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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
AEROSOL SCIENCE
TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS
Aerosols influence many areas of our daily life. They are at the core of environmental problems such as global warming, photochemical smog and poor air quality. They can also have diverse effects on human health, where exposure occurs in both outdoor and indoor environments.
However, aerosols can have beneficial effects too; the delivery of drugs to the lungs, the delivery of fuels for combustion and the production of nanomaterials all rely on aerosols. Advances in particle measurement technologies have made it possible to take advantage of rapid changes in both particle size and concentration. Likewise, aerosols can now be produced in a controlled fashion. Reviewing many technological applications together with the current scientific status of aerosol modelling and measurements, this book includes:
- Satellite aerosol remote sensing
- The effects of aerosols on climate change
- Air pollution and health
- Pharmaceutical aerosols and pulmonary drug delivery
- Bioaerosols and hospital infections
- Particle emissions from vehicles
- The safety of emerging nanomaterials
- Radioactive aerosols: tracers of atmospheric processes
With the importance of this topic brought to the public's attention after the eruption of the Icelandic volcano Eyjafjallajökull, this book provides a timely, concise and accessible overview of the many facets of aerosol science.
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Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
List of Contributors
Preface
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Size and Shape
1.3 Size Distribution
1.4 Chemical Composition
1.5 Measurements and Sampling
References
Chapter 2: Aerosol Dynamics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 General Dynamic Equation
2.3 Nucleation: New Particle Formation
2.4 Growth by Condensation
2.5 Coagulation and Agglomeration
2.6 Deposition Mechanisms
2.7 Resuspension
References
Chapter 3: Recommendations for Aerosol Sampling
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Guidelines for Standardized Aerosol Sampling
3.3 Concrete Sampling Configurations
3.4 Artifact-Free Sampling for Organic Carbon Analysis
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 4: Aerosol Instrumentation
4.1 Introduction
4.2 General Strategy
4.3 Aerosol Sampling Inlets and Transport
4.4 Integral Moment Measurement
4.5 Particle Surface Area Measurement
4.6 Size-Distribution Measurement
4.7 Chemical Composition Measurement
4.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Filtration Mechanisms
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Deposition Mechanisms
5.3 Factors Affecting Efficiency
5.4 Filter Randomness
5.5 Applications
5.6 Conclusions
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 6: Remote Sensing of Atmospheric Aerosols
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Surface-Based Remote Sensing
6.3 Satellite-Based Remote Sensing
6.4 Summary and Future Requirements
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 7: Atmospheric Particle Nucleation
7.1 General Relevance
7.2 Detection of Atmospheric Nanoparticles
7.3 Atmospheric Observations of New Particle Formation
7.4 Laboratory Experiments
7.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Challenges
References
Chapter 8: Atmospheric Aerosols and Climate Impacts
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Global Aerosol Distributions
8.3 Aerosol Climate Impacts
8.4 Simulations of Global Aerosol Distributions
8.5 Extinction of Radiation by Aerosols (Direct Effect)
8.6 Aerosols and Clouds (Indirect Effect)
8.7 Radiative Forcing Estimates
8.8 The Way Forward
References
Chapter 9: Air Pollution and Health and the Role of Aerosols
9.1 Background
9.2 Size Fractions
9.3 Which Pollution Particle Sizes Are Important?
9.4 What Health Outcomes Are Associated with Exposure to Air Pollution?
9.5 Sources of Atmospheric Aerosols
9.6 Particle Deposition in the Lungs
9.7 Aerosol Interaction Mechanisms in the Human Body
9.8 Human Respiratory Outcomes and Aerosol Exposure
9.9 Cardiovascular Outcomes and Aerosol Exposure
9.10 Conclusions and Recommendations
References
Chapter 10: Pharmaceutical Aerosols and Pulmonary Drug Delivery
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Pharmaceutical Aerosols in Disease Treatment
10.3 Aerosol Physicochemical Properties of Importance in Lung Deposition
10.4 The Fate of Inhaled Aerosol Particles in the Lung
10.5 Production of Inhalable Particles
10.6 Aerosol Generation and Delivery Systems for Pulmonary Therapy
10.7 Product Performance Testing
10.8 Conclusion and Outlook
References
Chapter 11: Bioaerosols and Hospital Infections
11.1 The Importance of Bioaerosols and Infections
11.2 Bioaerosol-Related Infections in Hospitals
11.3 Bioaerosol Properties and Deposition in Human Respiratory Systems
11.4 Chain of Infection and Infection Control in Hospitals
11.5 Application of Aerosol Science and Technology in Infection Control
11.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 12: Nanostructured Material Synthesis in the Gas Phase
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Aerosol-Based Synthesis
12.3 Flame Synthesis
12.4 Flame and Laser Synthesis
12.5 Laser-Induced Synthesis
12.6 Metal-Powder Combustion
12.7 Spark Discharge
12.8 Assembling Useful Nanostructures
12.9 Conclusions
References
Chapter 13: The Safety of Emerging Inorganic and Carbon Nanomaterials
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Human Health and Inhaled Persistent Engineered Inorganic and Carbon Nanomaterials
13.3 Human Health Hazards and Risks Linked to the Ingestion of Persistent Inorganic Nanomaterials
13.4 Ecotoxicity of Persistent Inorganic and Carbon Nanomaterials
13.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Environmental Health in Built Environments
14.1 Environmental Hazards and Built Environments
14.2 Particulate Contaminants
14.3 Gas Contaminants
References
Chapter 15: Particle Emissions from Vehicles
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Engine Concepts and Technologies
15.3 Particle Formation
15.4 Impact of Vehicle Particle Emissions
15.5 Sampling and Measurement Techniques
15.6 Amelioration Techniques
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 16: Movement of Bioaerosols in the Atmosphere and the Consequences for Climate and Microbial Evolution
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Emission: Launch into the Atmosphere
16.3 Transport in the Earth's Boundary Layer
16.4 Long-Distance Transport: From the Boundary Layer into the Free Troposphere
16.5 Interaction of Microbial Aerosols with Atmospheric Processes
16.6 Implications of Aerial Transport for Microbial Evolutionary History
References
Chapter 17: Disinfection of Airborne Organisms by Ultraviolet-C Radiation and Sunlight
17.1 Introduction
17.2 UV Radiation
17.3 Sunlight
17.4 Selected Organisms
17.5 Effects of UV Light on Aerosolized Organisms
17.6 Disinfection of Rooms Using UV-C Radiation
17.7 Sunlight Exposure Studies
17.8 Testing Considerations
17.9 Discussion
References
Chapter 18: Radioactive Aerosols: Tracers of Atmospheric Processes
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Origin of Radioactive Aerosols
18.3 Tracers of Atmospheric Processes
18.4 Tracer of Environmental Change
18.5 Conclusion
References
Index
This edition first published 2014
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Aerosol science : technology and applications / edited by Ian Colbeck, Mihalis Lazaridis.
