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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
A timely volume for understanding our future energy landscape and for creating a bridge towards a decarbonized energy system Alternative and Unconventional Energy Sources discusses various alternative energy sources and their present usage, including wind, solar, ocean, and geothermal energy, along with unconventional fossil energy sources, such as shale gas. The text covers the development and global adoption of each energy source, along with their environmental and economic impacts, resulting in a comprehensive and in-depth treatment of the subject. This approach provides the reader with a one-stop reference for each particular energy source, making the information accessible to all, regardless of discipline or current level of experience with each energy source. Specific topics covered in Alternative and Unconventional Energy Sources include: * The controversial perception of shale gas and its future potential as an energy source * Technologies to reduce harmful emissions of CO2 and other waste gases and their potential to cause less global warming * Downsides of commonly accepted alternative energy sources, such as the disposal of nuclear waste and land requirements for solar panels * How undeveloped countries can make use of local energy sources to become more efficient and competitive Alternative and Unconventional Energy Sources is a highly accessible and useful resource for geographers, geologists, petroleum engineers, renewable energy specialists, and policy makers who wish to understand the current state of global energy production and where the industry may turn in the coming years.
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Alternative and Unconventional Energy Sources
Anurodh M. Dayal
Copyright © 2024 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Dayal, Anurodh M., author. | John Wiley & Sons, publisher.
Title: Alternative and unconventional energy sources / Anurodh M. Dayal.
Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : Wiley-Blackwell, [2024] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023032010 | ISBN 9781119500599 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119500728 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119500735 (epub) | ISBN 9781119500612 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Renewable energy sources. | Power resources.
Classification: LCC TJ808 .D38 2024 | DDC 621.042--dc23/eng/20230808
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023032010
Cover Image: © Ryan Janssens/Shutterstock
Cover Design: Wiley
Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd, Pondicherry, India
to my wife Mala
Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 Alternative and Unconventional Energy Sources
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Solar Energy
1.3 Wind Energy
1.4 Biofuel
1.5 Geothermal Energy
1.6 Hydro Energy
1.7 Ocean Energy
1.8 Shale Gas
1.9 Nuclear Energy
References
2 Solar Energy
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Sun
2.3 Solar Energy
2.4 Photovoltaic Cells
2.5 Electricity Generation
2.6 Solar Radiation for Architecture
2.7 Solar Heating
2.8 Solar Energy for Agriculture
2.9 Solar Energy for Transportation
2.10 Impact on the Environment
2.11 Advantages of Solar Energy
2.12 Global Development of Solar Energy
2.13 Conclusion
References
3 Wind Energy
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Transportation
3.3 Wind as an Energy Source
3.4 Development of Wind Energy
3.5 Wind Energy for Public Transport
3.6 Development of Wind Energy for the Next Decade
3.7 Impact on the Environment
3.8 Economic Impact
3.9 Performance of a Windmill
3.10 Reducing Carbon Emissions
References
4 Geothermal Energy
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Structure of the Earth
4.3 Plate Tectonics
4.4 The Mantle Plume
4.5 Geothermal Energy
4.6 The Production of Geothermal Power
4.7 Present Status of Geothermal Energy Globally
4.8 Advantages of Geothermal Energy
References
5 Ocean Energy
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Formation of the Ocean and Plate Tectonics
5.3 Generation of Ocean Energy
5.4 Wave Energy
5.5 Tidal Energy
5.6 The Thermal Energy of the Ocean
5.7 Marine Energy
5.8 Global Status of Ocean Energy
References
6 Biofuel
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Liquid Biofuel
6.3 Sources of Biofuel
6.4 Biodiesel
6.5 Biogas
6.6 The Use of Biogas on a Global Scale
6.7 Biofuel Contribution
6.8 Advantages of Biofuel
References
7 Shale Gas and Shale Oil
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Sandstone
7.3 Limestone
7.4 Shale
7.5 The Formation of Shale
7.6 Carbonaceous or Black Shales
7.7 Shale Gas
7.8 Shale Oil
References
8 Carbonaceous Shale and Diagenesis
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Different Weathering Processes
8.3 Depositional Environment
8.4 Physical Properties of Shale
8.5 Chemical Properties of Shale
8.6 Diagenesis of Shale
References
9 Hydraulic Fracturing
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Shale Gas Extraction
9.3 Preparation for Hydrofracking
9.4 Hydrofracking
9.5 Status of Hydrofracking
References
10 Impact on the Environment of Alternate Energy Sources
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Impact of Solar Energy
10.3 Impact of Wind Energy
10.4 Impact of Geothermal Energy
10.5 Impact of Hydro Energy
10.6 Impact of Ocean Energy
10.7 Impact of Biofuel
10.8 Impact of Shale Gas
10.9 Conclusion
References
11 The Development of Alternative Energy Sources and the Global Economy
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Different Energy Sources Over Time
11.3 Development of Alternative Energy Sources
11.4 Solar Energy
11.5 Wind Energy
11.6 Geothermal Energy
11.7 Ocean Energy
11.8 Biofuel
11.9 Economic Impact
11.10 Environmental Impact
References
12 Energy Explorations for the Next Decade
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Growth of Alternative Energy
12.3 Development of Energy Appliances
12.4 Storage of Renewable Energy
12.5 Advantages of Alternative Energy Sources
12.6 Economics of Alternative Energy
12.7 Conclusion
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
CHAPTER 02
Table 2.1 Composition of the Sun.
CHAPTER 03
Table 3.1 Countries with floating...
CHAPTER 04
Table 4.1 List of country...
CHAPTER 07
Table 7.1 List of countries with...
CHAPTER 10
Table 10.1 Additives in...
CHAPTER 11
Table 11.1 Solar power...
