Aerial Photography and Image Interpretation E-Book

David P. Paine

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 832

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

The new, completely updated edition of the aerial photography classic Extensively revised to address today's technological advances, Aerial Photography and Image Interpretation, Third Edition offers a thorough survey of the technology, techniques, processes, and methods used to create and interpret aerial photographs. The new edition also covers other forms of remote sensing with topics that include the most current information on orthophotography (including digital), soft copy photogrammetry, digital image capture and interpretation, GPS, GIS, small format aerial photography, statistical analysis and thematic mapping errors, and more. A basic introduction is also given to nonphotographic and space-based imaging platforms and sensors, including Landsat, lidar, thermal, and multispectral. This new Third Edition features: * Additional coverage of the specialized camera equipment used in aerial photography * A strong focus on aerial photography and image interpretation, allowing for a much more thorough presentation of the techniques, processes, and methods than is possible in the broader remote sensing texts currently available * Straightforward, user-friendly writing style * Expanded coverage of digital photography * Test questions and summaries for quick review at the end of each chapter Written in a straightforward style supplemented with hundreds of photographs and illustrations, Aerial Photography and Image Interpretation, Third Edition is the most in-depth resource for undergraduate students and professionals in such fields as forestry, geography, environmental science, archaeology, resource management, surveying, civil and environmental engineering, natural resources, and agriculture.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum and Energy Flow