pages cm
Includes index.
ISBN 978-1-119-97792-6 (cloth)
1.Aerosols—Industrial applications.2.Aerosols—Environmental aspects.I.Colbeck, I. (Ian), editor of compilation.
II.Lazaridis, Mihalis, editor of compilation
TP244.A3A336 2014
660′.294515—dc23
List of Contributors
Preface
An aerosol is a stable suspension of solid and liquid particles in a gas. Aerosols are ubiquitous throughout the environment and are very important to public health. It is important that we understand their dynamics so that we can quantify their effects on humans. Airborne particulate matter is a complex mixture of many different chemical species, originating from a variety of sources. Particulate matter can act as a transport medium for several chemical compounds, as well as for biological materials absorbed or adsorbed upon them. The field of aerosol science and technology has advanced significantly over the past 20 years, with ultrafine particles gaining particular interest, not only for their health properties but also for their industrial applications.
Particles in the atmosphere have important effects on both air pollution and climate. There is also increasing concern that terrorist attacks could result in the contamination of the atmosphere with chemical, biological or radiological materials. However, aerosols have been assessed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as having the largest radiative forcing uncertainty. Geoengineering has been proposed as a feasible way of mitigating climate change, with many of the suggested approaches involving injecting aerosols into the atmosphere.
This book reviews the technological applications of aerosol science, together with the current scientific status of aerosol modelling and measurements. It presents the fundamental properties of aerosols and introduces some aspects of aerosol dynamics. Topics such as satellite aerosol remote sensing, the effect of aerosols on climate change and atmospheric nucleation are also included. So too are applications related to the health implications of aerosols and, therefore, to topics related to human exposure and infection control. Quantification of the health impact of aerosols plays a crucial role in environmental protection. Today, the pharmaceutical industry is under increasing pressure to realise the full potential of the lungs for local and systematic treatment of diseases. This has resulted in novel aerosol-delivery devices capable of producing particles of defined characteristics for improved delivery. Nanostructured material synthesis, the safety of emerging nanomaterials and filtration are important engineering topics in aerosol science.
The book also gives significant attention to specific aerosol sources such as vehicle emissions and bioaerosols. It discusses the importance of radioactive aerosols as tracers of atmospheric processes following Fukushima. Identification of the significance of specific aerosol sources is important to human exposure assessment and has been identified as an area with significant knowledge gaps.
Mihalis Lazaridis and Ian Colbeck20 March 2013
Chapter 1
Introduction
Mihalis Lazaridis1 and Ian Colbeck2
1Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Crete, Greece
2School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, UK
1.1 Introduction
An aerosol is defined as a suspension of liquid or solid in a gas. Aerosols are often discussed as being either ‘desirable’ or ‘undesirable’. The former include those specifically generated for medicinal purposes and those intentionally generated for their useful properties (e.g. nanotechnology, ceramic powders); the latter are often associated with potential harmful effects on human health (e.g. pollution). For centuries, people thought that there were only bad aerosols. Early writers indicated a general connection between lung diseases and aerosol inhalation. In 1700, Bernardo Ramazzini, an Italian physician, described the effect of dust on the respiratory organs, including descriptions of numerous cases of fatal dust diseases (Franco and Franco, 2001).
Aerosols are at the core of environmental problems, such as global warming, photochemical smog, stratospheric ozone depletion and poor air quality. Recognition of the effects of aerosols on climate can be traced back to 44 BC, when an eruption from Mount Etna was linked to cool summers and poor harvests. People have been aware of the occupational health hazard of exposure to aerosols for many centuries. It is only relatively recently that there has been increased awareness of the possible health effects of vehicular pollution, and in particular submicron particles.
The existence of particles in the atmosphere is referred to in the very early literature (see Husar, 2000; Calvo et al., 2012). In the 1800s, geologists studied atmospheric dust in connection with soil formation, and later that century meteorologists recognised the ability of atmospheric particles to influence rain formation, as well as their impact on both visible and thermal radiation (Husar, 2000).
The environmental impact of the long-range transport of atmospheric particles has also been widely discussed (Stohl and Akimoto, 2004). Around 1600, Sir Francis Bacon reported that the Gasgogners of southern France had filed a complaint to the King of England claiming that smoke from seaweed burning had affected the wine flowers and ruined the harvest. During the eighteenth century, forest fires in Russia and Finland resulted in a regional haze over Central Europe. Even then, Wargentin (1767) and Gadolin (1767) (quoted in Husar, 2000) indicated that it would be possible to map the path of the smoke based on the locations of the fires and its appearance at different locations. Danckelman (1884) mentions that hazes and smoke from burnings in the African savannah have been observed in various regions of Europe since Roman times.
The possibility of atmospheric particles forming from gaseous chemical reactions was pointed out by Rafinesque (1819). In his paper entitled ‘Thoughts on Atmospheric Dust’, he makes a number of pertinent observations: ‘Whenever the sun shines in a dark room, its beams display a crowd of lucid dusty molecules of various shapes, which were before invisible as the air in which they swim, but did exist nevertheless. These form the atmospheric dust; existing every where in the lower strata of our atmosphere’; ‘The size of the particles is very unequal, and their shape dissimilar’.
