Alternative Energy and Shale Gas Encyclopedia E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Wiley Series on Energy
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 2559

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016

Beschreibung

A comprehensive depository of all information relating to the scientific and technological aspects of Shale Gas and Alternative Energy

• Conveniently arranged by energy type including Shale Gas, Wind, Geothermal, Solar, and Hydropower
• Perfect first-stop reference for any scientist, engineer, or student looking for practical and applied energy information
• Emphasizes practical applications of existing technologies, from design and maintenance, to operating and troubleshooting of energy systems and equipment
• Features concise yet complete entries, making it easy for users to find the required information quickly, without the need to search through long articles

Leseprobe

ALTERNATIVE ENERGY AND SHALE GAS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Edited by

JAY H. LEHREditor-in-Chief

JACK KEELEYSenior Editor

THOMAS B. KINGERYInformation Technology

Copyright © 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, [phone], fax [phone], or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, [phone], fax [phone], or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Alternative energy and shale gas encyclopedia / edited by Jay H. Lehr, editor-in-chief ; Jack Keeley, senior editor ; Thomas B Kingery, Information Technology.         pages cm     Includes index.     ISBN 978-0-470-89441-5 (cloth)     1. Renewable energy sources–Encyclopedias.2. Shale gas–Encyclopedias.I. Lehr, Jay H., 1936- editor. II. Keeley, J. W. (Jack W.), editor.III. Kingery, Thomas B., editor.     TJ807.4.E53 2015     621.04203–dc23

2014049361

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION: ENERGY DRIVES

EVERYTHING

INTRODUCTION

SOME FUNDAMENTALS

ENERGY IS NOT POWER AND POWER IS NOT ENERGY

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

SUMMARY

NOTES

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

PART I WIND

1 ACCEPTANCE OF WIND POWER: AN INTRODUCTION TO DRIVERS AND SOLUTIONS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.2 THE TRADITIONAL DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES

1.3 DYNAMIC EFFECTS FROM WIND POWER DEVELOPMENT

1.4 OFFSHORE WIND FARMS A FUTURE SOLUTION?

1.5 WIND POWER DEVELOPMENT AND THE DEMAND FOR OTHER RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

1.6 CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

2 WIND POWER FORECASTING TECHNIQUES

2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.2 NUMERICAL WEATHER PREDICTION MODELS

