Aerosol Measurement E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 2767

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Aerosol Measurement: Principles, Techniques, and Applications Third Edition is the most detailed treatment available of the latest aerosol measurement methods. Drawing on the know-how of numerous expert contributors; it provides a solid grasp of measurement fundamentals and practices a wide variety of aerosol applications.

This new edition is updated to address new and developing applications of aerosol measurement, including applications in environmental health, atmospheric science, climate change, air pollution, public health, nanotechnology, particle and powder technology, pharmaceutical research and development, clean room technology (integrated circuit manufacture), and nuclear waste management.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Half Title page

Title page

Copyright page

Dedication

Preface

Contributors

Part I: Principles

Chapter 1: Introduction to Aerosol Characterization

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Units and Use of Equations

1.3 Terminology

1.4 Parameters Affecting Aerosol Behavior

1.5 Aerosol Instrumentation Considerations

1.6 References

Selected Journals on Aerosol Science and Applications

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Single Particle Transport

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Continuum Flow Description

2.3 Slip Flow Regime

2.4 Drag Force and Mobility

2.5 Brownian Diffusion

2.6 Particle Migration in External Force Fields

2.7 List of Symbols

2.8 References

Chapter 3: Physical and Chemical Processes in Aerosol Systems

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Condensation

3.3 Nucleation

3.4 Evaporation

3.5 Coagulation

3.6 Reactions

3.7 References

Chapter 4: Size Distribution Characteristics of Aerosols

4.1 Basic Concepts of Particle Size and Size Distributions

4.2 Atmospheric Aerosols

4.3 Indoor Aerosols

4.4 Industrial Aerosols

4.5 Generalized Model of Modes in Particle Size Distributions

4.6 List of Symbols

4.7 References

Chapter 5: An Approach to Performing Aerosol Measurements

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Quality Assurance: Planning a Measurement

5.3 Measurement Accuracy

5.4 Size Range

5.5 Measurement Using Collection and Laboratory Analysis

5.6 Measurements Using Real-Time Instruments

5.7 Aerosol Measurement Errors

5.8 Presentation of Size Distribution Data

5.9 References

Part II: Techniques

Chapter 6: Aerosol Transport in Sampling Lines and Inlets

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Sample Extraction

6.3 Sample Transport

6.4 Other Sampling Issues

6.5 Summary and Conclusions

6.6 List of Symbols

6.7 References

Chapter 7: Sampling and Analysis Using Filters

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Principles of Filter Sampling

7.3 Aerosol Measurement Filters

7.4 Filtration Theory

7.5 Filter Artifacts

7.6 Filter Selection

7.7 List of Symbols

7.8 References

Chapter 8: Sampling and Measurement Using Inertial, Gravitational, Centrifugal, and Thermal Techniques

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Inertial Classifiers

8.3 Settling Devices and Centrifuges

8.4 Thermal Precipitators

8.5 List of Symbols

8.6 References

Chapter 9: Methods for Chemical Analysis of Atmospheric Aerosols

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Scope and Objectives

9.3 Continuous Methods

9.4 Laboratory Methods

9.5 Summary

9.6 List of Symbols and Abbreviations

9.7 References

Chapter 10: Microscopy and Microanalysis of Individual Collected Particles

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Light Microscopy

10.3 Electron Beam Analysis of Particles

10.4 Laser Microprobe Mass Spectrometry

10.5 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry

10.6 Raman Microprobe

10.7 Infrared Microscopy

10.8 Scanning Probe Microscopy

10.9 Facility-Based Instruments and Techniques

10.10 Complementary Capabilities of Microanalytical Instrumentation

10.11 Acknowledgments

10.12 List of Symbols

10.13 References

Chapter 11: Real-Time Particle Analysis by Mass Spectrometry

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Inlet Design

11.3 Particle Sizing

11.4 Particle Vaporization and Ionization

11.5 Mass Analysis

11.6 Spectrum Categorization Methods

11.7 Putting It All Together–Selected Instruments

11.8 List of Symbols

11.9 References

Chapter 12: Semi-Continuous Mass Measurement

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Beta Attenuation Monitor

12.3 Tapered-Element Oscillating Microbalance

12.4 Aerosol Particle Mass Analyzer

12.5 The Quartz Crystal Microbalance

12.6 Dekati Mass Monitor

12.7 Continuous Ambient Air Mass Monitor

12.8 List of Symbols

12.9 References

Chapter 13: Optical Measurement Techniques: Fundamentals and Applications

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Light Scattering and Extinction Theory