In spite of the widespread occurrence of aerosols in nature and their day-to-day creation in many spheres of human activity, it is only in comparatively recent times that a scientific study has been made of their properties and behaviour. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, many scientists working in various fields became interested in problems that would now be considered aerosol-related. The results were fairly often either byproducts of basic research, related to other fields or just plain observations that roused curiosity. Several of the great classical physicists and mathematicians were attracted by the peculiar properties of particulate clouds and undertook research on various aspects of aerosol science, which have since become associated with their names, for example Stokes, Aitken and Rayleigh.
Whatever the usage, the fundamental rules governing the behaviour of aerosols remain the same. Rightly or wrongly, the terms ‘aerosols’ and ‘particles’ are often freely interchanged in the literature. Aerosols range in size range from 0.001 µm (0.001 µm =10−9 m = 1 nm = 10 Å) to 100 µm (10−4 m), so the particle sizes span several orders of magnitude, ranging from almost macroscopic down to near molecular sizes. All aerosol properties depend on particle size, some very strongly. The smallest aerosols approach the size of large gas molecules and have many of the same properties; the largest are visible grains that have properties described by Newtonian physics.
Figure 1.1 shows the relative size of an aerosol particle (diameter 0.1 µm) compared with a molecule (diameter 0.3 nm, average spacing 3 nm, mean free path 70 nm (defined as the average distance travelled by a molecule between successive collisions)).
Figure 1.1 Relative size of an aerosol particle (diameter 0.1 µm) compared with a molecule (diameter 0.3 nm).
There are various types of aerosol, which are classified according to physical form and method of generation. The commonly used terms are ‘dust’, ‘fume’, ‘smoke’, ‘fog’ and ‘mist’. Virtually all the major texts on aerosol science contain definitions of the various categories. For example, for Whytlaw-Gray and Patterson (1932):
Dust: ‘Dusts result from natural and mechanical processes of disintegration and dispersion.’
Smoke: ‘If suspended material is the result of combustion or of destructive distillation it is commonly called smoke.’
while more recently, for Kulkarni, Baron and Willeke (2011):
Dust: ‘Solid particles formed by crushing or other mechanical action resulting in physical disintegration of a parent material. These particles have irregular shapes and are larger than about 0.5 µm.’
Smoke: ‘A solid or liquid aerosol, the result of incomplete combustion or condensation of supersaturated vapour. Most smoke particles are submicrometer in size.’
It is clear right from the early literature that dust and smoke are not defined in terms of particle size but in terms of their formation mechanism.
The actual meanings of ‘smoke’ and ‘dust’ have recently been the subject of an appeal at the New South Wales Court of Appeal (East West Airlines Ltd v. Turner, 2010). The New South Wales Dust Diseases Tribunal had previously found in favour of a flight attendant who inhaled smoke in an aircraft. The initial trial judge concluded that ‘In ordinary common parlance, dust encompasses smoke or ash. Dust may need to be distinguished from gas, fume or vapour. The distinction would be that dust comprises particulate matter. Smoke comprises particulate matter and, accordingly, is more comfortably described as dust rather than gas, fume or vapour. I do not consider that there is a distinction between smoke and dust such that smoke cannot be dust. When the particulate matter settled, it would, to most people, be recognised as dust. If, through the microscope or other aid, one could see the particulate matter without the smoky haze, most people would recognise the particulate matter as dust. The dictionary definitions would encompass smoke as dust’.
The Court of Appeal stated:
… His Honour did not find that, as a matter of general principle, ‘smoke’ was a ‘dust’ … This was not a decision as to a point of law but a factual determination. There was ample evidence before his Honour to justify that conclusion.
Various governments worldwide have instigated standards to protect workers from toxic substances in workplaces. For example, the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) publishes a list of over 600 chemicals for which ‘threshold limit values’ have been established. Approximately 300 of these are found in workplaces in the form of aerosols. Aerosol science is thus central to the study, characterisation and monitoring of atmospheric environments. Aerosols can cause health problems when deposited on the skin, but generally the most sensitive route of entry into the body is through the respiratory system. Knowledge of the deposition of particulate matter in the human respiratory system is important for dose assessment and the risk analysis of airborne pollutants. The deposition process is controlled by physical characteristics of the inhaled particles and by the physiological factors of the individuals involved. Of the physical factors, particle size and size distribution are among the most important. The same physical properties that govern aerosols in the atmosphere apply within the lungs.
Aerosols in the atmosphere are either primary or secondary in nature. Primary aerosols are atmospheric particles that are emitted or injected directly into the atmosphere, whereas secondary aerosols are atmospheric particles formed by in situ aggregation or nucleation from gas-phase molecules (gas to particle conversion). Particles in the atmosphere consist of a mixture of solid particles, liquid droplets and liquid components contained within the solid particles. Particles are variable in relation to their concentration and their physicochemical and morphological characteristics. Particles can be products of combustion, suspensions of soil materials, suspensions of sea spray or secondary formations from chemical reactions in the atmosphere (Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2 Schematic representation of the chemical reactions and processes associated with the chemical composition of particulate matter.
Aerosols have diverse effects ranging from those on human health to those on visibility and the climate. They are also very important in public health and understanding of their dynamics is essential to the quantification of their effects. Human exposure to aerosols occurs both outdoors and indoors. They are also important in numerous technological applications, such as the delivery of drugs to the lungs, delivery of fuels for combustion and the production of nanomaterials.
The World Health Organization's Global Burden of Disease WHO GBD project concluded that that 3.2 million people die prematurely every year from cancer, heart disease and other illnesses that are attributable to particulate air pollution; 65% of these deaths occur in Asia. Brauer et al. (2012) have reported that 99% of the population in South and East Asia lives in areas where the WHO Air Quality Guideline (annual average of 10 µg/m3) for PM2.5 is exceeded. Particulate matter pollution was also ranked ninth of all the risk factors in terms of years lost due to disability by Brauer et al. (2012).