Table 11.2 Wind farm producing...
Table 11.3 Global production...
CHAPTER 12
Table 12.1 List of country...
List of Illustrations
CHAPTER 01
Figure 1.1 Conventional...
Figure 1.2 Open cast coal...
Figure 1.3 Fossil fuel...
Figure 1.4 Global temperature...
Figure 1.5 Ethanol production...
Figure 1.6 Shale gas production...
Figure 1.7 Hydrogen fuel bus in...
Figure 1.8 Solar energy and...
Figure 1.9 Solar spectrum...
Figure 1.10 Solar radiation...
Figure 1.11 Earth’s...
Figure 1.12 Frank Shuman...
Figure 1.13 Wind energy...
Figure 1.14 Global production...
Figure 1.15 Geothermal energy...
Figure 1.16 Geothermal energy...
Figure 1.17 Hydro energy...
Figure 1.18 Nuclear power...
CHAPTER 02
Figure 2.1 The Sun’s...
Figure 2.2 Our planetary...
Figure 2.3 Layers in the...
Figure 2.4 Variation of...
Figure 2.5 The Sun showing...
Figure 2.6 Fusion of hydrogen...
Figure 2.7 Solar radiation...
Figure 2.8 Printing in the...
Figure 2.9 Use of solar...
Figure 2.10 Global growth...
Figure 2.11 Cost of photovoltaic...
Figure 2.12 Storage of molten...
Figure 2.13 Solar power...
Figure 2.14 Parabolic...
Figure 2.15 Baradari...
Figure 2.16 Water distillation...
Figure 2.17 Process of...
Figure 2.18 Hydrogen cell...
Figure 2.19 Solar panel...
Figure 2.20 Global solar...
CHAPTER 03
Figure 3.1 Movement of air...
Figure 3.2 Solar radiation...
Figure 3.3 Movement of Earth...
Figure 3.4 Development of low...
Figure 3.5 Wind sock showing...
Figure 3.6 Global wind...
Figure 3.7 Anemometer for...
Figure 3.8 A is the flow...
Figure 3.9 Hurricane damage...
Figure 3.10 Ships in earlier...
Figure 3.11 Atmospheric...
Figure 3.12 Tower windmill...
Figure 3.13 Windmill with...
Figure 3.14 Windmill with...
Figure 3.15 Windmill with...
Figure 3.16 Windmills in...
Figure 3.17 Global energy...
Figure 3.18 Mini power...
CHAPTER 04
Figure 4.1 Accretion process...
Figure 4.2 Our planetary...
Figure 4.3 Earth’s...
Figure 4.4 Earth’s...
Figure 4.5 Three type of...
Figure 4.6 Interior structure...
Figure 4.7 Different tectonic...
Figure 4.8 Tsunami activity...
Figure 4.9 Geothermal activity...
Figure 4.10 Convergent plate...
Figure 4.11 Mantle plume from...
Figure 4.12 Hot spot and volcanic...
Figure 4.13 Linear volcanic...
Figure 4.14 Geothermal energy...
Figure 4.15 Flash steam power...
Figure 4.16 Direct steam generation...
Figure 4.17 Temperature profile...
Figure 4.18 Pacific ring of...
Figure 4.19 Mid-Atlantic...
Figure 4.20 IBM Arc.(Source: Wikipedia).
Figure 4.21 Production of...
CHAPTER 05
Figure 5.1 Ocean and sky...
Figure 5.2 Temperature gradient...
Figure 5.3 Global ocean energy...
Figure 5.4 Underwater turbine...
Figure 5.5 The use of wave...
Figure 5.6 Osmotic power plant...
Figure 5.7 Accretion process.(Source: Wikipedia).
Figure 5.8 The evolution...
Figure 5.9 Model for different...
Figure 5.10 Convergent, divergent, and...
Figure 5.11 Subduction at convergent...
Figure 5.12 Different layers...
Figure 5.13 Tidal wave...
Figure 5.14 Generation of...
Figure 5.15 A power generation...
Figure 5.16 A tidal turbine...
Figure 5.17a and 5.17b Production of...
CHAPTER 06
Figure 6.1 Renewable energy...
Figure 6.2 Carbon dioxide...
Figure 6.3 Greenhouse gas...
Figure 6.4 Production of...
Figure 6.5 The process of...
Figure 6.6 Carbon dioxide...
Figure 6.7 Bioethanol used...
Figure 6.8 Biodiesel.(Source: Wikipedia).
Figure 6.9 Wheat.(Source: Wikipedia).
Figure 6.10 Maize.(Source: Wikipedia).
Figure 6.11 A variety of...
Figure 6.12 Production of...
Figure 6.13 Sale of ethanol...
Figure 6.14 Rudolf Diesel....
Figure 6.15 Locomotive with...
Figure 6.16 Biogas production....
Figure 6.17 Production of...
Figure 6.18 Public transport...
Figure 6.19 Biogas fuel station...
Figure 6.20 Global biofuel...
CHAPTER 07
Figure 7.1 Rift basin formed...
Figure 7.2 Back arc and fore...
Figure 7.3 Formation of trench...
Figure 7.4 Stretching of lithosphere...
Figure 7.5 Sedimentary rock...
Figure 7.6 Sedimentary rocks...
Figure 7.7 Sandstone.(Source: Wikipedia).
Figure 7.8 Deposition environment...
Figure 7.9 Jaisalmer living...
Figure 7.10 Jain temple and...
Figure 7.11 Limestone rock...
Figure 7.12 Limestone...
Figure 7.13 Speleothems.(Source: Wikipedia).
Figure 7.14 The Great Pyramid...
Figure 7.15 Taranaki basin...
Figure 7.16a Shale deposited...
