Advances in Water Desalination E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Advances in Water Desalination
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1098

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

Desalination is a dynamically growing field with more research, more engineering, more applications, more countries, more people, and with more training programs. This book provides high quality invited reviews on progress in various aspects of the desalination field. It features comprehensive coverage of desalination science, technology, economics, markets, energy considerations, environmental impact, and more. It is a key guide for professionals and researchers in water desalination and related areas including chemical, mechanical, and civil engineers, chemists, materials scientists, manufacturers of desalination membranes, water reuse engineers, and water authorities, as well as students in these fields.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

bseries

Title Page

Copyright

Preface

Introduction to the Book Series Advances in Water Desalination

About the Authors

Chapter 1: Water Desalination Revisited in Changing Physical and Economic Environments

1.1 Introduction

1.2 The Methodology Used in this Study

1.3 The Scope of Analysis

1.4 The Analyzed Systems in Detail

1.5 Recommended Research Directions

1.6 Conclusions

1.7 The Software Programs Developed by the Author for System Analysis

Appendix

Chapter 2: Environmental and Performance Aspects of Pretreatment and Desalination Technologies

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Global Desalination Capacity

2.3 State of the Art of the Technology

2.4 Potential Environmental Impacts

2.5 Seawater Desalination as a Green Technology

2.6 Multicriteria Analysis (MCA) of Intake and Pretreatment Alternatives for SWRO

Chapter 3: Economic Aspects of Water Desalination

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Economic Criteria

3.3 Basic Evaluation of Desalted Water Cost

3.4 Cost Evaluation of Complex Desalination Systems

3.5 Reliability of Cost Estimates

3.6 Design and Optimization of Plant and Process Parameters

3.7 Procedures and Programs

3.8 Domestic Versus Foreign Currencies

3.9 Value of desalted water

3.10 Prices of water and power

3.11 Cashflow, payback period, and rate of return

3.12 Financing

3.13 Bids and Ownership

3.14 Contractual Pricing Due to Changes and Deviations from the Original Plan

3.15 National Desalination Programs

3.16 Desalination and Hydrology

3.17 Economics of Desalination Research and Development (Desalination R&D)

3.18 World Market and Future Prospects for Desalination

Appendix

Cost of Desalted Water

Cost of Desalted Water

Nomenclature

Chapter 4: Advances in Hollow-Fiber Reverse-Osmosis Membrane Modules in Seawater Desalination

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Background

4.3 Separation Membranes and Production Methods

4.4 Reverse-Osmosis Desalination Process

4.5 Development of Hollow-Fiber RO Membrane Module for Seawater Desalination

4.6 Actual Performance of Hollow-Fiber RO Membrane Module for Seawater Desalination

4.7 Economics of Seawater Desalination with RO Membrane Modules

4.8 Conclusions

Nomenclature

Chapter 5: Adsorption–Desalination Cycle

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Adsorption and Desorption Phenomena

5.3 Adsorbents Suitable for Adsorption–Desalination

5.4 Fundamental Study of Adsorption–Desalination

5.5 Adsorption–Desalination System Modeling

5.6 Experimental Investigation of Adsorption–Desalination Plant

5.7 Advanced Adsorption–Desalination Cycle

5.8 Lifecycle Analysis of AD System

5.9 CO2 Emission Savings

5.10 Overall Conclusions

5.11 Appendix

Nomenclature

Chapter 6: Advanced Instrumentation, Measurement, Control, and Automation (IMCA) in Multistage Flash (MSF) and Reverse-Osmosis (RO) Water Desalination

6.1 Introduction and Chapter Objectives

6.2 A Review of The Current Status of IMCA in MSF and RO Water Desalination

6.3 Desalination Processes Automation and Operation Optimization

List of Abbreivation in Table 6.3

6.4 Current and Potentially Future Process Automation Methods for RO and MSF Desalination Processes

6.6 Calculation of Impact of Automation on Product Water Cost

6.6 IMCA Systems Recommended for RO and MSF Desalination Plants

6.7 Modeling and Analysis Recommendations for MSF and RO Plants

6.9 Conclusions and Recommendations

6.10 Acknowledgment

Nomenclature

Index

Wiley Series On Advances In Water Desalination

NOAM LIOR, Series Editor

Editorial Board

Miriam Balaban

Editor in Chief of Desalination and Water Treatment;