1.2 The Imaging Process

1.3 Types of Cameras

1.4 Comparison of Film and Digital Cameras

1.5 Printed Information on Large-Format Aerial Photography (LFAP)

1.6 Units of Measure

Questions and Problems

References

Part One: Geometry and Photo Measurements

Chapter Two: Geometry of a Vertical Aerial Photograph

2.1 Classification of Photographs

2.2 Focal Length and Angle of Coverage

2.3 The Coordinate Axes

2.4 The Three Photo Centers

2.5 Distortion and Displacement

2.6 Numerical Examples

2.7 Inferences Based on the Relief Displacement Equation

2.8 Combined Effects of Tilt and Topographic Displacements

Questions and Problems

Chapter Three: Principles of Stereoscopic Vision

3.1 Definitions

3.2 Geometry of Stereoscopy

3.3 Theory of Stereoscopy

3.4 Proper Orientation of a Stereo Model

3.5 Stereoscopic Viewing without a Stereoscope

3.6 A Test for Stereoscopic Perception

Questions and Problems

References

Chapter Four: Scale of a Vertical Aerial Photograph

4.1 Scale Classification

4.2 The Theory of Scale

4.3 Types of Scale

4.4 Variation in Scale

4.5 Basic Scale Equations

4.6 Photo Scale Determination

Questions and Problems

Chapter Five: Horizontal Measurements—Distance, Bearings, and Areas

5.1 Ground Distance

5.2 Horizontal Angles

5.3 Area Measurements

Questions and Problems

Chapter Six: Vertical Measurements

6.1 Measuring Heights on Single Aerial Photos

6.2 Measuring Heights by Parallax Differences

Questions and Problems

Chapter Seven: Acquisition of Aerial Photography

7.1 Acquisition of Existing Photography

7.2 Planning the Photo Mission for New Photography

7.3 Mosaics

7.4 Contracts for New Aerial Photography

7.5 Photo Mission Planning—An Example

Questions and Problems

Reference

Part Two: Mapping from Vertical Aerial Photographs

Chapter Eight: Orthophotography

8.1 Orthophotography—What is It?

8.2 How Orthophotos are Made

8.3 Annotation

8.4 Image Quality

8.5 Classification of Instruments

8.6 Stereoscopic Orthophotography

8.7 Applications in Natural Resources Management

8.8 Digital Orthophotos

8.9 Advantages of Digital Orthophotography

Questions and Problems

References

Chapter Nine: Map Projections, Grid Networks, and Control

9.1 Geometry of the Earth

9.2 Map Projections

9.3 The Public Land Survey System

9.4 Ground Control

9.5 Steps in Making Maps from Aerial Photographs

Questions and Problems

References

Chapter Ten: The Global Positioning System

10.1 The Global Positioning System

10.2 The Conceptual GPS Model

10.3 Obtaining Precise Positioning

10.4 The GPS Signal

10.5 Factors that Affect GPS Accuracy

10.6 Signal Error Solution: Differential GPS

10.7 Applications of GPS for Natural Resources

Questions and Problems

References

Chapter Eleven: The Transfer of Detail

11.1 Effective Areas

11.2 Classification of Photo-Mapping Instruments

11.3 Accuracy of Stereoscopic Plotters

11.4 Soft Copy Stereo Imaging Systems

11.5 Mono Imaging Systems

Questions and Problems

References

Chapter Twelve: Geographic Information Systems

12.1 Geographic Information Systems

12.2 GIS Structure

12.3 Data Types

12.4 Vector and Raster Data Types

12.5 Topology

12.6 Aerial Photography Input to a GIS

Questions and Problems

References

Part Three: Photo Interpretation

Chapter Thirteen: Small Format Aerial Imagery

13.1 Early Development

13.2 Advantages of SFAI

13.3 Disadvantages of SFAI

13.4 Stereoscopic Viewing of Film SFAI

13.5 Fixed Air-Base Aerial Imagery

13.6 Using A Radar Altimeter and A TIP-TILT Indicator with SFAI

Questions and Problems

References

Chapter Fourteen: Films, Filters, and The Photographic Process

14.1 The Theory of Color

14.2 Filters for Aerial Photography

14.3 Photographic Film Types

Questions and Problems

References

Chapter Fifteen: Principles and Techniques of Aerial Image Interpretation

15.1 Basic Principles of Photo Interpretation

15.2 Additional Hints for Photo Interpretation of Panchromatic Film

15.3 Techniques and Aids for Photo Interpretation

15.4 Shadowless Photography

Questions and Problems

References

Chapter Sixteen: Landforms and Drainage Patterns

16.1 Landform

16.2 Recognition of Landform

Questions and Problems

References

Chapter Seventeen: Geology, Soils, and Engineering Applications

17.1 Sedimentary Landscapes

17.2 Igneous Landscapes

17.3 Metamorphic Landscapes

17.4 Glaciated Landscapes

17.5 Eolian and Fluvial Landscapes

17.6 Mass Wasting

17.7 The Cuesta Landform

17.8 Geologic Erosion

17.9 Surface Erosion

17.10 Soil Mapping on Aerial Photos

17.11 Obtaining Geologic, Hydrologic, and Topographic Maps

17.12 The Land Manager's Responsibility

Questions and Problems

References

Chapter Eighteen: Land-Use Planning