Figure 7.17 Black or carbonaceous...
Figure 7.18 Shale formation...
Figure 7.19 Formation of fossils...
Figure 7.20 The process of...
Figure 7.21 Shale gas deposits...
Figure 7.22 Retort distillation...
Figure 7.23 Pollution from shale...
CHAPTER 08
Figure 8.1 Hurricane and...
Figure 8.2 Snow fall at...
Figure 8.3 Tectonic plate...
Figure 8.4 Delta formation.(Source: Wikipedia).
Figure 8.5 The Ganges delta...
Figure 8.6 A continental shelf...
Figure 8.7 An active continental...
Figure 8.8 A foreland...
Figure 8.9 Coagulation...
Figure 8.10 The flaky...
Figure 8.11 Spectral...
Figure 8.12 Different depositional...
Figure 8.13 Different depositional...
Figure 8.14 Ripple marks on...
Figure 8.15 Core from drill...
Figure 8.16 The color of shale...
Figure 8.17 World energy...
CHAPTER 09
Figure 9.1 Global oil and...
Figure 9.2 Hydrofracking.(Source: Wikipedia).
Figure 9.3 Thermal decomposition...
Figure 9.4 Seismic...
Figure 9.5 Deep structure...
Figure 9.6 Grid pattern for...
Figure 9.7 Rock-Eval Pyrolysis...
Figure 9.8 Platform for...
Figure 9.9 Storage reservoir for...
Figure 9.10 Hydraulic fracking...
Figure 9.11 Horizontal...
Figure 9.12 Variation of...
CHAPTER 10
Figure 10.1 The large area...
Figure 10.2 Water for a panel...
Figure 10.3 Wind turbines....
Figure 10.4 Ocean-based ...
Figure 10.5 Earth’s...
Figure 10.6 Movement of...
Figure 10.7 (a) Geothermal...
Figure 10.8 Use of large land area for...
Figure 10.9 Large-scale....
Figure 10.10 Impact on a river...
Figure 10.11 Induced seismicity...
Figure 10.12 Flood at Koshi...
Figure 10.13 Tidal energy...
Figure 10.14 Using buoys...
Figure 10.15 Extraction of...
Figure 10.16 Site for shale...
Figure 10.17 Basic infrastructure...
CHAPTER 11
Figure 11.1 The growth of...
Figure 11.2 The growth of...
Figure 11.3 The growth of...
Figure 11.4 The exponential...
Figure 11.5 Windmills...
Figure 11.6 Global installed...
Figure 11.7 Wind energy...
Figure 11.8 Development...
Figure 11.9 Top ten countries...
Figure 11.10 A geothermal...
Figure 11.11 Tidal power plant...
CHAPTER 12
Figure 12.1 The growth of...
Figure 12.2 Total world energy...
Figure 12.3 Nuclear warship...
Figure 12.4 Three Gorges hydro...
Figure 12.5 Growth of wind power...
Guide
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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Preface
Energy is a basic need for all living beings. Initially wood was the source of energy and still used as fuel and as a light source in poor countries. The discovery of coal replaced wood to a certain extent. With the development of the creation of electrical power, the demand for coal increased and at the same time the amount of carbon dioxide in our environment increased. The discovery of oil did not replace coal as a power source as it still used to produce electricity. With industrial development the requirement for energy grew very fast. The development of the automotive and aviation industries, as well as appliances for all types of housework, required energy. As the population increased so did the demand for energy. In the past century, there have been big changes in the transport industry. The discovery of oil allowed for the production of different types of vehicles for the transport of man and material. In addition rail, tram, and metro systems require energy. Similarly, the aviation and shipping industries also require energy to transport large quantities of material and humans quickly from one country to another country. Large road infrastructures have been developed for the automotive industry. There is a natural carbon cycle and if no anthropogenic carbon dioxide is added to the environment it works fine. However, the increasing use of oil and coal, added more carbon dioxide into the environment. If the natural environment balance is disturbed then, naturally, there will be some impact to our climate. In past 150 years carbon dioxide level in the environment has increased to 428 ppm (parts per million). With development pollution in the environment has also increased. Together they are responsible for excess heat and the temperature of ocean water has increased 25 °C. Such changes are responsible for climate change over the past 50 years.
In past 50 years hurricane activity has increased all over the world. In the month of March 2023 alone southeast United States has experienced more than 30 hurricanes. The change of climate has created drought in some countries and excess rain in others. In past 5 years severe winters with heavy snowfall and freezing rains have been reported. To tackle increasing environment pollution representatives from many met at Kyoto, Japan in 1996, and discussed the issues. They decided the steps required to reduce emission levels of greenhouse gases to preindustrialization level. Coal and oil are a limited resource and the price of oil is increasing with great demand. With increasing prices of oil and also environment pollution there is a need to use alternate energy sources that are free from environment pollution.
To replace conventional oil and coal, solar radiation is a good source of energy. Solar power is available for the next 2.5 billion years and has no environment pollution. Solar energy is responsible for the process of photosynthesis and the growth of plants and trees. In past 50 years there has been growth in the production of electrical power from solar radiation. Photovoltaic cells were developed and large-size batteries used to store the solar energy have also been produced. Such batteries are required for electrical vehicles. For household purposes solar energy can also be used. With the growing demand of solar energy, there is large-scale manufacturing of solar panels and their installation. It is believed that by 2050, 50% of global power requirement will be met by solar energy. However, solar energy has limited availability and some other source of energy is required for a continuous power supply. Solar energy panels need regular cleaning from dust and will require replacing after a certain length of time.