13.3 Dynamic Light Scattering

13.4 Experimental Methods for the Laboratory

13.5 Optical Measurement Techniques: Ex Situ Sensing

13.6 Optical Measurement Techniques: In situ Sensing

13.7 Conclusions

13.8 List of Symbols

13.9 References

Chapter 14: Real-Time Techniques for Aerodynamic Size Measurement

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Electric-Single Particle Aerodynamic Relaxation Time Analyzer

14.3 Aerodynamic Particle Sizer

14.4 Aerosizer

14.5 List of Symbols

14.6 References

Chapter 15: Electrical Mobility Methods for Submicrometer Particle Characterization

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Behavior of Charged Particles

15.3 Particle Sampling

15.4 Particle Size Distribution Measurement

15.5 Aerosol Charge Conditioning

15.6 Data Analysis and Inversion

15.7 Alternate Mobility Analyzer Designs

15.8 List of Symbols

15.9 References

Chapter 16: Instruments and Samplers Based on Diffusional Separation

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Theories of the Diffusion Measurement Technique

16.3 Diffusion Denuders

16.4 Diffusion Batteries

16.5 Conclusions

16.6 List of Symbols

16.7 References

Chapter 17: Condensation Particle Counters

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Condensation Theory

17.3 Condensation Particle Counters

17.4 Performance of CPC

17.5 List of Symbols

17.6 References

Chapter 18: Instruments Based on Electrical Detection of Aerosols

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Unipolar Diffusion Chargers

18.3 Faraday Cage Electrometer Detection

18.4 Diffusion Charging-Based Sensors

18.5 Mobility Spectrometers with Electrical Detection

18.6 Electrical Low Pressure Impactors

18.7 List of Symbols

18.8 References

Chapter 19: Electrodynamic Levitation of Particles

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Electrodynamic Balance Configurations

19.3 Operation of the Balance

19.4 Levitation Principles and Applications

19.5 Thermophoresis

19.6 Particle Dynamics

19.7 Particle Sizing

19.8 Morphology-Dependent Resonances

19.9 Mass and Charge Measurement

19.10 Knudsen Regime Evaporation

19.11 Inelastic Light Scattering

19.12 Concluding Remarks

19.13 List of Symbols

19.14 References

Chapter 20: Fundamentals of Cone-Jet Electrospray

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Fundamentals

20.3 Electrospray Applications

20.4 Acknowledgments

20.5 List of Symbols

20.6 References

Chapter 21: Calibration of Aerosol Instruments

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Measurement Methods and Calibration Standards

21.3 General Considerations

21.4 Calibration Apparatus and Procedures

21.5 Test Aerosol Generation

21.6 Calibration of Flow, Pressure, and Velocity

21.7 Instrument Calibration

21.8 Summary of Calibration Procedures

21.9 References

Chapter 22: Size Distribution Data Analysis and Presentation

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Types of Particle Size

22.3 Particle Shape

22.4 Particle Size Distributions

22.5 Concentration Distributions

22.6 Summarizing Size Distributions Graphically

22.7 Confidence Intervals and Error Analysis

22.8 Testing Hypotheses with Size Distribution Data

22.9 Coincidence Errors

22.10 Choosing Sizing Interval Demarcations

22.11 Data Inversion

22.12 List of Symbols

22.13 References

Part III: Applications

Chapter 23: Nonspherical Particle Measurement: Shape Factor, Fractals, and Fibers

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Dynamic Shape Factor of Nonspherical Particles