Secretary General of the European Desalination Society

University Campus Bio-Medico of Rome, Faculty of Engineering; Italy

Center for Clean Water and Energy, Department of Mechanical Engineering, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA

Mohammad A. Darwish

Professor Emeritus, Kuwait University, Kuwait

Consultant, Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute, Doha, Qatar

Osamu Miyatake

Professor Emeritus of Kyushu University, Japan

Special Advisor of JDA (Japan Desalination Association)

Fukuoka, Japan

Shichang Wang

Professor, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China

Mark Wilf

Membrane Technology Consultant, San Diego, CA, USA

Cover Images: (large photo) © Airyelf/iStockphoto; (circle 1) © Blanka Boskov/iStockphooto; (circle 2) Photograph shows the 127 million m3/year RO desalination plant in Hadera, Israel. Courtesy of IDE Technologies, the builder and operator of the plant; (circle 3) Photograph shows the 23,500 m3/day per unit MSF desalination plant in Al-Jobail, Saudi Arabia. Courtesy of Sasakura Engineering Ltd., the builder of the plant; (circle 4) Line art depicting filtration.

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Published simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Advances in water desalination / edited by Noam Lior.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-470-05459-8 (hardback)

1. Saline water conversion. I. Lior, Noam.

TD479.A36 2012

628.1′67-dc23

2012006128

Preface

This volume contains a wide spectrum of principal and timely information about (1) advances in fundamentals of desalination analysis and design when taking into consideration the increasing concerns about environmental and fuel cost effects on the processes, (2) an evaluation of the state of the art of pretreatment and desalination technologies considering environmental and performance aspects, (3) a critical comprehensive survey of the economic aspects of water desalination, (4) a review of advances in hollow-fiber reverse-osmosis membrane modules, (5) an introduction and review of the emerging adsorption desalination process, and (6) a comprehensive review of advanced instrumentation, measurements, control, and automation in the MSF (Multi-Stage Flash) and RO (Reverse Osmosis) desalination processes.

Perhaps the current main leading challenge in water desalination is its sustainability. The first three chapters in the book address two of the three sustainability pillars: environmental impact and economics. Economics became a growing concern due to the rapidly increasing and wildly fluctuating prices of energy, which is becoming a more dominant fraction of the produced water cost.

I note with great sorrow that the author of Chapter 1, Dr. Professor Yehya El-Sayed, has passed away before the printing of this book. As one of the world's leading and well-acknowledged thermodynamicists, he brought the science to engineering practice in general and to water desalination in particular, especially in his seminal work on applications of exergy and exergo-economic analysis to this field. His life-work and this chapter demonstrates his foresight in dealing scientifically with water desalination sustainability, and will remain a permanent tribute to his memory.

I would like to acknowledge the essential contributions of the chapter authors who shared with us their precious knowledge and experience, of the book series Editorial Board members who are international leading desalination experts, Ms. Miriam Balaban, Dr. Professor Mohamed Ali Darwish, Dr. Professor Osamu Miyatake, Dr. Professor Shichang Wang and Dr. Mark Wilf who provided valuable guidance and review, and of Dr. Arza Seidel of John Wiley & Sons who has patiently and professionally overseen the creation of this book series and volume.

Some material for Chapter 2 is not included in the book (in its various formats) and may be downloaded at http://booksupport.wiley.com. For more information about Wiley products, including a variety of print and electronic formats, visit www.wiley.com.