Aerosols have the potential to change the global radiation balance. A 2007 report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimated the effect of aerosols on the climate since the start of the industrial era to be around 20% of that of greenhouse gases. Aerosols are thought to be responsible for a negative forcing and therefore to have mitigated some of the expected global warming over this period (Kulmala, Riipinen and Kerminen, 2012).
1.2 Size and Shape
Particle size is the most important descriptor for the prediction of aerosol behaviour. When its particles are all the same in size, an aerosol is termed ‘monodisperse’. This is extremely rare in nature. Generally, particles vary in size, and this is called ‘polydisperse’. When its particles are chemically identical, an aerosol is called ‘homogeneous’. Particle shapes can be divided into three general classes:
Isometric
: The particle's three dimensions are roughly equal, for example spherical particles.
Platelets
: The particle has two long dimensions and a third small one, for example leaves and discs.
Fibres
: The particle has one long dimension and two much smaller ones, for example needles and asbestos.
Most of our knowledge regarding aerosol behaviour relates to isometric particles. Concern over the health hazards of fibres has prompted their study.
When particles are spherical, their radius or diameter can be used to describe their size. Since most particles are not spherical, however, other parameters must be used. Often the diameter is defined in terms of particle setting velocity. All particles with similar settling velocities are considered to be the same size, regardless of their actual size, composition or shape. The two most common definitions are:
Aerodynamic diameter
(see Chapter 2): The diameter of a unit-density sphere with the same aerodynamic properties as the particle in question. This means that particles of any shape or density will have the same aerodynamic diameter if their settling velocity is the same.
Stokes diameter
: The diameter of a sphere of the same density as the particle in question that has the same settling velocity as that particle.
Stokes diameter and aerodynamic diameter differ only in that Stokes diameter includes the particle density whereas aerodynamic diameter does not. Equivalent diameter is also commonly used. When particle size is measured by a specific technique, the measurement usually corresponds to a specific physical property; if electrically induced motion is used then a mobility equivalent diameter is reported.
1.3 Size Distribution
Determination of the aerosol size distribution is one of the most important aspects in the measurement and modelling of aerosol dynamics. The diameter of an ambient particle can be determined by various means, including light-scattering measurements, characterisation of the aerodynamic resistance of the particle and measurement of its electrical mobility or settling velocity. It is necessary to refer to an equivalent diameter independent of the measurement method and therefore the Stokes and aerodynamic equivalent diameter have been introduced. The aerodynamic diameter is defined as the diameter of a spherical particle with equal settling velocity as the particle under consideration but with material density of 1 g/cm3 (Hinds, 1999).
Particles can be categorised according to their size based on (i) their observed modal distribution (Hinds, 1999), (ii) the 50% cut-off diameter or (iii) dosimetric variables related to human exposure. In the latter case, the most common divisions are PM2.5 and PM10. PM10 is defined as airborne particulate matter passing through a sampling inlet with a 50% efficiency cut-off at 10 µm aerodynamic diameter that transmits particles below this size (European Commission, 2008); PM2.5 is similarly defined. The division in particle size is related to the possibility of PM2.5 particles penetrating to the lower parts of the human respiratory tract. In the modal distribution, several subcategories can be observed: nucleation mode, Aitken mode, accumulation mode, ultrafine particles and fine and coarse particles. These terms are discussed in Chapter 2.
An important region of the size distribution is the ultrafine part of the nuclei mode. Understanding of the physics and chemistry of very small clusters containing a few hundreds of molecules represents a theoretical and experimental challenge. Figure 1.3 depicts some typical aerosol size ranges and their related properties.
Figure 1.3 Particle size range for aerosols.
The various aerosol modes are associated with different sources and mechanisms of formation and with different chemical characteristics, as depicted in Figure 1.1 for the number and volume distributions. Examples of aerosols in the Aitken mode include soot, sulfuric acid and crystal bio-organic particles; in the accumulation mode, ammonium sulfate, marine organics and biomass smoke; and in the coarse mode, dust, sea salt and pollen.
Figure 1.4 shows an example of the aerosol size distribution and morphology obtained from electron microscopy. Number and volume size distribution are depicted together with the chemical composition by size for a number of aerosol types.
Figure 1.4 Aerosol size distribution and morphology for various aerosol types. Reproduced with permission from Heintzenberg et al. (2003). Copyright © 2003, Springer Science + Business Media.
The logarithmic canonical distribution of particle mass is used to describe aerosol dynamics. The multilognormal model is widely used to describe aerosol size distribution (Seinfeld and Pandis, 2006; Lazaridis, 2011). The multilognormal distribution is mathematically expressed as:
1.1
where n is the number of modes, Ni the number concentration in each mode, Dp the aerosol diameter, Dpg,i the geometric mean diameter in each mode and σg,i the geometric standard deviation.
Aerosol behaviour in the atmosphere is controlled by internal and external processes. Internal processes act within the system boundaries, while external processes processes act across boundaries (Whitby and McMurry, 1997). Internal processes include coagulation, condensation, evaporation, adsorption/desorption, heterogeneous chemistry and nucleation mechanisms (Figure 1.5). External processes involve convection, diffusion and the effect of external forces such as thermophoresis (Hinds, 1999).
Figure 1.5 Internal and external processes that control aerosol behaviour.
Figure 1.6 presents some typical atmospheric aerosol distributions by number and volume. The volume distribution has different features to the number distributions; it is usually bimodal, with a minimum ∼1 µm (the dividing limit between coarse and fine particles). The arithmetic distribution has a maximum at the ultrafine mode (nucleation mode), whereas the volume distribution presents two logarithmic distributions, one at the accumulation mode and one at the coarse mode. It should be remembered that 1 million 1 µm particles have the same volume as a single 100 µm.
Figure 1.6 Typical ambient aerosol distributions by number and volume. (Adapted from Seinfeld and Pandis, 2006.)
The separation of fine and coarse particles is a determined factor, since particles in these two regions are different with respect to their source, chemical composition, processes for removal from the atmosphere, optical properties and effects on human health (Hinds, 1999; Lazaridis, 2011).