23.3 Fractal Particles

23.4 Fibers

23.5 List of Symbols

23.6 References

Chapter 24: Biological Particle Sampling

24.1 Introduction

24.2 Bioaerosol Types

24.3 Sources of Bioaerosols

24.4 General Sampling Considerations

24.5 Principles of Bioaerosol Collection

24.6 Collection Time

24.7 Selection of Sampler

24.8 Calibration

24.9 Contamination

24.10 Sample Analysis

24.11 Data Analysis and Interpretation

24.12 List of Symbols

24.13 References

Chapter 25: Workplace Aerosol Measurement

25.1 Introduction

25.2 Aerosol Exposure Measurement in the Workplace

25.3 Sampling Conventions

25.4 Direct-Reading Instruments

25.5 Particle Size Measurement

25.6 Current Trends

25.7 List of Symbols

25.8 References

Chapter 26: Ambient Aerosol Sampling

26.1 Introduction

26.2 Sampling System Components

26.3 Sampling Systems

26.4 Selecting a Sampling System

26.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

26.6 References

Chapter 27: Indoor Aerosol Exposure Assessment

27.1 Introduction

27.2 Concentrations Versus Exposures

27.3 Measurement, Sampling, and Analysis Strategies

27.4 Defining Data Needs

27.5 Types of Nonoccupational Exposure Studies

27.6 Exposure Modeling

27.7 Summary

27.8 References

Chapter 28: Radioactive Aerosols

28.1 Introduction

28.2 Radiation and Radioactive Decay

28.3 Radiation Detection

28.4 Objectives for Measuring Radioactive Aerosols

28.5 Application of Standard Measurement Techniques

28.6 Special Technlques for Radioactive Aerosols

28.7 Conclusions

28.8 Acknowledgments

28.9 List of Symbols

28.10 References

Chapter 29: Measurement of Cloud and Aerosol Particles from Aircraft

29.1 Introduction

29.2 Techniques Used in Airborne Particle Sampling and Measurement

29.3 Factors to Be Considered in Airborne Particle Sampling and Measurement

29.4 Review of Inlets

29.5 Conclusions

29.6 References

Chapter 30: Satellite-Based Measurement of Atmospheric Aerosols

30.1 Introduction

30.2 Background on Satellite Remote Sensing

30.3 Aerosol Physical and Optical Properties

30.4 Principles of Satellite Aerosol Detection and Measurements

30.5 Challenges of Satellite Aerosol Measuring Systems

30.6 Satellite Data and Information Systems

30.7 Applications

30.8 Future Developments

30.9 Acknowledgments

30.10 List of Acronyms

30.11 References

Chapter 31: Atmospheric New Particle Formation: Physical and Chemical Measurements

31.1 Introduction

31.2 Synopsis of Current Understanding of NPF Processes

31.3 Anatomy of a New Particle Formation Event

31.4 Measurements That Focus on Nucleation Rates

31.5 Measurements That Focus on Mechanisms of Nanoparticle Growth

31.6 Conclusions

31.7 Acknowledgments

31.8 List of Symbols

31.9 References

Chapter 32: Electrical Classification and Condensation Detection of Sub-3-nm Aerosols

32.1 Introduction

32.2 Size Standards

32.3 Nano-DMAs

32.4 Nano Condensation Nucleus Counters (CNCs)

32.5 Summary and Conclusions

32.6 Acknowledgment

32.7 List of Abbreviations and Symbols

32.8 References

Chapter 33: High Temperature Aerosols: Measurement and Deposition of Nanoparticle Films

33.1 Introduction

33.2 Formation of the Depositing Species

33.3 Dilution Sampling and Measurement of High Temperature Aerosols

33.4 In Situ Measurements of High Temperature Aerosols

33.5 Particle Sintering on the Substrate

33.6 Applications in Energy and Environmental Nanotechnologies

33.7 List of Symbols

33.8 References

Chapter 34: Characterization and Measurement of Atmospheric Large Particles (PM > 10 μm)