Air is freely available, again free of cost like solar radiation and this air can be used to produce electrical power. Wind energy has been used by the shipping industry and now also by the aviation industry. In European countries windmills were used to draw water from wells and also to grind food grains, such as wheat. Using them to produce electrical power as an alternate power source to replace conventional energy sources was a new step. Innovation of windmills to produce power is a good source of energy. A large number of windmills can provide continuous power though it will not be consistent as it will change with the speed of the air. Windmills can be installed in arid regions and in agricultural fields as they do not require a large area like solar panels. Windmill fixed in agricultural fields can provide extra earnings for the farmer. There is no environment pollution from windmills apart from a small amount of noise and the death of birds. They can also interfere with communication lines but they provide a good source of energy and now a few multinational companies are manufacturing these plants. In next 30 years windmills will be producing 50% of the global demand. Windmills have a long life and do not require regular changes of parts.
Other sources of energy are geothermal, wave, biofuel, hydro, nuclear, and shale gas. Geothermal energy is available at limited places at active plate boundaries. At few countries like Iceland are using geothermal power for warming residential and commercial accommodation as well as for power production. It is expected that in the future there will be further development of geothermal energy for power generation. Ocean waves are a good source of energy and with 70% of the earth’s surface being covered by oceans it can fulfil the global energy requirement. However, so far it is under developed and few countries are producing power using ocean energy. If developed well it can provide good quantity of power on a global scale. Biofuel is a good source of energy and it can provide bioethanol, biodiesel, biogas, and solid cooking cakes. In cities sewage water can be used to produce biogas and organic manure. Now European countries are seeking a green aviation fuel to reduce pollution to the environment. Biogas can be produced in large dairy farms and it can be used by local people and industry as fuel.
Hydro energy has been used for a long time all over the world to produce power. Large reservoirs are constructed across rivers and the potential energy of water is converted into kinetic energy as water is released downward for the operation of power turbines. To ensure a continuous supply, water can be pumped back up to the reservoir using solar or wind energy. Hydro-energy plants require rainfall and in cases of drought there will be no power generation. Hydro energy is available at low cost and globally it is being exploited for power production. Nuclear energy is another energy source that is pollution free but it is expensive to set up and a limited quantity of thorium and uranium as the fuel is available. Many countries are setting up new nuclear energy plants and many countries currently nuclear energy as a power source.
The most frequently developed unconventional energy is shale gas. Shale gas is like conventional gas but its extraction method is completely different. Carbonaceous shale provides reservoirs of shale gas and the exploitation of shale gas started in the past decade. At present shale gas extraction technology is available for US oil companies, which they are exploiting to a large extent. In the United States there is financial support for the oil companies to move from conventional oil to nonconventional shale gas. In the past 10 years, the United States has stopped importing oil from the Persian Gulf and other countries as well as gas from Canada. At present the United States is not importing oil or gas and has a surplus of oil and gas to export to different countries. The opportunities for utilizing shale gas are very limited due to contamination of ground water and the emission of methane to the environment. The International Energy Agency expects that by 2050, oil- and coal-based energy will be replaced by nonconventional energy.
Dr Anurodh M. DayalFormer CSIR-NGRI Emeritus ScientistNGRI, Hyderabad, India
Acknowledgments
I thank the American Geophysical Union for an invitation to write a book on alternate and unconventional energy sources. I also thank the Director General of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) New Delhi and the Director of the National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad, from where I retired in January 2012. I was awarded the position of Emeritus Scientist for the period of five years (February 2012 to January 2017) by CSIR to work on my project on the exploration of shale gas in the Cambay Basin and to write a book on shale gas exploration and its environmental and economic aspects. I gratefully thank my wife Mala for her support while I was writing this book.
Anurodh M. Dayal
1 Alternative and Unconventional Energy Sources
1.1 Introduction
Solar and wind are the only unlimited energy sources available to our planet, and will provide us energy for the next 2.5 billion years. Solar energy is used practically for many purposes like cooking, drying, agriculture, and transportation. It is also responsible for the formation of all the energy sources like coal and petroleum. The global weather system also depends on the Sun and for centuries all living beings used the products of Sun like rain, vegetation, and large forests. The photosynthesis process responsible for the growth of plants and trees is due to solar energy (Cantor 1993; Clark and Jacks 2010).
Wind energy was used for sailing small boats on rivers and ships on seas and oceans. The basic transport system from one continent to another continent relied on wind energy. Until the nineteenth century and even today in rural areas, wood from a forest supplied the main energy source for cooking food and warming accommodation in cold countries. Wind is still used for shipping and flying. In European countries wind energy was used for pumping water from wells, agriculture, and the grinding of cereals for food. Such windmills can still be seen in parts of Europe in particular the Netherlands. Solar, wind, bio, hydro, and geothermal energies are classified as renewable energy sources. Wood, coal, fossil fuel, and nuclear are considered conventional energy sources and they also have a large impact on our climate and environment (Figure 1.1). Nonconventional energy resources contribute to the increase in ocean temperature and the large amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. These environment pollutions disturb our climate system and we are experiencing the results in the form of drought, and excess rain and snowfall.
Figure 1.1 Conventional and nonconventional energy sources. (Source:Biju.com.)
As the population grew and the demand for wood increased in the fifteenth century forests were not able to meet the demand of human beings globally. They looked for alternative sources of energy to overcome the shortage of wood. In the sixteenth century coal was discovered and it was used as alternative source of energy to compensate for the shortage of wood and also to halt deforestation. Over time, the understanding of the term alternative energy has changed. For the following couple of centuries coal was used as alternative source of energy to replace wood and even today coal is used to generate electricity and in many industries like iron smelting and in boilers in the cotton industry where steam is an important part of the manufacturing process (Figure 1.2). Coal has played an important role in the transport industry in the form of steam railways. Even today coal is used as an energy source to generate almost 50% of global power. In the United States after the discovery of shale gas some of the coal-based power plants have been converted to gas-fueled power plants to reduce the emission of carbon dioxide. In developing countries coal is used as a main source of energy.