Professor Noam Lior

University of Pennsylvania

Philadelphia, PA 19104-6315, USA

[email protected]

Editor-in-Chief

Philadelphia, 17 March 2012

Introduction to the Book Series Advances in Water Desalination

Rapidly increasing scarcity of water usable for drinking, irrigation, industry, and general sanitation, caused by rising use and pollution of existing fresh water sources, has created an enormous rise (lately of around 12%/year) in water desalination. Water desalination consists of separation processes that produce new fresh water from seawater and other water sources which are too saline for use. Large commercial scale desalination began in 1965 and had a worldwide capacity of only about 8000 m3/day in 1970. It now produces about 72 million m3/day of desalted water by about 16,000 facilities worldwide. Within 10 years, production is forecasted to triple with an expected investment of around $60 billion.

Water desalination is accomplished by a variety of different technologies, which are gradually changing to reduce capital costs, energy consumption and environmental impacts. It consumes large amounts of energy and materials, and has an associated important and increasingly recognized impact on the environment. Research and development, improved construction, operation, cost allocation in multi–purpose plants, and financing methods, and education and information exchange must continue to be advanced to reduce the cost of the water produced and improve process sustainability.

Advances in Water Desalination is designed to meet the knowledge needs in this rapidly advancing field. One book volume is published per year, and contains 5–7 invited, high quality timely reviews, each treating in depth a specific aspect of the desalination and related water treatment field and the chapters are written and reviewed by top experts in the field. All aspects are addressed and include science, technology, economics, commercialization, environmental and social impacts, and sustainability.

The series will be useful for desalination practitioners in industry and business, scientists and researchers, and students.

The series is advised and directed by an international Editorial Board of desalination and water experts from academia and industry.

I am grateful to Dr. Arza Seidel of John Wiley & Sons who has patiently and professionally overseen the creation of this book series.

Professor Noam Lior

University of Pennsylvania

Philadelphia, PA 19104-6315, USA

liorseas.upenn.edu

Editor-in-Chief

Philadelphia, 17 March 2012

About the Authors

Prof. Gary Amy is Director of the Water Desalination and Reuse Research Center and Named Professor of Environmental Science and Engineering at the King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Prof. Amy's research focuses on membrane technology, innovative adsorbents, ozone/advanced oxidation, river bank filtration and soil aquifer treatment, natural organic matter and disinfection by-products, and organic and inorganic micropollutants.

Dr. Amitzur Ze'ev Barak born 1938 in Israel, got both his B.Sc. in Mechanical & Energy Engineering/Nuclear Engineering [1960] and his Doctor of Sciences-in-Technology, Civil Engineering/Hydro-Sciences [1974] at the Technion, the Israel Institute of Technology. Joined the desalination community [1962] as the Research Desalination Engineer at the IDE-Israel Desalination Engineering Ltd. Coinventor and development-manager of two low-temperature evaporative desalination processes—LTMVC [mechanical vapor compression, 1964] and LTMED [multieffect-distillation, 1969]. For these activities, he received the Israeli “Prime-Minister Award for Applied Research” [1976].

Manager of the Thermal Desalination R&D Department at IDE Ltd [1968–1974].

Manager of the “Joint US-Israel Desalination Program,” and director of all the Israeli governmental R&D activities on desalination [1976–1981].

Senior staff engineer for planning at the Israeli Atomic Energy Commission [1982–2003]. Since 2003, Professor of Chemical Engineering, Civil Engineering, and Mechanical Engineering at the Ariel University Center of Samaria, Israel. Consultant to the IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency), the CERN, and dozen other entities on energy and desalination. Published over 60 papers and has six patents on desalination and solar energy.

Anutosh Chakraborty received his B.Sc. Eng. from BUET, Bangladesh, in 1997. He obtained his M. Engg. and Ph.D. degrees from the National University of Singapore (NUS) in 2001 and 2005, respectively. He worked as a JSPS Fellow at the interdisciplinary Graduate School of Engineering Sciences of Kyushu University, Japan. At present, he is working at the School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore, as an Assistant Professor. His research interests focus on micro/nanoscale transport phenomena, thin-film thermoelectric device; adsorption thermodynamics, adsorption cooling, gas storage, and desalination; and CO2-based cooling system. At present, Dr. Chakraborty has published about 100 articles in peer-reviewed journals and international conference proceedings and holds six patents.