34.1 Introduction

34.2 Large Particle Mass Size Distribution

34.3 Atmospheric Sampling of Large Particles

34.4 Measurement of Atmospheric Dry Deposition Flux

34.5 Conclusions

34.6 List of Symbols

34.7 References

Chapter 35: Manufacturing of Materials by Aerosol Processes

35.1 Materials

35.2 Aerosol Processes

35.3 Measurement Techniques

35.4 References

Chapter 36: Aerosol Measurements in Cleanrooms

36.1 Introduction

36.2 Cleanrooms

36.3 Particle Detection

36.4 Standards and Recommended Practices

36.5 ISO Standards 14644-1 and -2

36.6 Measuring Particle Emissions

36.7 Viable Aerosols

36.8 Monitoring

36.9 Summary

36.10 Conclusions

36.11 List of Symbols

36.12 References

Chapter 37: Sampling Techniques in Inhalation Toxicology

37.1 Introduction

37.2 Basic Inhalation Toxicology Exposure Systems

37.3 Properties of Exposure Systems

37.4 Basic Sampling Techniques and Strategies

37.5 Summary

37.6 References

Chapter 38: Factors Governing Pulmonary Response to Inhaled Particulate Matter

38.1 Introduction

38.2 Anatomic Regions of the Lung

38.3 Particle Deposition

38.4 Clearance

38.5 Particle Characteristics Influencing Bioactivity

38.6 Factors Influencing the Bioactivity of Nanoparticles

38.7 Conclusion

38.8 References

Chapter 39: Measurement of Pharmaceutical and Diagnostic Inhalation Aerosols

39.1 Introduction

39.2 Pharmaceutical Aerosols by Route of Administration

39.3 Diagnostic Aerosols

39.4 Characterization of Pharmaceutical and Diagnostic Inhalation Aerosols

39.5 Current Issues in Pharmaceutical and Diagnostic Inhalation Aerosol Measurement

39.6 Conclusions

39.7 References

Appendix A: Glossary of Terms

Appendix B: Conversion Factors

Appendix C: Commonly Used Constants

Appendix D: Some Properties of Air and Water

Appendix E: Key Dimensionless Numbers

Appendix F: Properties of Particles

Appendix G: Geometric Formulas

Appendix H: Bulk Density of Some Common Aerosol Materials

Appendix I: Manufacturers and Suppliers

Plates

Index

AEROSOL MEASUREMENT

Copyright © 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New JerseyPublished simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Aerosol measurement: principles, techniques, and applications / edited by Paul A. Baron, Pramod Kulkarni, Klaus Willeke. — 3rd ed.p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-0-470-38741-2 (cloth)1. Aerosols-Measurement. 2. Air-Pollution-Measurement. I. Baron, Paul A., 1944- II. Kulkarni, Pramod. III. Willeke, Klaus.TD884.5.A33 2011628.5′30287—dc222010036839

In Memoriam

Paul A. Baron (1944-2009)

PREFACE

We would like to dedicate this edition to our late colleague and coeditor Paul Baron. Paul passed away on May 20, 2009, after a long battle with cancer. He was actively involved with the preparation of this edition until his last days. A passionate champion of aerosol science, he made many significant contributions to the field of aerosol measurement. His modesty, energy, and wisdom were a source of inspiration to his colleagues and friends who miss him greatly.

The science of aerosol measurement has significantly advanced over the past several decades. From simple gravimetric measurements of airborne dusts in the early 1900s to the state-of-the-art instruments that can perform near-instantaneous size and chemical composition measurements, the advances are indeed exciting and promising with wide implications for public health and environmental protection, climate research, medicine, and industrial technology. Until the late 1980s, the development of new measurement methods was primarily driven by the need to evaluate particulate pollution control devices and to find better means of monitoring “undesirable” indoor and outdoor aerosols. In later years, many monitoring methods and instruments were developed to address newly promulgated environmental and occupational safety regulations. More recently, aerosol instrumentation has been developed to further our understanding of atmospheric aerosol processes, particularly in the context of atmospheric and climate research. Industrial or technological applications of aerosol measurement to characterize “desirable” aerosols have also grown substantially. With the advent of nanotechnology, aerosol measurement techniques are not only needed to help produce functional nanomaterials, but also to minimize risks from their environmental or occupational exposure. Aerosol measurement has assumed critical importance in a variety of fields including industrial hygiene, air pollution, epidemiology, atmospheric science, material science, powder technology, nanotechnology, filtration, particle toxicology, and drug delivery. As a consequence, the number of undergraduate and graduate students taking courses in aerosol science and measurement has increased dramatically in recent years. The increased importance of this field is also evident from the rapid growth of aerosol research societies in the United States, Europe, and Asia.