18.1 Land-Use Planning Defined

18.2 Phases of Land-Use Planning

18.3 Map Legend Systems

18.4 Urban–Suburban Land-Use Planning

Questions and Problems

References

Chapter Nineteen: Environmental Monitoring

19.1 Historical Use of Aerial Photography

19.2 Methods for Environmental Monitoring with Aerial Photography

19.3 General Interpretation: The 1996 Oregon Flood

19.4 Photogrammetric Mapping: River Channel Changes

19.5 Spatial Analysis: Earth Movement in a Landslide Analysis

References

Chapter Twenty: Additional Topics in Natural Resources Management

20.1 Outdoor Recreation

20.2 Range Management

20.3 Fish and Wildlife Management

20.4 Agriculture

20.5 Water Pollution Detection

20.6 Archeology

Questions and Problems

References

Chapter Twenty-One: Forestry

21.1 Timber-Type Mapping

21.2 Aerial Photos and Timber Sales

21.3 Forest Fire Protection

21.4 Forest Insect and Disease Detection

Questions and Problems

References

Part Four: Natural Resources Inventory

Chapter Twenty-Two: Elementary Statistics and Sampling Techniques

22.1 Types of Statistics

22.2 Reasons for Sampling

22.3 Definitions of Selected Mathematical Terms

22.4 Definitions of Basic Sampling Terms

22.5 Frequently Used Statistical Symbols

22.6 Frequency Distributions

22.7 Probability

22.8 The Central Limit Theorem

22.9 Degrees of Freedom

22.10 Basic Statistical Calculations

22.11 Elementary Sampling Designs

22.12 Double Sampling With Regression

Questions and Problems

References

Chapter Twenty-Three: Mapping Accuracy Assessment

23.1 The National Map Accuracy Standards

23.2 Ground Truth

23.3 Spatial Accuracy (The Overlay Method)

23.4 Classification Accuracy (The Matrix Method)

23.5 Additional Topics

Questions and Problems

References

Chapter Twenty-Four: Aerial Photo Mensuration

24.1 Direct Measurements

24.2 Indirect Measurements

24.3 Using Aerial Photo Mensurational Tables

24.4 Photo Mensuration Using SFAI and Fixed Airbase Aerial Imagery*

24.5 Photo Mensuration Using SFAI Without FABAI

Questions and Problems

References

Chapter Twenty-Five: An Example Photo Timber Cruise

25.2 Description of Cruise and Cruise Area

25.3 Adjusting the Photo Volumes

25.4 Statistical Analysis

Questions and Problems

References

Part Five: An Introduction to Remote Sensing

Chapter Twenty-Six: Additional Characteristics of Electromagnetic Energy

26.1 Data Acquisition

26.2 Characteristics of Electromagnetic Energy Flow

26.3 Data Interpretation

Questions and Problems

References

Chapter Twenty-Seven: Radar and Lidar—Active Remote Sensors

27.1 Side-Looking Airborne Radar

27.2 Lidar

Questions and Problems

References

Chapter Twenty-Eight: Scanning Remote Sensors

28.1 Thermal Scanners

28.2 Characteristics of Thermal Scanner Images

28.3 Multispectral Scanners

28.4 Landsat

28.5 Landsat Imagery Versus Aerial Photography

Questions and Problems

References

Appendixes

Appendix A: Summary of Photogrammetric Formulas

Scale and Distance

Height and Elevation Difference on Stereoscopic Pairs

Topographic Displacement or Height on Single Photo

Area Measurement

Vertical Exaggeration and Percent Slope

Appendix B: Summary of Statistical Formulas

Standard Deviation, Standard Error, and Sample Size

Double Sampling with Regression and Sample Plot Allocation

Stratified Sampling

Appendix C: Specimen Contract for Aerial Photography

Appendix D: Selected Aerial Photo Volume Tables

Appendix E: Partial Answers to Questions and Problems

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Chapter 8

Chapter 9

Chapter 10

Chapter 12

Chapter 15

Chapter 17

Chapter 19

Chapter 21

Appendix F: Partial Answers to Laboratory Exercises

Chapter 3

Chapter 15

Appendix G: Metric Conversion Charts

Color Plates

Index

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey

Published simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Paine, David P.

Aerial photography and image interpretation / David P. Paine, James D. Kiser.–3rd ed.

p. cm.

Includes index.

ISBN 978-0-470-87938-2 (cloth); ISBN 978-1-118-11099-7 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-11101-7 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-11102-4 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-11262-5 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-11263-2 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-11264-9 (ebk)

1. Aerial photography. 2. Photographic interpretation. 3. Aerial photography in forestry.

I. Kiser, James D. (James Donald) II. Title.

TR810.P25 2012

778.3′5–dc23

2011028235

This book is dedicated to my wife, Janet; daughters, Carolyn and Mary; son-in-law, Theme; and grandsons, Matthew and Andrew.