Dr. Ali El Nashar is a mechanical engineer with specialization in the fields of energy and desalination and with a special interest in solar desalination and power generation. He received his Ph.D. degree in nuclear engineering from the Queen Mary College, University of London, UK, in 1968. His work experience covers applied research and development work at both academic and industrial institutions. He has been involved in teaching and research at several academic institutions in Egypt, UK, and USA, among them are the University of Alexandria and University of Mansoura in Egypt; the Queen Mary College, London University and Lanchester Polytechnic in the United Kingdom; and the Clemson University and Florida Institute of Technology in the United States. He has worked as the manager of cogeneration and desalination department at the Abu Dhabi Water & Electricity Authority (ADWEA) from 1982 to 2002, where his department participated in the commissioning of new desalination and power plants as well as monitoring the performance of existing plants operated by the ADWEA. He was also in charge of the solar desalination research program in the ADWEA during this period, where he supervised the installation, commissioning, and testing of the solar desalination demonstration plant in Umm Al Nar, which was designed and operated as a part of a joint research program with Japan's New Energy Development Organization (NEDO). He has been a member of several professional organizations, including the ASME, IDA, and ISE, and the editor of the IDA, Energy, and ISE. He has consulted for a number of international organizations, including the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP); Arab Agency for Industrial Development (AAID); Technology International, Inc. (USA); CH2M-Hill, Inc. (USA); Science Applications, Inc. (USA); Dow Chemical Europe (Switzerland); and Industrial Center for Water & Energy Systems (ICWES), Abu Dhabi. Dr. El-Nashar has more than 50 published papers, reports, and book chapters in his field of interest.

Dr. Yehia El-Sayed 1928–2010. Yehia El-Sayed was born in Alexandria, Egypt, on September 13, 1928. He received his bachelor's degree from Alexandria University and his doctorate in Mechanical Engineering from Manchester University in England. He taught and conducted research at Assiut University (Egypt), Kansas State University, Dartmouth College, Glasgow University (Scotland), Tripoli University (Libya), and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. His legacy persists in the thousands of students and colleagues whose careers and intellectual development he has influenced. He was a recognized international authority in desalination, thermodynamics, and thermoeconomics. He authored two books and numerous scientific papers. A Life Fellow of the American Society of Mechanical Engineering, he was a two-time recipient of ASME's prestigious Edward F. Obert Award, in addition to a Best Paper Award from the International Desalination Association. Dr. El-Sayed's contributions brought the fundamentals of science to usefulness in engineering practice across the spectrum of energy conversions systems, providing principles for optimizing their technical and economic efficiency.

Editor-in-Chief's note: Yehia El-Sayed submitted his chapter but regrettably passed away before the publication of this book. His wisdom, kindness, and friendship will be missed by the desalination and thermodynamics scientific communities, including me.

Prof. Maria D Kennedy Ph.D., is the Professor of Water Treatment Technologies at UNESCO-IHE. She is a board member of the European Desalination Society. She has 18 years of research experience and currently specializes in research and development in the field of membrane technology. Her research areas of interest include membrane fouling (indices), scaling and cleaning, and modeling of membrane systems. She has been involved in international training projects in Israel (West Bank), Jordan, Oman, St. Maarten, and Yemen in the field of desalination and water reuse.

Dr. Atsuo Kumano is a professional engineer Japan, and in charge of technical matters in the Desalination Membrane Department in Toyobo Co., Ltd. Dr. Kumano's research and development focus on membrane technology and its engineering, for water treatment membranes such as reverse osmosis membrane for seawater desalination, and wastewater treatment including hollow fibre configuration module analysis.

Dr. Kumano holds a Ph.D. in Chemical Science and Engineering from Kobe University, Japan, 2011; an M.S. in Environmental Engineering from Osaka University, Japan, 1983; and a B.S. in Environmental Engineering from Osaka University, Japan, 1981.