This book represents a comprehensive reference text on the basic principles, techniques, and applications of aerosol measurement instrumentation and methods. Historically, development of most techniques for measurement of aerosols have been motivated by a variety of applications, ranging from public health and air pollution, climate research, to industrial technology. In turn, most measurement techniques derive from various principles from physical sciences such as Stokes’ law, Millikan’s experiments, or Einstein’s theory of the Brownian motion. Accordingly, the book is structured into three parts: Principles, Techniques, and Applications. Fundamental physical concepts, as they relate to aerosol measurement, are presented in Part I of the book, and are essential to comprehend various types of instrumentation. Part II expands on a variety of measurement tools by devoting a chapter to each principal measurement technique or group of techniques. Part III discusses different applications of aerosol instrumentation presented in Part II, ranging from ambient air and workplace monitoring, bio-aerosols, aircraft-based measurements, material synthesis, to pharmaceutical aerosols. Each application requires a specific set of aerosol properties to be measured, thus dictating the type of measurement technique or group of techniques that can be applied. The book attempts to bridge the science and the applications of aerosol measurement.

We have made many changes to the third edition by dropping or combining a few chapters to make room for new topics. The chapter on historical aspects of aerosol measurement has been dropped, as dedicated texts on this topic are now available. Other omissions include chapters on fugitive dust emissions, mine aerosol measurement, and radon; some key, relevant content from the omitted topics has been absorbed in appropriate chapters. The two chapters on optical instrumentation were combined into a single chapter in this edition. Other minor reductions were achieved for chapters describing instruments no longer used or commercially available. All chapters have been updated to reflect advances since the second edition. Many new chapters have been added to cover topics that are emerging, lacked coverage elsewhere, or just deserved a place in this book. These include chapters on electrospray, satellite-based aerosol measurement, new particle formation, sub-5 nm aerosol measurement, atmospheric large particle (>10 μm) measurement, electrical-sensing aerosol instruments, satellite-based aerosol measurement, and finally a chapter on health effects of inhaled particles. The chapter on health effects, though not directly related to aerosol measurement, we believe, should be helpful in providing a broader perspective to scientists and engineers interested in making measurement of aerosols to study their health effects.

Striking the right balance between the theoretical and applied aspects of aerosol measurement in a limited space can be challenging for a book of this nature. The contributing authors indeed deserve praise for attempting to meet this formidable challenge while ensuring the high quality of the chapters. Needless to say, we appreciate their patience in undertaking requested revisions, which were often numerous and tedious. During the editing process we have tried to ensure that the content and presentation are of interest to a wide readership including graduate students, professionals new to aerosol measurement, as well as practicing aerosol scientists and engineers. We have also tried to ensure consistent use of terminology, nomenclature, and definitions across different chapters to the extent possible. Lists of symbols have been included at the end of chapters where needed. Numerical examples are included in many chapters to illustrate key concepts. We have made use of extensive cross-referencing between chapters to allow readers to quickly locate relevant topics spread across different chapters. Various appendices included at the end of the book should serve as useful, quick reference.

We extend our heartfelt thanks to many colleagues and peers from the aerosol community who have assisted in the preparation of this edition. More than 100 peer reviewers have helped us review book chapters; we are very grateful to them for providing their time and expertise. We would like to thank Prasoon Diwakar, Chaolong Qi, and Greg Deye for their help during the final days of manuscript preparation. Thanks are also due to Bob Esposito, Michael Leventhal, and Christine Punzo at John Wiley for their help during the preparation of this edition. Excellent copy-editing by Mary Safford Curioli and efficient coordination of proofs by Nick Barber is greatly appreciated. P.K. would like to thank his wife Debjani for her support and encouragement during this rather long project. K.W., who now lives in Orinda, California, since his retirement from the University of Cincinnati in 2003, wishes to extend his appreciation to his wife Audrone for her support.