Dave Paine

In Memoriam

David P. Paine,

I had the privilege of meeting David in 1985 and shortly after becoming his graduate student and subsequently a senior researcher under David's guidance. His combination of humor and utmost respect for everyone made our work together a real and genuine pleasure. After his retirement from academia, he continued to visit and always had an active interest in my work and later in my doctoral program. I am indebted as well to David's wife, Janet, and his daughters Mary and Caroline, who always treated me as one of their own.

His memory will be treasured by generations of foresters now and to come.

Jim Kiser

Oregon State University

Preface

A number of new technologies were developed following the first edition of the textbook in 1981, and these were incorporated in the second edition in 2003. Most of these technologies were developed for use in outer space, but some techniques, such as digital imagery and its transmission through space, global positioning systems (GPS), and lidar, are now used in aircraft sensing systems.

Five new chapters were added in the second edition to cover global positioning systems (GPS), geographic information systems (GIS), small-format aerial imagery (SFAI), environmental monitoring, and mapping accuracy assessment. In addition, information on LIDAR was added to the chapter on active remote sensors.

Like the first and second editions, this book is organized into an introduction and five parts: Part 1—Geometry and Photo Measurements (six chapters), Part 2—Mapping from Vertical Aerial Photographs (five chapters), Part 3—Photo Interpretation (nine chapters, with six chapters devoted to specific disciplines), Part 4—Natural Resources Inventory, using timber cruising as an example (four chapters), and Part 5—An Introduction to Remote Sensing (three chapters).

The beginning student may wonder why we included a chapter on statistics in an aerial photo interpretation textbook. The answer is not obvious at first, but it is essential to the understanding of sampling techniques used for inventorying natural resources. Sampling combined with thematic maps can provide a complete (estimated) inventory of specific natural resources or at least an essential first step in the inventory process.

The only math required for using this text is an elementary knowledge of algebra and geometry. It would be helpful to have completed a beginning course in statistics but that is not necessary because statistics and sampling is thoroughly covered in Chapter 22. In addition, we have kept the use of statistical symbols and subscripts/superscripts to a minimum.

Each chapter begins with a set of objectives and ends with questions and problems based on the objectives. Suggested laboratory exercises are provided for selected chapters. Answers to selected mathematical problems can be found in Appendix E, and a summary of most of the equations used throughout the book can be found in Appendixes A and B. Answers to the laboratory exercises presented in Chapters 3 and 15 are in Appendix F.

This book is designed to be covered in a four- or five-credit course taught over a 10-week term or a three- to four-credit hour course taught over a 13- to 15-week semester. If time or credit hours is limited, selected chapters can be eliminated, depending on the instructor's objectives and the specific disciplines of interest involved.

However, in order to become a competent photo interpreter, the introductory chapter, all of Part 1, Chapters 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 23, and selected chapters, depending on your specific discipline or disciplines of interest, should be thoroughly covered.

If your primary interest is in satellite imaging systems, we recommend Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation by Lillesand and Kiefer, also published by John Wiley & Sons.

We wish to express our sincere appreciation to all those who contributed to this and the previous editions of this book. Specifically, we wish to acknowledge the following individuals who reviewed the entire first edition: Professors Joseph J. Ulliman, University of Idaho; Marshall D. Ashley, University of Maine at Orono; Garland N. Mason, Stephen F. Austin State University; and L. G. Arvanitis, University of Florida. We also appreciate the cursory review by Professor Roger M. Hoffer, Purdue University. Portions of the manuscript were also reviewed by Professor Roger G. Peterson, Bo Shelby, and John “Dick” Dilworth, all at Oregon State University.

Special recognition goes to Dick Dilworth, formerly the Department Head of Forest Management, and Robert B. Pope of the U.S. Forest and Range Experiment Station. These two men, with their knowledge of photo interpretation, were instrumental in the writing of the first edition.