Figure 1.2 Open cast coal mine. (Source: Wikipedia).
Later, in the nineteenth century, the discovery and use of hydrocarbons slowly replaced the use of coal. With the growth of industrialization in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, demand for energy also grew. The extremely high rate of use of coal and hydrocarbons as the main source of energy has impacted Earth’s climate and environment. With the rapid growth of industrialization the demand for fossil fuel increased and global prices of hydrocarbon also increased. With increasing prices of hydrocarbon and environment pollution, people began looking for cheaper environment-friendly sources of energy. Now there is a need for an alternative source of energy with no or minimal pollution.
The carbon dioxide level is increasing and global sea water temperatures are rising. The use of fossil fuels in very large amounts is responsible for global changes in climate and environment pollution (Figure 1.3). Excess climate change in the form of rain, snow blizzards, and drought on a global scale forced countries to look to alternative sources of energy (Figure 1.4). Automotives are one of the main users of energy and contribute to major pollution on a global scale. As an alternative source to replace petrol and diesel, Alexander Graham Bell, in 1917, suggested making ethanol using potato, corn, and sugar cane. In 1970, Brazil took the ethanol project to a large scale and in 2008, Brazil became the largest producer of ethanol. All light motor vehicles in Brazil use ethanol as fuel (Figure 1.5) (Isaia et al. 2004; Bundy and Sotero 2007). Now many countries are blending 20% ethanol with petrol as automotive fuel. At present ethanol is prepared from corn, sugar cane, and potato starch. With the increasing prices of hydrocarbon in 1970, the United States began a project developing coal gasification to reduce the import of oil from the Persian Gulf. In 2000 the United States began to develop the use of shale gas as an alternative source of energy and by 2010 it was developed as the country’s main source of energy, it also has the advantage of a low air pollution level (Figure 1.6). In the past decade and a half, the development of shale energy has changed the entire global oil market and the price of oil came down from US$ 110 per barrel to less than US$ 30 per barrel in 2020. With the Russian invasion of Ukraine and the ban on purchase of oil from Russia by the United States and European countries the price of petrol again climbed to US$ 140 per barrel but later came down to US$ 80 per barrel. India and China have chosen to refuse to condemn Russia and therefore ignore the ban and are now major buyers of Russian oil. India is also selling oil products like aviation fuel, diesel, and petrol to European countries.
Figure 1.3 Fossil fuel and its life cycle. (Source: Wikipedia).
Figure 1.4 Global temperature and emission of carbon dioxide. (Source: Wikipedia).
Figure 1.5 Ethanol production in Brazil. (Source: Wikipedia).
Figure 1.6 Shale gas production in the United States from 2000. (Source: Wikipedia).
The increased quantity of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere along with the increase of sea water temperatures at the end of the twentieth century, encouraged people to think again about alternative sources of energy to replace fossil fuel (Jacobson et al. 2017). Now the exploration was for renewable energies that are available from natural resources. These could be solar, wind, ocean, shale gas, geothermal, and biomass. Biomass is a good source of energy but it produces greenhouses gases and is unsuitable (Bundy and Sotero 2007). Renewable methanol can be produced from hydrogen and the recycling of carbon dioxide by catalytic hydrogenation (Bell 1917). This methanol can be mixed with a fossil fuel in a fixed quantity. Since 2011, in Iceland, 2 million liters of methanol has been produced from the flue exhaust of power stations (IRENA 2016). In Germany a similar plant was setup by an automobile company to reduce the use of fossil fuel.
Recycling of carbon dioxide and the production of synthetic methanol is good for the environment. In the photosynthetic process, algae convert carbon dioxide and solar energy into biomass and oxygen. Biomass can be used as renewable energy source. Hydrogen is also a good source of energy and can be produced by the electrolysis of water (Melis and Happe 2001). Research is in progress to use solar energy for the electrolysis of water to produce hydrogen as fuel. Hydrogen gas can be produced by fermentation of single cell organisms (Jupe et al. 2007). Currently, many countries, including India, are working on hydrogen fuel cells for the automotive industry. A few public buses using hydrogen cells as fuel are operating in India on a trial basis (Figure 1.7). Indian railways have planned trains operating with hydrogen cells as fuel. However, the storage and distribution of hydrogen as a source of energy provides another challenge as it is explosive when it comes in contact with air at a high temperature.
Figure 1.7 Hydrogen fuel bus in India. (Source: Wikipedia).
Water stored as potential energy in the form of reservoirs is producing electricity globally, particularly where water is available in sufficient quantity or there is good rainfall in a monsoon season. Presently a large quantity of energy is produced by hydroelectricity on a global scale. Hydroelectricity has the disadvantage that it is a variable energy source and other energy sources are required to compensate for the nonfunction of hydro power. Hydroelectricity and solar energy as a combination are a good source of energy. In the case of excess solar energy, it can be used to pump back the water being used in hydroelectricity generation; a process already being used in some countries. The exploitation of shale gas as a nonconventional energy source was a good step, but again, the source is limited to a few countries and it is accompanied by the emission of methane (a greenhouse gas). Now we are seeking an energy source with no pollution to our environment and marine life. The nonconventional energy sources available are solar, wind, geothermal, and biofuel. Here we discuss these energy sources noting their benefits and also impacts to environment and marine life.