PRAMOD KULKARNICincinnati, Ohio

KLAUS WILLEKEOrinda, California

CONTRIBUTORS

Ian M. Anderson, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland

Paul A. Baron, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, Ohio

Pratim Biswas, Department of Energy, Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Washington University in Saint Louis, Saint Louis, Missouri

John E. Brockmann, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico

Heinz Burtscher, Fachhochschule Aargau, University of Applied Sciences, Windisch, Switzerland

Vincent Castranova, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia

Bean T. Chen, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia

Yung-Sung Cheng, Inhalation Toxicology Research Institute, Albuquerque, New Mexico

Judith C. Chow, Desert Research Institute, Nevada System of Higher Education, Reno, Nevada

E. James Davis, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington

Juan Fernandez de la Mora, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut

Weiwei Deng, Department of Mechanical, Materials and Aerospace Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida

Suresh Dhaniyala, Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, Clarkson University, Potsdam, New York

Anne Marie Dixon, Cleanroom Management Associates, Carson City, Nevada

Kensei Ehara, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tsukuba, Japan

Fred Eisele, Atmospheric Chemistry Division, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado

David S. Ensor, RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina

Martin Fierz, Institut für Aerosol- und Sensortechnologie, Fachhochschule Nordwestschweiz, Windisch, Switzerland

Richard C. Flagan, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California

Robert A. Fletcher, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland

Matthew P. Fraser, Global Institute of Sustainability, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona

Alessandro Gomez, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut

Sergey Grinshpun, Department of Environmental Health, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio

Martin Harper, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia

Pierre Herckes, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona

Anthony J. Hickey, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina

William C. Hinds, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles School of Public Health, Los Angeles, California

Mark D. Hoover, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia

Christoph Hüglin, Empa, Laboratory for Air Pollution/ Environmental Technology, Dübendorf, Switzerland

Rudolf B. Husar, Department of Energy, Environment and Chemical Engineering, Washington University, Saint Louis, MO, USA

Walter John, Walnut Creek, California

Murray V. Johnston, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware

Haflidi Jonsson, Naval Postgraduate School, Marina, California

Jorma Keskinen, Department of Physics, Tampere University of Technology, Tampere, Finland

Toivo T. Kodas, Cabot Corporation, Boston, Massachusetts

Chongai Kuang, Atmospheric Sciences Division, Brook-haven National Laboratory, Upton, New York

Pramod Kulkarni, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, Ohio

David Leith, Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, School of Public Health, Chapel Hill, North Carolina

Arkadi Maisels, Evonik Degussa GmbH, Hanau, Germany

Marko Marjamäki, Department of Physics, Tampere University of Technology, Tampere, Finland

Virgil A. Marple, Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota

Andrew D. Maynard, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, Michigan

Malay K. Mazumder, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts

Peter H. McMurry, Particle Technology Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota

Owen R. Moss, POK Research, Apex, North Carolina

Aino Nevalainen, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Kuopio, Finland

Kenneth E. Noll, Department of Civil, Architecture and Environmental Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Illinois

Bernard A. Olson, Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota

Thomas M. Peters, Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa

Sotiris E. Pratsinis, Institut für Verfahrenstechnik, Zürich. Switzerland

Gurumurthy Ramachandran, Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota

Peter C. Raynor, Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota

Tiina Reponen, Department of Environmental Health. University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio

Nicholas W.M. Ritchie, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland

Charles E. Rodes, Aerosol Exposure, RTI International. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina

George Skillas, Evonik Degussa GmbH, Hanau, Germany

John A. Small, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland

James N. Smith, Atmospheric Chemistry Division, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado

Paul A. Solomon, National Exposure Laboratory. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Las Vegas, Nevada

Christopher M. Sorensen, Department of Physics, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas

Elijah Thimsen, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne. Illinois

Dhesikan Venkatesan, Department of Civil, Architecture and Environmental Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Illinois

Jon C. Volkwein, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

John G. Watson, Desert Research Institute, Nevada System of Higher Education, Reno, Nevada

Ernest Weingartner, Laboratory of Atmospheric Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institut, Villigen, Switzerland

Anthony S. Wexler, Departments of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, Civil and Environmental Engineering, and Land, Air and Water Resources. University of California, Davis, California

Klaus Willeke, Department of Environmental Health. University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio

James C. Wilson, Department of Engineering, University of Denver, Denver, Colorado

Jun Zhao, Atmospheric Chemistry Division, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado

PART I

PRINCIPLES