1.4 Chemical Composition
The composition of an atmospheric aerosol is determined from its source, which can include the emission of primary and secondary particles produced in the atmosphere. The main components of an aerosol include sulfate, nitrate, ammonium, chloride, elemental carbon, organic carbon, water, chloride and crustal material (Seinfeld and Pandis, 2006).
Crustal material, biogenic matter and sea salt make up the majority of natural aerosols. Anthropogenic aerosols comprise primary emitted soot (elemental carbon) and secondary formed carbonaceous material (organic carbon) and inorganic matter (nitrates, sulfates, ammonium and water).
Figure 1.7 shows the distribution of particles and the physicochemical processes associated with different particle sizes.
Figure 1.7 Physicochemical processes related to aerosol particle size.
An important part of secondary aerosol particles in the atmosphere is composed of secondary formed organic matter (Turpin and Huntzicker, 1991) produced from the oxidation of organic compounds. Partitioning of gas-particle organic compounds in the atmosphere is important in determining their association with fine particulate matter (Seinfeld and Pandis, 2006; Lazaridis, 2011). The number of different chemical forms of organic matter and the absence of direct chemical analysis mean that fractional aerosol yields, fractional aerosol coefficients and adsorption/absorption methodologies for describing the incorporation of organic matter in the aerosol phase are mainly experimentally determined. An important pathway for secondary organic particle formation arises from biogenic hydrocarbons. There are very large quantities of globally emitted biogenic hydrocarbons that are highly reactive (Hoffmann et al., 1997).
Bioaerosols include all airborne particles of biological origin; that is, bacteria, fungi, fungal spores, viruses and pollen, as well as their fragments, including various antigens. Aerodynamic diameters can range from about 0.5 to 100 µm (Nevalainen et al., 1991; Cox and Wathes, 1995). Airborne microorganisms become nonviable and fragmented over time, due to desiccation. Indoor air contains a complex mixture of (i) bioaerosols such as fungi, bacteria and allergens and (ii) nonbiological particles such as dust, tobacco smoke, cooking-generated particles, motor vehicle exhaust particles and particles from thermal power plants. Exposure to several of these biological entities, as well as to microbial fragments such as cell-wall fragments and flagella and microbial metabolites such as endotoxin, mycotoxins and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), can result in adverse health effects. In particular, an increase in asthma attacks and bronchial hyper-reactivity has been correlated to increased bioaerosol levels. Bioaerosols are usually measured in standard colony forming units per volume (CFU/cubic metre counts). An in-depth consideration of bioaerosols can be found in Chapter 16 and in a recent review by Després et al. (2012).
1.5 Measurements and Sampling
According to Kerker (1997), the first recorded use of laboratory-generated aerosols was by Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), who wanted to account for the blue colour of the sky. Centuries later, Tyndall (1869) noted that if a beam of light was passed through a suspension and viewed at an angle against a dark background, the presence of particles was revealed by the scattered light. Tyndall's legacy to aerosol science was great (Gentry and Lin, 1996), including in particular his proposal of a connection between the light scattered by an aerosol during the early stages of its formation, when the particles were small, and the colour of the sky and the polarisation of light. Tyndall assumed that all small particles behaved in this manner and considered the light of the sky a specific instance of a general physical phenomenon. This work and a theoretical treatment by Rayleigh (1871) gave the scattering of blue light by very small particles and the preferential transmission of red light, so strikingly exemplified by the vivid colours of sunset, a ready explanation. At first Rayleigh believed the blue sky was caused by the presence of fine particles such as those Tyndall had experimented with, but sometime later he revised this notion, noting that particles as such were not necessary and that the blue sky ‘can be explained by diffraction from the molecules of air themselves’.
In the past, exploding wires were used to generate aerosols. Although scientific interest in the phenomenon didn't truly begin until the 1920s, the first paper on exploding wires was read before the Royal Society in December 1773 by Nairne (1774). He used an exploding wire to prove that the current in all parts of a series circuit is the same. Some 40 years later, Singer (1815) and Singer and Crosse (1815) reported on more experiments involving exploding wires. Faraday (1857) demonstrated how exploding wires could be uses to produce a metal film or mirror. He was the first scientist to systematically use the exploding wire technique to generate aerosols. He was also first to characterise the aerosols and to develop techniques that allowed certain of their optical properties to be examined (Gentry, 1995).
The requirement to measure aerosols in a range of fields has increased dramatically over the last 2 decades. As a result, there are now a large number of instruments on the market, ranging from small portable devices for personnel exposure monitoring to research-laboratory-based instrumentation. Selection of an instrument depends upon the aims of your research and on determining compliance with standards, quantifying trends and identifying hotspots. In other words, you must decide on (i) what you want to measure (which metric: number, mass, volume and size distribution or concentration), (ii) whether measurement response time critical, (iii) how long you will sample for and (iv) whether you need to collect a sample.
Any sample should be representative of its environment, taking into account timing, location and particle size distribution. As will be discussed in Chapter 3, the sampling system can influence the transmitted sample. Particles do not behave in the same way as gas molecules when dispersed in air. They deposit under gravity, impact on bends due to particle inertia, are deposited on internal surfaces by molecular and turbulent diffusion and are affected by thermal, electrostatic and acoustic forces.
Generally, particulate sampling devices are divided into two types: those that collect a sample on a substrate and those that conduct in situ real-time measurements. With the former, one most ensure that the substrate is compatible with subsequent analysis: for gravimetric analysis, the substrate should be weight-stable; for microscopy, the filter should be transparent to radiation (optical or electron); for biological aerosol, recovery of organisms from the filter should be possible; and for chemical analysis, the substrates should have low levels of the compound under analysis or be capable of incineration. With the latter, either extractive or external sensing techniques can be used. Extractive methods require the aerosol to be brought into the instrument (e.g. optical particle counters), whereas external sensing methods are noninvasive.