2.3 PERSISTENCE MODELS

2.4 CHOOSING FORECAST PARAMETERS

2.5 STATISTICAL AND NEURAL NETWORK METHODS

2.6 ADAPTIVE NEURO-FUZZY INFERENCE SYSTEMS

2.7 CASE STUDY

REFERENCES

3 MAXIMIZING THE LOADING IN WIND TURBINE PLANTS: (A) THE BETZ LIMIT, (B) DUCTING THE TURBINE

3.1 THE WIND TURBINE EFFICIENCY

3.2 THE BETZ LIMIT

3.3 THE DUCTED WIND TURBINE

REFERENCES

4 MODELING WIND TURBINE WAKES FOR WIND FARMS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

4.2 EMPIRICAL METHODS TO ESTIMATE WAKE RECOVERY

4.3 COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

4.4 ROTOR MODELING TECHNIQUES

4.5 WIND TURBINE SIMULATIONS

4.6 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

5 FATIGUE FAILURE IN WIND TURBINE BLADES

5.1 INTRODUCTION

5.2 DAMAGE INSPECTION IN REAL TURBINE BLADES

5.3 EVALUATION OF FATIGUE LIFE

5.4 FINITE ELEMENT MODEL OF THE BLADE

5.5 DISCUSSIONS

5.6 CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

6 FLOATING WIND TURBINES: THE NEW WAVE IN OFFSHORE WIND POWER

6.1 INTRODUCTION

6.2 CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

7 WIND POWER—AEOLE TURNS MARINE

7.1 INTRODUCTION

7.2 THE WIND TURBINE

7.3 UNITED STATES AND EUROPEAN UNION

7.4 NOT IN MY BACKYARD

7.5 MARKET “EXPLOSION” AND ENVIRONMENTAL OBJECTIONS

7.6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

7.7 CONCLUSIONS

7.8 MARINE ENERGY2

NOTE

REFERENCES

8 IMPACTS OF WIND FARMS ON WEATHER AND CLIMATE AT LOCAL AND GLOBAL SCALES

8.1 OBSERVED IMPACTS

8.2 HOW WIND TURBINES INTERACT WITH THE ATMOSPHERE

8.3 HOW WIND FARMS ARE REPRESENTED IN WEATHER AND CLIMATE MODELS

8.4 IMPACTS OF WIND FARMS ON LOCAL METEOROLOGY

8.5 IMPACTS OF WIND FARMS ON REGIONAL AND GLOBAL CLIMATE

8.6 MINIMIZING IMPACTS

8.7 CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSIONS

REFERENCES

9 POWER CURVES AND TURBULENT FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF VERTICAL AXIS WIND TURBINES

9.1 RESIDENTIAL AND SMALL BUSINESS WIND POWER

9.2 SMALL WIND TURBINE DESIGNS

9.3 DEVELOPING A VARIABLE-GEOMETRY POWER CORRELATION FOR A VERTICAL AXIS WIND TURBINE

9.4 FORMULATION OF FLUID FLOW FOR NUMERICAL PREDICTIONS OF SMALL WIND TURBINES

9.5 POWER CORRELATION FOR A UNIQUE VERTICAL AXIS WIND TURBINE

9.6 CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

10 WINDMILL BRAKE STATE MODELS USED IN PREDICTING WIND TURBINE PERFORMANCE

10.1 BACKGROUND

10.2 BLADE ELEMENT MOMENTUM THEORY

10.3 WINDMILL BRAKE STATE MODELS

10.4 COMPARISON OF WINDMILL BRAKE STATE MODELS

REFERENCES

11 LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF WIND TURBINES AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA

11.1 INTRODUCTION

11.2 STATISTICAL PARAMETERS OF LIGHTNING CURRENTS

11.3 LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF WIND TURBINES

11.4 SOME CONCERNS REGARDING THE OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION OF WIND FARMS

11.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS

REFERENCES

12 WIND TURBINE WAKE MODELING—POSSIBILITIES WITH ACTUATOR LINE/DISC APPROACHES

12.1 INTRODUCTION

12.2 NUMERICAL MODEL

12.3 RESULT

12.4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

13 RANDOM CASCADE MODEL FOR SURFACE WIND SPEED

13.1 INTRODUCTION

13.2 THE “M-RICE” TIME SERIES MODEL OF WIND SPEED

13.3 APPLICATION TO WIND SPEED PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION ESTIMATION

13.4 APPLICATION TO SHORT-TERM FORECASTING

NOTES

REFERENCES

14 WIND POWER BUDGET

14.1 INTRODUCTION

14.2 WIND BUDGET EQUATION IN THE SURFACE BOUNDARY LAYER (SBL)

14.3 MONIN–OBUKHOV SIMILARITY THEORY AND MEAN WIND PROFILES IN THE SBL

14.4 MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY OF A WIND TURBINE (BETZ'S LAW)

14.5 FROUDE NUMBER AND BOUNDARY LAYER AIRFLOW ADJUSTMENT OVER COMPLEX TERRAIN

REFERENCES

15 IDENTIFICATION OF WIND TURBINES IN CLOSED-LOOP OPERATION IN THE PRESENCE OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL TURBULENCE WIND SPEED: TORQUE DEMAND TO MEASURED GENERATOR SPEED LOOP