Dr. Sabine Lattemann is a part-time Research Scientist at the Water Desalination and Reuse Center (WDRC) of the King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Sabine has over 10 years of experience in environmental impact assessment (EIA) studies. Her main areas of interest include the desalination of seawater, offshore wind energy development projects, and maritime shipping impacts. From 2007 to 2010, Sabine worked on the topic of environmental impacts and life cycle assessment of seawater desalination plants within the European research project “MEDINA.” From 2004 to 2007, she chaired the environmental working group of the World Health Organization Project “Desalination for safe water supply.”

Sabine holds a Postgraduate Diploma in Marine Science from Otago University (New Zealand), an M.Sc. in Marine Environmental Science from the University of Oldenburg (Germany), and a doctorate degree from the UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education and Delft University of Technology (The Netherlands).

Dr. Noam Lior is a Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Mechanics at the University of Pennsylvania, where he is also a member of the Graduate Group of International Studies, Lauder Institute of Management and International Studies (MA/MBA program); of the Institute for Environmental Science; and of the Initiative for Global Environmental Leadership (IGEL) at the Wharton Business School. He did his Ph.D. work on water desalination at the Seawater Conversion Laboratory of the University of California, Berkeley, and thus started active research, teaching, and consulting in this field in 1966. His editorships include the following.

Editor-in-Chief:

Advances in Water Desalination book series, John Wiley, since 2006.

Energy, The International Journal, 1998–2009.

Board of Editors Member:

Desalination, The International Journal of Desalting and Water Purification, since 1988;

Energy Conversion and Management Journal, since 1994;

Desalination and Water Treatment—Science and Engineering, journal, Desalination Publications–International Science Services, since 2008;

Frontiers of Energy and Power Engineering, Springer, since 2008;

The Energy Bulletin, an international quarterly published by the International Sustainable Energy Development Center (ISEDC, under UNESCO auspices), Moscow, Russian Federation, since 2011;

Thermal Science and Engineering Journal (Japan), 1999–2008;

The ASME Journal of Solar Energy Engineering, 1983–1989;

The International Desalination & Water Reuse Quarterly, 1997–2003.

He has more than 350 technical publications, many of which are in the energy and desalination fields, and is the editor of the book Measurements and Control in Water Desalination (Elsevier, 1986).

Kim Choon Ng is working as a Professor at the Mechanical Engineering Department of the National University of Singapore. Professor Kim Choon specializes in the design of thermally driven adsorption cycles for desalination and cooling, with the objective of achieving a specific energy consumption of less than 1.5 kWh per cubic meter. The newly patented cycle of AD + MED desalination plant has the highest water production rates to date, producing potable water from either seawater or brackish-water using only low temperature waste heat. The novelties of the AD + MED cycle are that (i) it can operate with MED stages at temperatures below the ambient conditions with seven to nine stages, (ii) it has almost no major moving parts, (iii) it has minimal fouling because the temperature of heat source is from 50 to 80°C, and (iv) it is environmental friendly. In addition, he employs the highly efficient ozone microbubble systems for the pretreatment of the feed water. His main research interests are adsorption thermodynamics, adsorption desalination and cooling, and microbubble treatment of wastewater with ozone. He has published more than 250 articles in peer-reviewed journals and international conference proceedings. He has edited three books and holds 10 patents.

Bidyut Baran Saha obtained his B.Sc. (Hons.) and M.Sc. degrees from Dhaka University of Bangladesh in 1987 and 1990, respectively. He received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Japan. He worked as an Associate Professor at the interdisciplinary Graduate School of Engineering Sciences of Kyushu University until 2008. He worked as a Senior Research Fellow at the Mechanical Engineering Department of the National University of Singapore before joining the Mechanical Engineering Department of Kyushu University in 2010 as a Professor. He also holds a Professor position at the Thermophysical Properties Division of the International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (WPI-I2CNER), Kyushu University. His main research interests are thermally powered sorption systems, adsorption desalination, heat transfer enhancement, and energy efficiency assessment. He has published more than 200 articles in peer-reviewed journals and international conference proceedings. He has edited three books and holds seven patents. Recently, he served as the Guest Editor for the Heat Transfer Engineering journal for a special issue on the Recent Developments of Adsorption Technologies for Energy Efficiency and Environmental Sustainability. He is also serving as the Managing Guest Editor of Applied Thermal Engineering. He worked as the General Chairman for the Innovative Materials for the Processes in Energy Systems (IMRES) for Fuel Cells, Heat Pumps and Sorption Systems, 2010 Singapore, and will organize IMPRES2013 at Fukuoka, Japan.