In summary, a wide variety of techniques and instruments are available by which to measure and characterise aerosols. Each has advantages and disadvantages in terms of size range, concentration range, measurement resolution, speed of response and so on. New instruments are always being developed.
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Chapter 2
Aerosol Dynamics
Mihalis Lazaridis1 and Yannis Drossinos2
1Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Crete, Greece
2European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Italy
2.1 Introduction
Airborne particulate matter (PM) contains various chemical components and ranges in size from few nanometres to several hundred micrometres (Hinds, 1999). It is apparent that PM is not a single pollutant, and its mass includes a mixture of numerous pollutants distributed differently at different sizes. Particle size is an essential parameter that determines the chemical composition, optical properties, deposition of particles and inhalation in the human respiratory tract (RT) (Hinds, 1999; Friedlander, 2000; Seinfeld and Pandis, 2006; Lazaridis, 2011). Particle size is specified by the particle diameter, , which is most commonly expressed in micrometres. Particles represent a very small fraction, less than 0.0001%, of the total aerosol mass or volume (Drossinos and Housiadas, 2006). The gas phase mainly influences the particle flow through hydrodynamic forces.
Particles may be classified into a number of categories; based on their size, they can be categorized according to (i) their observed modal distribution, (ii) the 50% cut-off diameter of the measurement instrument or (iii) dosimetric variables that are related to human exposure to atmospheric concentrations. However, these categories are not rigorously defined and they are usually application-specific.
In category (i), several subcategories can be identified:
Nucleation mode
: Particles with diameter < 0.1 µm, which are formed by nucleation processes. The lower size limit of this category is not very well defined, but it is close to 3 nm.
Aitken mode
: Particles with diameter 0.01 µm < < 100 nm. They originate from vapour nucleation or the growth of preexisting particles as a result of condensation.
Accumulation mode
: Particles with diameter 0.1 µm < < 1 up to 3 µm. The upper limit coincides with a relative minimum of the total particle volume distribution. Particles in this mode are formed either by coagulation of smaller particles or by condensation of vapour constituents. The number of particles in this category does not increase with condensational growth. Furthermore, the removal mechanisms of particles in this category are very slow and as a result there is an accumulation of particles.
Ultrafine particles
: Particles in the Aitken and nucleation modes.
Fine fraction
: .
Coarse fraction
: .
Particles in the atmosphere have a distribution of sizes; lognormal distributions are commonly used to describe these distributions (Hinds, 1999; Lazaridis, 2011). Figure 2.1 presents typical atmospheric aerosol distributions by number, surface area and volume (for spherical particles).
Figure 2.1 Typical ambient aerosol distributions by (a) number (b) surface area (c) volume. Reproduced with permission from Colbeck and Lazaridis (2010). Copyright © 2010, Springer Science and Business Media.
A logarithmic normal distribution is used to represent the distribution of particle mass/number/surface area (Hinds, 1999).
The frequency function of a unimodal logarithmic normal distribution can be expressed as:
2.1
and that of a bimodal as:
2.2
where α is the fraction of fine particles, (1 − α) the fraction of coarse particles and dg the mean geometric diameter. The coefficients F and C refer to fine and coarse particles, respectively. The geometric standard deviation of the distribution given by:
2.3
where N is the total number of particles and dg the geometric mean diameter is given by:
2.4
There are different distributions that characterize specific particle properties, such as their number, surface area, volume and mass. The number distribution describes the particle number at different sizes, whereas the mass distribution describes the particle mass at different particle sizes. The distributions, if taken to unimodal lognormals, are characterised by a geometric mean diameter and geometric standard deviation.
This chapter presents a general overview of the dynamics of atmospheric aerosols, including the aerosol general dynamic equation (GDE), and of relevant physical processes such as agglomeration, coagulation, gas-to-particle conversion, deposition and resuspension.
2.2 General Dynamic Equation
The variation in space and time of the particle size distribution is described by the GDE, a population-balance equation. The particle size distribution within a fixed-volume element is influenced by processes within the volume (internal processes) and processes that transport particles across the volume boundaries (external processes) (Friedlander, 2000). Internal processes include coagulation, agglomeration, fragmentation and gas-to-particle conversion. External processes include transport across boundaries due to gas flow, particle diffusion, particle motion induced by concentration or temperature gradients and sedimentation (Drossinos and Housiadas, 2006). The GDE is a nonlinear, integrodifferential equation subject to different initial and boundary conditions.
2.2.1 Discrete Particle Size Distribution
Smoluchowski (1916) derived the first equation describing the effect of particle coagulation on the discrete particle size distribution resulting from Brownian motion and motion induced by a laminar shear. The equation refers to internal processes. For a discrete particle size distribution, as a result of coagulation between particles, particles are both removed from and added to size bins. If two particles of masses and collide and subsequently coagulate, the mass of the particle formed is . If is the coagulation rate between particles of masses and then , and . There is a net loss of one particle per coagulation event, but the total mass is conserved. Generalising these equations we obtain:
2.5
where i + j = k means that the summation is taken over those size grid points for which . The factor ½ avoids over-counting. Here mk includes all particles in size bin k. The first term on the right-hand side (RHS) of Equation 2.5 represents the gain in bin k due to coagulation between smaller particles, whereas the second term represents the loss of particles from size bin k due to coagulation with particles in all size bins (including coagulation events between two particles both of which are in bin k). The theory of particle coagulation is reviewed extensively in Fuchs (1964), Friedlander (2000), Williams and Loyalka (1991) and Seinfeld and Pandis (2006).
If the collision frequency function K(mi, mj) is constant and independent of particle size, and denoted by K, the equation for the discrete size distribution can be solved analytically to get (Drossinos and Housiadas, 2006):
2.6
where is the initial total number of particles per unit volume and τ is the characteristic agglomeration time scale (). For Brownian coagulation of identical particles of diameter and diffusion coefficient , in a fluid of dynamic viscosity at absolute temperature T, the (constant) collision frequency evaluates to:
A generalisation of the Smoluchowski equation includes other internal processes. Accounting for condensation and evaporation, the time-dependent equation for the discrete size distribution becomes (Friedlander, 2000):
2.7
The last two terms on the RHS model condensation and evaporation. The term ακ is the evaporative flux and sk is the effective surface area of evaporation of a k-mer. It is assumed that evaporation occurs via the loss of single molecules.