15.1 INTRODUCTION AND MOTIVATION OF THE WORK

15.2 SELECTION OF THE EXPERIMENT FOR IDENTIFYING A DATA-BASED MODEL

15.3 THE PROCEDURE FOR WT IDENTIFICATION OPERATING IN CLOSED LOOP: THE TORQUE LOOP

15.4 MODEL IDENTIFICATION RESULTS

15.5 CLOSED-LOOP PERFORMANCE

15.6 DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS

15.7 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

NOMENCLATURE

NOTES

REFERENCES

16 IDENTIFICATION IN CLOSED-LOOP OPERATION OF MODELS FOR COLLECTIVE PITCH ROBUST CONTROLLER DESIGN

16.1 INTRODUCTION

16.2 COLLECTIVE PITCH CONTROL LOOP

16.3 CLOSED-LOOP OUTPUT ERROR IDENTIFICATION ALGORITHM IN THE PRESENCE OF NONLINEAR CONTROLLERS

16.4 CLOSED-LOOP IDENTIFICATION SIMULATIONS FOR COLLECTIVE PITCH CONTROL LOOP

16.5 IDENTIFIED MODELS

16.6 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

APPENDIX A. MODEL COMPARISON: IDENTIFIED MODELS VERSUS LINEARIZED MODELS

NOMENCLATURE

ABBREVIATIONS

NOTES

REFERENCES

17 WIND BASICS—ENERGY FROM MOVING AIR

17.1 WIND BASICS

17.2 ELECTRICITY GENERATION FROM WIND

17.3 WHERE WIND IS HARNESSED

17.4 TYPES OF WIND TURBINES

17.5 HISTORY OF WIND POWER

17.6 WIND ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

17.7 DRAWBACKS OF WIND TURBINES

NOTE

18 WIND—CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

PART II SOLAR

19 SOLAR AIR CONDITIONING

19.1 INTRODUCTION

19.2 REFRIGERATION PROCESS

19.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR SORPTION AIR CONDITIONERS

19.4 A DEEPER INSIGHT INTO SOLAR ABSORPTION AIR CONDITIONING

19.5 FINAL REMARKS: ADVANTAGES AND MAIN DRAWBACKS

REFERENCES

20 ENERGY PERFORMANCE OF HYBRID COGENERATION VERSUS SIDE-BY-SIDE SOLAR WATER HEATING AND PHOTOVOLTAIC FOR SUBTROPICAL BUILDING APPLICATION

20.1 HYBRID SOLAR VERSUS SIDE-BY-SIDE SYSTEMS

20.2 EXPERIMENTAL SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

20.3 MATHEMATICAL MODELING

20.4 NUMERICAL MODEL DEVELOPMENT AND VERIFICATION

20.5 CASE STUDY FORMULATION

20.6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

20.7 CONCLUSION

20.8 NOMENCLATURE

REFERENCES

21 POLYCRYSTALLINE SILICON FOR THIN FILM SOLAR CELLS

21.1 INTRODUCTION

21.2 TRENDS IN PHOTOVOLTAICS

21.3 SILICON-BASED SOLAR CELLS

21.4 HIGH-TEMPERATURE APPROACH

21.5 LOW-TEMPERATURE APPROACH

21.6 CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

22 SOLAR BASICS – ENERGY FROM THE SUN

22.1 SOLAR BASICS

22.2 WHERE SOLAR IS FOUND

22.3 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC

22.4 SOLAR THERMAL POWER PLANTS

22.5 SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTORS

22.6 SOLAR ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

NOTE

23 NASA ARMSTRONG FACT SHEET: SOLAR-POWER RESEARCH

23.1 BACKGROUND

23.2 SOLAR CHALLENGER

23.3 THE ERAST PROJECT

23.4 AIRCRAFT SPECIFICATIONS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

24 SOLAR THERMAL – CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

25 PHOTOVOLTAIC – CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

PART III GEOTHERMAL

26 GEOTHERMAL: HISTORY, CLASSIFICATION, AND UTILIZATION FOR POWER GENERATION

26.1 INTRODUCTION

26.2 THE EARTH STRUCTURE

26.3 NATURE AND CONSTITUENT OF GEOTHERMAL FLUID

26.4 HISTORY OF GEOTHERMAL

26.5 CLASSIFICATION OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

26.6 UTILIZATION OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY FOR POWER GENERATION

26.7 GEOTHERMAL TO POWER PRODUCTION FOR SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENT: PRESENT AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