Sergio G Salinas Rodriguez Ph.D., M.Sc, is a Lecturer in Water Treatment Technology at UNESCO-IHE. He has six years of experience in research and in integrated membrane systems. He has performed research in the fields of fouling indices and organic matter characterization for seawater reverse osmosis systems.

Prof. Jan C Schippers Ph.D., M.Sc, is a member of the Water Supply Group at UNESCO-IHE and a professor at the Wageningen University. He has extensive professional experience in drinking and industrial water supply projects in Morocco, Qatar, Libya, Gabon, Cape Verde, Namibia, Uzbekistan, Chile, France, and many other countries. Prof. Schippers is the past president of the European Desalination Society and the chairman of scientific and program committees of numerous international conferences and workshops of the IWA and EDS.

Dr. Corrado Sommariva is a consultant of international reputation. He is presently the Managing Director of the ILF Consulting Engineers, Middle East, and the head of the worldwide desalination activities of the ILF. Dr. Sommariva has experience in both thermal, reverse osmosis and wastewater system and has served in all the major desalination developments in the Middle East in various roles. Dr. Sommariva has a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from Genoa University and a diploma in Management from Leicester University.

Dr. Sommariva has served in the IDA board in the past 12 years. He has served as the first VP in 2003–2004. Furthermore, Dr. Sommariva served in the European Desalination Society (EDS) board for the past 14 years and has served as the president in the year 2004–2005.

Within his main activities in IDA, Dr. Sommariva served as chairman of the affiliate committee and started the humanitarian outreach initiative that has culminated with the establishment of the humanitarian committee in the IDA.

Dr. Sommariva has been the Chairman of the WHO committee for the establishment of safe drinking water from desalination and the Technical Co-Chair of the IDA World Congress in Dubai. He is an honorary Professor at the Genoa and L'Aquila Universities, where he holds regular courses on desalination and water-reuse-related matters. Dr. Sommariva also holds regular courses with the IDA and the Bushnaq academy.

Dr. Sommariva has published over 50 papers on desalination covering leading edge research and economics and two books on desalination management and economics and project financing.

Starting from a very technical background, he has worked for the past 20 years on desalination in various roles. He joined the ILF in 2009 after working nine years with Mott MacDonald, where he has been leading the desalination and water treatment group as the Managing Director of Generation, Middle East.

Kyaw Thu received his Ph.D. from the National University of Singapore (NUS), Singapore, in 2010 and B.E. (Mechanical Engineering) from the Yangon Technological University (Y.T.U.), Myanmar, in 2004. At present, he is working as a Research Scientist at the Water Desalination and Reuse Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST). His research areas include adsorption science, theoretical and experimental analysis of thermally activated adsorption and absorption cycles for cooling and desalination, heat and mass transfer and energy efficiency of HVAC systems, Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Cycles, and solar thermal engineering.

Chapter 1: Water Desalination Revisited in Changing Physical and Economic Environments

Yehia M. El-Sayed*

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 Past and Present Desalination