2.2.2 Continuous Particle Size Distribution
The continuous distribution is introduced for particle volumes much larger than the molecular volume. In this case, the discrete distribution nk(t) can be replaced by the continuous distribution n(υ; r,t). The variable r refers to the location of the distribution in space and υ to the particle volume. The variation of n(υ; r,t) with time can be expressed as (Friedlander, 2000):
2.8
where vp is the average particle velocity. The first term on the RHS corresponds to gas-to-particle conversion and the second to particle coagulation. For transport mechanisms that can be considered to act independently (a reasonable assumption for aerosol particles) and for particles of negligible inertia, the average particle velocity becomes:
where u is the fluid velocity and the sum of all other transport velocities; for example, thermophoretic, electrostatic, gravitational and so on.
Two main methods have been elaborated to model aerosol dynamics using a detailed aerosol size distribution: the sectional method and the moment method. The numerical techniques usually do not take into account spatial inhomogeneities and assume that the aerosol is spatially well mixed. Therefore, the numerical methods apply equally well to Equation 2.7 and to its continuous generalisation Equation 2.8. The main objective is to solve the aerosol GDE using a comprehensive method to treat the complexity of the aerosol size distribution dynamics (Seinfeld and Pandis, 2006). However, since the inclusion of detailed aerosol dynamic models in mesoscale or regional modelling is a difficult and computationally intensive task, various simplifications have been introduced through the omission of specific terms of the GDE.
In the sectional method, the size distribution is divided into several size bins (sections), logarithmically spaced. A common assumption is that all the particles in each section have the same chemical composition (internally mixed assumption).
In the moment method, the moments of the aerosol size distribution are expressed in terms of the distribution parameters. The most important moments of the aerosol size distribution refer to the determination of the total number concentration, the geometric mean diameter and the average surface area and volume per particle (Friedlander, 2000).
2.3 Nucleation: New Particle Formation
Nucleation is the initial stage of a first-order phase transition that takes place in various energetically metastable or unstable systems (Debenedetti, 1996). Homogeneous nucleation refers to new particle formation in the absence of preexisting particles. It has several applications in fields ranging from atmospheric science to nanoparticle formation in engine emissions, or combustion processes in general.
In the atmosphere, where various condensable vapours exist in low concentrations, binary (two-component) or multicomponent nucleation is the predominant particle formation mechanism (Seinfeld and Pandis, 2006; Lazaridis, 2011). Even though homogeneous nucleation is not an important mechanism for the determination of the aerosol mass size distribution, it provides a source of numerous newly formed particles that shape the number size distribution.
2.3.1 Classical Nucleation Theory
The classical nucleation theory (CNT) was developed by Becker and Döring (1935) and Zeldovich (1942) for isothermal nucleation. It is based on the phenomenological concept of a droplet that is viewed as a group of molecules which interact strongly among themselves and weakly with the rest of the system. According to the classical theory, the nucleating cluster is treated with equilibrium thermodynamics as a macroscopic droplet whose free energy of formation depends crucially on the bulk surface tension. The nucleation rate depends exponentially on the reversible work of cluster formation, since nucleation is an activated process.
The kinetics by which small clusters of the new phase gain or lose molecules is based on ideas developed in chemical kinetics. It is assumed that clusters grow or shrink via the gain or loss of single molecules, an approximation that is reasonable for the condensation at low pressures of nonassociated vapours. However, the classical theory, being a phenomenological approach, lacks a sound microscopic foundation.
Homogeneous unary (single-component) nucleation occurs in a supersaturated vapour. The saturation ratio of a chemical species A in air at temperature T is defined as:
2.9
where pA is the partial pressure of the condensable gaseous species A and is the saturation pressure of A, which is in equilibrium with the liquid phase at temperature T (over a planar vapour–liquid interface).
The theory of nucleation is based on the solution of a system of equations that describes the concentration variation of clusters with the addition or subtraction of molecules (Debenedetti, 1996). It is assumed that clusters impact with air molecules at a rate that is equilibrated thermally at time periods that are small compared with that necessary for the addition or subtraction of a molecule. This denotes that the clusters have the same temperature as their environment. In the atmosphere, homogeneous nucleation occurs mainly with the participation of two or more chemical compounds.
The kinetic method of the nucleation theory assumes that clusters increase or decrease in size with the addition or removal of one molecule for nonassociated vapours. Therefore, if Ni(t) is the nonequilibrium number concentration of i-molecule clusters, the following equations describe the variation of the cluster concentration:
2.10
where βi is the forward (condensation) molecular flux per unit time and area at which an i-cluster gains a molecule and is the backward (evaporation) flux at which the cluster loses a molecule. (Equation 2.10 is a specific case of the GDE for single-molecule coagulation/fragmentation in the absence of other processes (see Equation 2.7) and constant single-molecule concentration.)
It is assumed that the cluster concentration is in steady state, and therefore all fluxes equal a stable flux J:
2.11
The expression for the nucleation flux can be derived as (Debenedetti, 1996; Lazaridis, 2011):
2.12
The evaporation rate αi is difficult to determine theoretically and therefore the kinetic problem for the evaluation of the nucleation flux becomes a problem of thermodynamics for the evaluation of the equilibrium droplet distribution. For this calculation, it is necessary to examine the energy required for cluster formation.
The radius of a cluster radius containing i* molecules is given by:
2.13
where υ′ is the molecular volume in the liquid phase, σ the surface tension and the difference in the chemical potentials between the liquid phase (cluster) and the gaseous phase. Under the assumption that the liquid is incompressible and the vapour an ideal gas, the chemical potential difference may be expressed via the saturation ratio .