Four hundred years ago the main source of energy was solar energy; the discovery of coal and hydrocarbon were much later discoveries. In forest areas there is plenty of wood and it is a common source of energy for cooking food, house building, and later transportation with the discovery of wheels. Horse, bull, and camel carts were common modes of transport for man and material. Wood was also used for making boats and ships for transporting man and material from one continent to another. A number of countries were discovered using wooden ships, for example, by Vasco da Gama and Columbus. For sailing, wind is used as the source of energy. Solar energy is the main source for the growth of plants, trees, and living beings. Dry wood was used, for example, to make houses, furniture, musical instruments, cooking, and as a light source during the night. In fact, human beings’ living is based on the solar system. Living beings used to wake up from sleep with sun rise and the Sun was a clock for them. The entire routine from morning to evening was based on solar radiation.
1.2 Solar Energy
The Sun is basically a star, like many other stars, but it is closest to our Earth system, and has the surface area of 6.09 × 1012 square km. The density of the Sun’s core is 162.2 gram per cubic centimeter, which is 28 times more than Earth’s density. The surface temperature of the Sun is 5,800 K while the temperature of core of the Sun is 15 × 106 K. The surface we see from Earth is the outer most surface of the Sun called the photosphere (Figure 1.8). Earth receives all its heat from this surface. Solar energy is the main source of energy for all living beings on land and in water. Sunlight provides energy for the growth of plants. Solar energy has been available to Earth from its formation around 4.5 billion years ago. This energy will be available to us for the next 2.5 billion years. The basic composition of the Sun is 80% hydrogen and 20% helium gas. The nuclear fusion process converts hydrogen into helium with the production of a large amount of heat energy. In nuclear fusion two light atoms combine to form a heavier atom, which releases a large amount of kinetic energy in the form of heat. Every 1 m2 of Sun radiates approximate 63 MW (megawatt) of power to Earth (Holm 2012; Pauschinger 2012). With the large distance between the Sun and the Earth a very small amount of solar energy reaches Earth. The solar spectrum is nothing but the temperature at the surface of the Sun. The solar spectrum contains visible light, infrared light, and ultra violet light (Figure 1.9).
Figure 1.8 Solar energy and nuclear fusion of hydrogen to helium. (Source: Wikipedia).
Figure 1.9 Solar spectrum with different wave lengths. (Source: Wikipedia).
Radiations from the Sun are partially absorbed by carbon dioxide, ozone, and moisture in the atmosphere (Lackner et al. 2012). As the Sun and Earth are both rotating on their orbits with different speeds the solar radiation will vary from place to place and depends on the distance between the Sun and the Earth at that time. As the Earth moves at an angle the radiation received at a single point will vary from morning to evening. Maximum radiation is received at the tropics and tropical countries can take maximum advantage of solar energy. Solar energy is responsible for the evaporation of water from rivers, seas, and oceans and this evaporated water enters the atmosphere and converts to form clouds and some water comes back to Earth in the form of rain. In fact, its closed water cycle depends completely on solar energy. Rain, floods, and cyclones are the product of solar energy. Living beings also divide their working schedule as per the Sun clock. The Sun clock is still the main time clock though the advanced version of the atomic clock, the quartz clock, and the mechanical clock have come with the industrial development. The Sun is the only source of energy for our planet Earth and all living beings could survive for the next 2.5 billion years (Goeppert et al. 2012). The amount of solar radiation by time of day is given in Figure 1.10.
Figure 1.10 Solar radiation with time and wave length in nanometers. (Source: Wikipedia).
The sources of fossil fuel energy, like coal and hydrocarbon, are the products of solar energy as solar radiation was responsible for the growth of tree and marine life. Even today the complete climate system is based on solar radiation. Pollution of the environment due to fossil fuels also impacts our climate system and now we experience extreme weather condition. Solar energy is also responsible for wind formation as the flow of wind depends on the temperature difference from one place to another. Other biofuels and sea-wave energy are the result of solar energy, in an indirect way. The Sun is responsible for the various hydrological cycles on our planet (Figure 1.11). Solar radiation heats the land, ocean, and atmosphere with some radiations reflected back. Changes in the Earth’s rotation and orbit around the Sun changes the radiation received at the Earth’s surface. In reality the entire energy budget is controlled by solar radiation.
Figure 1.11 Earth’s water cycle. (Source: Wikipedia).
In the past 200 years, with rapid industrial development, there has been a change in the earlier energy cycle. Additional energy produced by various energy sources by human beings is responsible for disturbing the normal climate cycle (Figure 1.11) and also for the increase in greenhouse gases. With increasing environment pollution, it is necessary to search for alternative energy sources for future decades. Among the alternative energy sources, solar and wind are available to us for long periods without any major environmental pollution. Using solar radiation as a source to produce electrical power is solar energy. Solar energy is also used for heating water and in agriculture. Solar radiation can be concentrated using lenses, mirrors, and photovoltaic cells to produce electrical energy on a large scale. In the United States such procedures are being used to generate electrical power on a large scale. The voltage produced by these devices, using solar energy, is 12 to 24 volts direct current and we use 110–220 volts alternating current in equipment used in homes and in industry. This low voltage direct current is converted to an alternating current 50–60 cycle per second and stepped up to the high voltage of the transmission line voltage or grid voltage using transformers so that it can be transported to where it is required with low transmission loss.
Though solar power is not available to us around the clock it can be accumulated in high-capacity batteries. Solar energy is a renewable energy, has been used historically, and will be used in the future as the main source of energy. We use solar radiation as a passive source of energy. Solar energy is used directly, for example, in sea water evaporation and in drying cereals and indirectly in photovoltaic cells. As per the world energy assessment the total Sun energy available to us is 1,580 to 49,840 exajoules per annum (UNDP 2000; IEA 2014). This is much higher than the total world energy consumption. Development of solar energy will be pollution free, environment friendly, and reduce the use of fossil energy sources. Earth receives 175 peta-watts of solar radiation, 30% of this radiation is reflected, while the remaining 70% comes to Earth and is absorbed by the land mass, oceans, and other bodies. Through photosynthesis green plants convert solar energy into chemical energy and this helps some plants grow into big trees, which can be used later us fuel, and fruit bearing plants and trees that provide food to all living beings. The total solar radiation absorbed by the Earth is 385,000 exajoules per annum (Philibert 2005). The potential of solar energy is very large but it varies geographically.