26.8 CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

27 ENHANCED GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS

27.1 INTRODUCTION

27.2 HDR GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES AND ENHANCED GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS

27.3 EGS TO DATE

27.4 FRACTURE MODELLING FOR EGS

27.5 FLUID FLOW MODELING FOR EGS

27.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS

REFERENCES

28 THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS

28.1 INTRODUCTION

28.2 GEOTHERMAL CYCLES

28.3 FIRST LAW ANALYSIS

28.4 SECOND LAW ANALYSIS

28.5 AN APPLICATION

28.6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

28.7 CONCLUSIONS

28.8 NOMENCLATURE

REFERENCES

29 SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT OF GEOTHERMAL POWER GENERATION

29.1 INTRODUCTION

29.2 PRESENT STATUS OF THE GEOTHERMAL POWER

29.3 SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS OF GEOTHERMAL POWER

29.4 COMPARISON OF SUSTAINABILITY OF GEOTHERMAL POWER WITH CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION TECHNOLOGIES

29.5 CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

30 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY AND ORGANIC RANKINE CYCLE MACHINES

30.1 INTRODUCTION

30.2 THE GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE

30.3 ORGANIC RANKINE CYCLE TECHNOLOGIES

30.4 NEW ORGANIC RANKINE CYCLE MACHINES FOR GEOTHERMAL APPLICATION

30.5 CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

31 LOW TEMPERATURE GEOTHERMAL ENERGY: GEOSPATIAL AND ECONOMIC INDICATORS

31.1 INTRODUCTION TO GEOSPATIAL MODELLING OF THE GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE

31.2 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF LOW-TEMPERATURE GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE

31.3 SPATIAL EXPLORATORY ANALYSIS OF GEOTHERMAL ECONOMY

31.4 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS OF REGIONAL MODELING OF RENEWABLE RESOURCES

NOTES

REFERENCES

32 DRY COOLING TOWERS FOR GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS

32.1 SELECTION OF COOLING METHODS FOR GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS

32.2 AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS

32.3 MECHANICAL DRAFT DRY COOLING TOWER

32.4 NATURAL DRAFT DRY COOLING TOWER

32.5 DEVELOPMENTS OF DRY COOLING TECHNOLOGIES FOR GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS

REFERENCES

33 THERMAL STORAGE

33.1 THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE

33.2 SENSIBLE THERMAL STORAGE

33.3 LATENT THERMAL STORAGE

33.4 THERMOCHEMICAL THERMAL STORAGE

33.5 COMPARISON OF THERMAL STORAGE TYPES

33.6 DESIGN, OPERATION, AND ECONOMICS OF THERMAL STORAGE

33.7 BENEFITS OF THERMAL STORAGE

33.8 APPLICATIONS OF THERMAL STORAGE

33.9 EXAMPLES

33.10 CLOSING REMARKS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

34 SHALLOW GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS: COMPUTATIONAL CHALLENGES AND POSSIBILITIES

34.1 INTRODUCTION

34.2 SHALLOW GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS

34.3 HEAT EQUATIONS IN SHALLOW GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS

34.4 ANALYTICAL AND SEMI-ANALYTICAL MODELING OF SHALLOW GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS

34.5 NUMERICAL MODELING OF SHALLOW GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS

34.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS

REFERENCES

35 GEOTHERMAL BASICS—WHAT IS GEOTHERMAL ENERGY?

35.1 GEOTHERMAL BASICS

35.2 WHERE GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IS FOUND

35.3 USE OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

35.4 GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS

35.5 GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMPS

35.6 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

36 GEOTHERMAL—CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

PART IV HYDROPOWER

37 SUSTAINABILITY OF HYDROPOWER

37.1 DIMENSIONS OF SUSTAINABILITY

37.2 NATIONAL REGULATIONS

37.3 INTERNATIONAL GUIDELINES

37.4 BANK SAFEGUARDS

37.5 CORPORATE RESPONSIBILITY INSTRUMENTS

REFERENCES

38 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES RELATED TO CONVENTIONAL HYDROPOWER