The free energy of formation of an i-cluster is calculated using the capillarity approximation. In this approximation, the cluster free energy is determined by treating the cluster as an incompressible macroscopic spherical droplet with macroscopic (bulk and surface) properties. The droplet free minimum free energy, which is required for the formation of a cluster with i* molecules, can be expressed as:
2.14
It is further assumed that there exists an equilibrium distribution of clusters. Therefore, the cluster distribution can be expressed as:
2.15
where the free energy of an i-cluster is , is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature. The proportionality constant is taken to be the total gas (molecular) number density of the bulk metastable state .
The nucleation rate according to the classical theory can be expressed as:
2.16
where is a kinetic prefactor and is the free energy of formation of the critical droplet. The expression of the kinetic prefactor for unary nucleation may be written as (Lazaridis and Drossinos, 1997):
2.17
where A is the surface area of the droplet, β the average growth rate, Z the Zeldovich nonequilibrium factor and ρυ the number density of the condensable vapour. The growth rate, also known as the impingement rate per unit area, is calculated from the kinetic theory of gases (with a unity accommodation coefficient).
The Zeldovich nonequilibrium factor arises from the number fluctuations in the critical cluster:
2.18
The critical droplet free energy expressed in terms of the critical radius is:
2.19
For spherical clusters, the number i* of molecules in the critical cluster becomes:
2.20
where Δμ, which is less than 1, is the difference between the chemical potentials in the stable and metastable states (liquid and gaseous phase).
The final expression that gives the nucleation rate per unit volume according to the CNT becomes:
2.21
where the number density in the vapour phase is used: .
Note that the CNT expression is occasionally divided by the saturation ratio (Seinfeld and Pandis, 2006), a correction that arises from a different treatment of nucleation kinetics.
Detailed descriptions of the CNT and of other approaches to the study of nucleation are given by Debenedetti (1996) and Drossinos and Housiadas (2006).
2.3.2 Multicomponent Nucleation
‘Multicomponent nucleation’ refers to the nucleation process where mixtures of gaseous species are involved even under unsaturated conditions. This is contrary to unary nucleation, where supersaturation is required. Multicomponent nucleation has many applications in atmospheric conditions where several gaseous condensable species exist at low concentrations.
In a recent work, Kevrekidis et al. (1999) used the method introduced by Langer (1969) to derive the nucleation rate in binary systems. Their result is formally identical to Stauffer's (1976) result for binary nucleation, but much easier to evaluate. Accordingly, the binary nucleation rate for nonassociated vapours is (see also Drossinos and Housiadas, 2006):
2.22
where is the total number density of condensable vapours and Rij is the droplet growth tensor. The variable Dij is the matrix of second-order derivatives of the droplet free energy with respect to the number of molecules of each species evaluated at the saddle point. As in unary nucleation, the growth matrix is expressed as the product of the droplet surface area times the impingement rate of a molecule of species , , where is the Kronecker symbol (Drossinos and Housiadas, 2006).
2.3.3 Heterogeneous Nucleation
In the majority of cases, suspended particles exist in the atmosphere and phase transitions (nucleation) from the gaseous to the liquid phase occur on their surfaces. Suppose that a liquid embryo is formed on a particle surface. Heterogeneous nucleation upon insoluble particles takes place at lower saturation ratios than homogeneous nucleation. The minimum work required is given by Lazaridis, Kulmala and Laaksonen (1991):
2.23
where σ refers to the interfacial tensions between different phases, the indexes g, s and l to the phase being considered (g refers to the gaseous, s to the solid and l to the liquid phase) and n to the number of molecules in the cluster.
According to the classical theory, the free energy of formation of the critical cluster on a flat surface is modified as follows (Lazaridis, Kulmala and Laaksonen, 1991; Drossinos and Housiadas, 2006):
2.24
where the angle , which can vary from 0 to 180°, is the contact angle between the nucleating cluster and the solid substrate. For water nucleation, the solid is considered hydrophobic or hydrophilic according to whether the contact angle is greater or less than 90°.
As in the case of homogeneous nucleation, the heterogeneous nucleation rate Jhet can be expressed as a product of a kinetic prefactor times an Arrhenius factor:
2.25
The kinetic prefactor can be expressed as:
2.26
where Rgrowth is the cluster growth rate, Z the Zeldovich nonequilibrium factor and N the product of the total number of molecules adsorbed per unit seed particle surface area (Nads) and the available surface area (Aads) for adsorption per seed particle (Lazaridis, Kulmala and Laaksonen, 1991). A useful approximation is to consider Aads the surface area that yields the maximum nucleation rate (), where dp is the seed particle diameter, an approximation that allows multiple clusters per seed particle. Therefore, the heterogeneous nucleation rate can be written as:
2.27
The adsorbed molecules (Nads) have a concentration equal to , where βads is the collision rate of vapour molecules per unit surface area and τ the average time an adsorbed vapour molecule remains on the particle surface. The latter may be written as , where L is the heat of adsorption and Rg the gas constant. The characteristic time scale τo is the inverse vibrational frequency of two harmonically bound molecules , where U is the intermolecular interaction potential and mμ is the reduced mass.
The particle activation probability Pd(t) is the ratio of the concentration of activated particles Nd(t) to the initial (inactivated particle) concentration Nd,in:
2.28
where k is the activation rate per preexisting particle. If particle activation occurs via heterogeneous nucleation, the activation rate constant is taken to be the heterogeneous nucleation rate. Particles are considered to be activated once their activation probability is greater than or equal to 0.5. A detailed presentation of classical heterogeneous nucleation and its application to particle activation in condensation particle counters can be found in Giechaskiel et al. (2011).
2.3.4 Atmospheric Nucleation
New particle formation in the atmosphere has been observed in the vicinity of polluted sources and in clean, remote regions (Kulmala et al., 2004). Nucleation bursts (homogeneous nucleation) may be responsible for the occurrence of new particle formation in clean environments where the background aerosol concentration is low (Seinfeld and Pandis, 2006).
A main characteristic of a nucleation event is the increase in the aerosol number concentration at the ambient atmosphere. Figure 2.2