We are grateful for the help of Dr. Charles E. Poulton of NASA-Ames, Moffit Field, California, who helped in the writing of Chapter 18. We also thank Bruce Ludwig, Charlene Crocker, and Jessica Adine (graduate assistants) for verifying the mathematics, and Sue Mason (instructor in journalism) for her very valuable proofreading. In addition, we thank the many individuals, government agencies, instrument manufacturers, and other commercial firms who provided information and illustrations for this and the first edition. In addition, we wish to recognize Gordon Wilkenson, WAC Corp., who provided illustrations for, and reviewed the chapters on, acquisition of photography and films and filters, and to Dr. Michael Lefsky (formerly at Oregon State University and currently at Colorado State University) for his help and expertise on lidar, for his review of the chapter on radar and lidar, and for providing illustrations for Plate VII and the bottom half of Plate VIII.

Jim Kiser

Chapter One

Introduction

As a natural resources manager, would you be interested in using aerial photography to reduce costs by up to 35 percent for the mapping, inventorying, and planning involved in the management of forest and rangelands? This was the cost savings estimated by the staff of the Department of Natural Resources, State of Washington (Edwards 1975).

Because of advanced technology and increased availability, this estimate may be low for all natural resources disciplines, as well as for land-use planning (state, urban, and suburban), national defense, law enforcement, transportation route surveys, hydroelectric dams, transmission lines, flood plain control, and the like. With savings of this magnitude, it becomes increasingly important for all agencies, whether county, state, federal, or private, to make maximum use of aerial photography and related imagery.

The study of aerial photography—whether it be photogrammetry or photo interpretation—is a subset of a much larger discipline called remote sensing. A broad definition of remote sensing would encompass the use of many different kinds of remote sensors for the detection of variations in force distributions (compasses and gravity meters), sound distributions (sonar), microwave distributions (radar), light distributions (film and digital cameras) and lidar (laser light). Our eyes and noses are also considered to be remote sensors. These detectors have one thing in common: They all acquire data without making physical contact with the source. A narrower definition of remote sensing, as used in this book, is the identification and study of objects from a remote distance using reflected or emitted electromagnetic energy over different portions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Photogrammetryis the art or science of obtaining reliable quantitative information (measurements) from aerial photographs (American Society of Photogrammetry 1966). Photo interpretation is the determination of the nature of objects on a photograph and the judgment of their significance. Photo interpretation necessitates an elementary knowledge of photogrammetry. For example, the size of an object is frequently an important consideration in its identification. The end result of photo interpretation is frequently a thematic map, and mapmaking is the primary purpose of photogrammetry. Likewise, photogrammetry involves techniques and knowledge of photo interpretation. For example, the determination of acres of specific vegetation types requires the interpretation of those types. The emphasis of this book is on image interpretation, but it includes enough information on basic photogrammetry to enable one to become a competent photo interpreter. A good interpreter must also have a solid background in his or her area of interest.

Because of the introduction of digital technology into remote sensing, the terminology used throughout this book to distinguish between digital and film-based technology is important. This is because: (1) digital sensors (including cameras) produce images, not photographs; and (2) film sensors produce photographs, but it is also correct to call a photograph an image. Therefore, to clarify our terminology, the following scheme will be used:

Terminology

1.When reference is made to a digital camera, the word digital will always be used.

2.When reference is made to a film camera, film may be used (for emphasis), but in many cases film will not be present.

3.The term photograph will be used only when it is produced by a film camera.

4.The term image will always be used when reference is made to a digital image, but this term may also be used when reference is made to a photograph.

Objectives

After a thorough understanding of this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Write precise definitions to differentiate clearly among the following terms: remote sensing, photogrammetry, and photo interpretation.

2. Fully define the following terms: electromagnetic spectrum, atmospheric window, f-stop, film exposure, depth of field, and fiducial marks.

3. Draw a diagram and write a paragraph to explain fully reflectance, transmittance, absorption, and refraction of light.

4. List the wavelengths (bands) that can be detected by the human eye, film, and terrestrial digital cameras (both visible and photographic infrared bands).