion barrier, but the main characteristic of their use is antimicrobial action. Food packaging materials are an express source of pollution due to the high amount disposed of in the world environment. The problem is aggravated since these materials are usually made from non-biodegradable and non-renewable sources, such as petroleum-based polymers.

Biocomposite materials based in starch, cellulose and chitin/chitosan are biodegradable, and are a suitable alternative to the petroleum-based polymer materials for food packaging [71]. However, these materials are more sensitive to physico-chemical degradation and are suitable to be attacked by microorganisms. Thus, additives are incorporated in these materials to increase the mechanical, chemical and biological resistance.

Nanoparticles are increasingly used as additives in food packaging and food contact materials due to their antimicrobial property. After use, these materials need to be discarded into the environment. The effect on the biodegradability and compostability is related to the microbial toxicity of NPs. The biodegradation process occurs through microorganisms. The use of antimicrobial additives (e.g., Ag, TiO2, ZnO, and SiO2) on a large scale may be hazardous to the microbes in the environment [72, 73]. Thus, the biodegradation process will be severely compromised, and it may be completely inhibited, affecting the decomposition of these materials in landfills and composting units.

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