1.1.2 The Emerged Concern

1.1.3 The Emerged Energy Analysis Methodologies

1.2 The Methodology Used in this Study

1.2.1 Improved Thermodynamic Analysis

1.2.1.1 The Exergy Function

1.2.2 Improved Costing Analysis

1.2.2.1 The Quantification of the Manufacturing and Operation Resources for a Device

1.2.2.2 Correlating the Manufacturing Resources of a Device in Terms of Thermodynamic Variables

1.2.3 Enhanced Optimization

1.2.3.1 Two Simplifying Assumptions

1.2.3.2 The Conditions of Device-by-Device Optimization

1.2.3.3 The Form of Aimin and Di of a Device

1.2.3.4 Convergence to System Optimum

1.2.3.5 Optimization of System Devices by One Average Exergy Destruction Price

1.2.3.6 Global Decision Variables

1.3 The Scope of Analysis

1.3.1 Desalination Related to Physical and Economic Environments

1.3.2 The Systems Considered

1.4 The Analyzed Systems in Detail

1.4.1 Gas Turbine/Multistage Flash Distillation Cogeneration Systems

1.4.1.1 Flow Diagram

1.4.1.2 Major Features of the Results

1.4.2 The Simple Combined Cycle Systems

1.4.2.1 Flow Diagram

1.4.2.2 Major Features of the Results

1.4.3 Vapor Compression Systems Driven by the Figure 1.2 Simple Combined Cycle

1.4.3.1 Flow Diagrams

1.4.3.2 Major Features of the Results

1.4.4 Reverse Osmosis Desalination Systems Driven by the Figure 1.2 Simple Combined Cycle

1.4.4.1 Flow Diagrams

1.4.4.2 Major Features of the Results

1.4.5 Photovoltaic/Reverse-Osmosis (PV/RO) Solar Systems

1.4.5.1 Flow Diagram

1.4.5.2 Major Features of Results

1.4.6 Photovoltaic/Electrodialysis Solar System

1.4.6.1 Major Features of the Results

1.4.7 Osmosis Power Systems

1.4.7.1 Flow Diagram

1.4.7.2 Major Features of the Results

1.4.8 Future Competitiveness of Combined Desalination Systems

1.4.8.1 Prediction Criteria

1.4.8.2 Predicted Competitiveness

1.5 Recommended Research Directions

1.5.1 Avoiding CO2 Emissions

1.5.2 Reducing CO2 Emissions

1.5.3 Desalination of Zero Liquid Discharge

1.6 Conclusions

1.7 The Software Programs Developed by the Author for System Analysis

1.7.1 Four Programs Developed and Their Entries

1.7.2 Major Ingredients of Each Program

1.7.3 The Software

Appendix

1.A.1 Brief Description of the Thermodynamic Model of a System and the Design Models of Its Main Components

1.A.2 The Capital and Fuel Costing Equations of some common Devices (Tables Table 1.A.1 and Table 1.A.2)

1.A.1.1 Thermodynamic Model

1.A.1.2 Sample Design Models

1.A.3 Some Useful Forms of Flow Exergy Expressions

1.A.3.1 Equations

1.A.3.2 Balances

1.A.4 Theoretical Separation Work Extended to Zero Liquid Discharge

1.1 Introduction

The topic of water desalination is revisited because of the negative impact of the rising oil price index on the economic environment and the adverse effects of the increasing carbon footprint on the physical environment. In this introductory chapter, these negative factors are discussed with respect to their impact on past and present desalination methods. The impact of these factors on the design and operation practices of desalination and energy-intensive systems in general is highlighted. The energy analysis methodologies developed during the last two decades, including the methodology discussed in the present study, are summarized. General references on the subject matter are listed in the Further Reading section at the end of this chapter.

The software mentioned in this chapter may be downloaded at http://booksupport.wiley.com.

1.1.1 Past and Present Desalination

Interest in water desalination began in the late 1950s and early 1960s when the price of oil was only $3 per barrel (bl). A number of desalting processes and systems were considered that sought to minimize the cost of water production. For seawater, the leading methods were multistage flash distillation, vapor compression and freezing. Other processes, such as electrodialysis and reverse osmosis, lagged somewhat behind. Balancing the cost of the resources utilized in fueling a system and the resources utilized in making its devices favored moderate efficiency devices. For example, multistage flash distillation (MSF) in a cogeneration system used a maximum temperature of around 190°F (∼80°C) in 8–12 stages. Cost allocated to water was as low as $0.3/m. Environmental constraints were virtually absent.