Tropical regions receive maximum solar radiation, while the poles receive the least solar radiation. Insolation of Earth also plays an important role for solar radiation. The use of solar energy also depends on the land available for fixing photovoltaic cells: waste land and roofs are useful places for fixing photovoltaic cells. According to the World Energy Council (UNDP 2000) the estimated global potential of solar energy is more than 50,000 exajoules per annum. The first solar engine was produced by Frank Shuman (Figure 1.12) of the United States in 1897. Shuman made the first solar thermal energy plant of 45–50 kilowatts (KW) in 1913 in Egypt.
Figure 1.12 Frank Shuman and his thermal plant in 1907. (Source: Wikipedia).
For domestic use solar radiation can be used to heat the water to a temperature of 50–60 °C. A solar cooker can be used for cooking food. Evaporation of sea water for drinking purpose is one use for solar radiation. Solar energy can be used for the treatment of industrial waste water without using any chemicals. Solar energy plays an important role in architecture. Earlier in history builders used solar radiation while designing palaces, forts, and residential buildings for better air circulation. Solar radiation is a good light source and also helps in air ventilation as wind normally moves from a lower temperature place to a higher temperature place. Easterly and westerly winds are basically influenced by solar radiation on ocean and land surfaces. Productivity from plants is related to the amount of solar radiation the plant receives. It helps to increase production in plants and trees. A greenhouse converts solar light into heat and nowadays greenhouses are used to grow various fruits and vegetable in different climate zones.
Solar energy can be used for transportation directly and indirectly. Currently there is development of various transport vehicles like boats, ships, cars, and airplanes using solar energy as the energy source. Electrolysis of water to separate hydrogen and oxygen using solar energy will be useful in making hydrogen fuel cells as source of energy (Holte et al. 2010). Solar energy can be converted into electrical energy. Photovoltaic cells convert solar energy into electrical energy. The first photovoltaic cell was developed in 1880, by Charles Fritts. It is estimated that 50% of global energy will be solar power by 2030 and by 2050 the major energy source will be solar energy. Solar energy is going to be the cheapest form of energy in the future with no environmental pollution and source is going to last for the next 2.5 billion years. As the cost of solar energy will be less, compared to fossil fuel and coal, it is going to be used globally. In solar energy, photovoltaic cells play an important role and with increasing demand new developments will bring down the cost of photovoltaic cells. Many countries in Europe are going to use solar energy as the main source of energy in the next few years. Solar cells in photovoltaic systems with batteries have a limited life and need replacement after a certain time. With the increasing use of solar energy, the amount of waste product from solar energy will also increase and already countries are working on the recycling of material used in solar-energy systems. This step is encouraging to support solar energy as an alternative source of energy in future decades. In 2019, the production of global solar energy was 629 GW, with China as major player producing 200 GW of solar energy. Other countries producing solar energy are the United States (76,000 MW), India (43,000 MW), Japan (63,000 MW), Germany (49,000 MW), Australia (14,500 MW), the United Kingdom (13,300 MW), and Vietnam (4,800 MW).
1.3 Wind Energy
Wind is the second most powerful source of alternative energy (Hulazan 2011). However, the Sun is responsible for generating wind. Wind movements are based on air density, which is again based on solar radiation. Wind always moves from cooler places to hotter places and the wind direction and speed are related to solar radiation. Wind is an equally important source of energy for living beings. Wind consists of air, which contains 27% oxygen that is essential for human and animal survival. In earlier periods, wind direction was responsible for the movement of ships from one continent to another. Even today for ships and airplanes, wind plays an important role in their operation. The shipping industry is the major transport industry for transporting large amounts of material from one place to another across the globe. At present waterways in the form of shipping are the biggest transportation system globally.
Wind also controls the rain during the monsoon season and in tropical regions rain is the main source of water for agriculture. With scientific and technical development, wind energy will be one of the main sources of energy in future decades. With the development of good efficient turbines wind can produce large amounts of energy with minimum environment pollution. Wind turbines turn wind energy into mechanical energy, which runs the turbines and generates electrical power. Like solar energy, wind energy is available globally and can be used as a source of energy to replace the highly polluting coal and fossil fuel sources worldwide. Many countries in Europe and Asia are using wind energy as an alternative source of energy. Wind energy is clean, environment friendly, and has no greenhouse gas emissions. Nowadays wind farms with many turbines are connected to the main grid system and the power is used for various purposes. Wind power does not provide uniform power all the time as it is related to wind speed, which is not uniform throughout the day.
Earlier, windmills were used as source of energy in many European countries and even today one can see these windmills in the Netherlands and Spain. These windmills were the main source of energy and by the end of eighteenth century more than 50,000 windmills were in operation in Europe alone. The addition of a generator in the windmill, to convert mechanical energy in to electrical energy, was a great discovery (GWEC 2011). In 1887, Professor James Blyth of Scotland converted wind power to electrical energy and this electrical energy was used to light a lamp. Wind energy is also used for the movement of ships on the oceans, for the commercial transportation of goods from one continent to another. Today China produces the largest quantity of wind energy. Other large producers are Europe, United States, Australia, Japan, Canada, South America, and India. Presently Denmark is generating more than 50% of its energy requirement from wind as the main source of energy and plan to use 100% by 2020. Globally many countries in Europe and Asia are using wind as alternative source of energy.
Wind farms (Figure 1.13) consist of a large number of wind turbines connected to the main grid system. Initially, induction generators were used to generate wind power from the turbines but, with development of technology, variable speed turbines are now used for generating power from the turbines. Normally wind turbines are fixed on land surfaces but in few European countries, wind turbines are operating offshore too. The wind speed offshore is twice that onshore and offshore turbines produce more energy than those onshore. Portugal was the first country to use wind power from offshore wind turbine (Hulazan 2011). Now there are offshore wind turbines in Sweden to generate electrical power. Presently more than 20 TWh (terawatt-hour) of power is generated using wind turbines in Europe alone. Presently more than 200,000 wind turbines are in operation globally.
Figure 1.13 Wind energy farm. (Source: Wikipedia).
The growth of wind power is 20 to 25% per annum (Elliott et al. 1992). Wind power is now a very large power industry globally. In Europe generation of wind power has increased and power generation from fossil fuels has decreased. Like fossil fuels the power generation from wind turbines is not fixed but its generation depends on wind speed and weather but average production from the wind farm can be calculated based on past records. Wind power generation is much more environment friendly and wind energy is going to continue as long as we have solar radiation to our planet. Globally by the end of 2020 total wind energy production was 743 GW. The major producers of wind energy are China (282,000 MW), Europe (200,000 MW), the United States (118,000 MW), and India (38,000 MW).
1.4 Biofuel
Biofuel is another renewable energy source with low pollution and low effect on the environment (Bundy and Sotero 2007). Biofuel is produced by biological process. Sources of biofuel could be vegetation and industrial and domestic waste. Biofuel can be produced by thermal conversion, chemical conversion, and biochemical conversion. Ethanol is a biofuel produced from starch and malt from a sugar factory. Corn, sugarcane, and sorghum are sources of biofuel. Bioethanol is produced from corn; malt is used as fuel in vehicles. Biodiesel can be used for private and commercial vehicles. Global ethanol production is more than 100 million tons of oil equivalent. The largest amount of biodiesel is produced in Europe. By 2050 biodiesel will be a major fuel for vehicles all over the world. Conventional biofuel is made from food crops and vegetable oil. It is produced from fats, vegetable oil, rapeseed, jatropha, flax seed, sunflower seed, palm oil, and algae. Algal and marine wastes are another source of biofuel. Oil rich algae can be a good source of biofuel. Biologically produced alcohols are ethanol and propanol produced by the action of micro-organisms and enzymes with the process of fermentation of sugar, starch, and cellulose. Ethanol is the most widely used biofuel globally and is mixed with petrol in small amounts, as the energy per unit volume for ethanol is less than that for petrol. Biodiesel is the most widely used biofuel in European countries. Biodiesel reduces emissions up to 60% compared to conventional diesel. Biodiesel is a very good solvent and removes all the residues deposited by mineral diesel. Biodiesel is an oxygenated fuel, contains a low amount of carbon, and has a higher hydrogen and oxygen content than mineral diesel. Biodiesel is nontoxic and biodegradable, with a higher flash point compared to mineral diesel.
Methanol is a biofuel produced from natural gas and shale gas. Production of methanol as biofuel is not much in use except in the United States and some South American countries. Hydrocracking of animal fats and vegetable oils produces green diesel. Green diesel is a renewable fuel but is still under development. Used vegetable oil is also used to produce biodiesel. The composition of biodiesel is the same as fossil diesel. This allows for no changes to existing engine systems and can be used directly in vehicles using fossil diesel. Hydrogenation of oil and fat can be made into biodiesel. Bio-ether is a good biodiesel produced from wheat or sugar beet. Bio-ethers improve engine performance and reduce the wear and tear on engines. Biogas is methane gas produced by anaerobic digestion of organic matter. It can be produced from biodegradable waste material. Biogas can be produced from municipal waste. Cattle waste is another source of biogas.
Syngas consists of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and hydrocarbons. It is produced by partial combustion of biomass. Syngas can be used directly in engines, turbines, and fuel cells. Methanol, hydrogen, and dimethyl ether can be produced from syngas using the Fisher process. Wood, saw dust, grass trimmings, domestic waste, charcoal, agricultural waste, energy crops, and dried manure are sources of biomass that can be used to make different types of fuel cakes for domestic and industrial use. Solid biomass is the waste product of agriculture and domestic and industrial waste that does not impact the food source chain. However, the use of biomass in the form of cells or pellets is not good for the environment as there is an emission of greenhouse gases.
Biofuels are different from fossil fuel due to the emission of greenhouse gases. The use of biofuels in large quantities is not environmentally friendly as there is production of nitrous oxide. Biofuels impact the economy, environment pollution, and social systems. Biofuel in the form of liquid is commonly used mixed with fossil fuel. Globally 600 TWh of biofuel is produced with exponential growth. Major producers of biofuel are the United States, Brazil, and Indonesia (Figure 1.14).
Figure 1.14 Global production of biofuel. (Source: Wikipedia).
1.5 Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is another renewable alternative energy source available to us. The source of geothermal energy is the interior heat of the Earth. In the Earth’s interior heat is produced by various chemical reactions, which include nuclear reactions (Pollack et al. 1993). The temperature at the core mantle boundary is 4000 °C. Such a high temperature melts the various rocks in the Earth’s interior and some of the heat moves towards the outer surface of the Earth in the form of convection currents. Globally 11,300 MW power is available from geothermal sources. Geothermal power is environment friendly and a renewable energy source. Geothermal power is available to us as continuous source of energy and can be used for various domestic and industrial purposes, without a major impact to environment.