38.1 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

38.2 REGULATORY CRITERIA FOR SURVIVAL AND WATER QUALITY

38.3 METHODS AND EFFORTS TO ADDRESS ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

38.4 ENVIRONMENTAL-FRIENDLY HYDROPOWER SYSTEMS

REFERENCES

39 SOCIAL ISSUES RELATED TO HYDROPOWER

39.1 SOCIAL ISSUES

39.2 SOCIAL GROUPS

39.3 SOCIAL MANAGEMENT

NOTES

REFERENCES

40 SAFETY IN HYDROPOWER DEVELOPMENT AND OPERATION

40.1 INTRODUCTION

40.2 ACCIDENT RISKS IN HYDROPOWER DEVELOPMENT AND OPERATION

40.3 MANAGEMENT OF ACCIDENT RISKS

40.4 MITIGATION OF ACCIDENT RISKS IN SELECTED AREAS

REFERENCES

41 PUMPED HYDROELECTRIC STORAGE

41.1 INTRODUCTION

41.2 DEVELOPMENT OF PUMPED HYDRO ENERGY STORAGE

41.3 FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF PUMPED HYDRO ENERGY STORAGE

42 GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM HYDROELECTRIC DAMS IN TROPICAL FORESTS

42.1 INTRODUCTION

42.2 TYPES OF EMISSION

42.3 CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

43 PHYSICAL AND MULTIDIMENSIONAL NUMERIC HYDRAULIC MODELING OF HYDROPOWER SYSTEMS AND RIVERS

43.1 INTRODUCTION

43.2 SELECTED CASE STUDIES

43.3 SUMMARY

REFERENCES

44 EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL MODELING TOOLS FOR CONVENTIONAL HYDROPOWER SYSTEMS

44.1 UNDERWATER ACOUSTIC TELEMETRY

44.2 FIXED-ASPECT HYDROACOUSTICS

44.3 FIXED-ASPECT HYDROACOUSTIC SYSTEMS

44.4 ACOUSTIC SCREEN MODEL

44.5 PRESSURE TESTING

CASE STUDY

44.6 BIOTELEMETRY

CASE STUDY

44.7 SENSOR FISH

44.8 BLADE-STRIKE MODELING

REFERENCES

45 THE STATE OF ART ON LARGE CAVERN DESIGN FOR UNDERGROUND POWERHOUSES AND SOME LONG-TERM ISSUES

45.1 INTRODUCTION

45.2 A SURVEY ON LARGE UNDERGROUND CAVERNS

45.3 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY OF CAVERNS

45.4 CAVERN DESIGN LOADS AND DIMENSIONING OF SUPPORT MEMBERS

45.5 METHODS FOR CALCULATING THE DESIGN SUPPORT LOADS AND COMPARISONS AGAINST LOCAL INSTABILITY MODES

45.6 SOME LONG-TERM ISSUES

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

46 HYDROELECTRIC POWER FOR THE NATION

46.1 HYDROELECTRIC POWER FOR THE NATION

46.2 WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF HYDROPOWER

46.3 HYDROPOWER AND THE ENVIRONMENT

47 HYDROPOWER BASICS—ENERGY FROM MOVING WATER

47.1 HYDROPOWER GENERATES ELECTRICITY

47.2 HYDROPOWER RELIES ON THE WATER CYCLE

47.3 MECHANICAL ENERGY IS HARNESSED FROM MOVING WATER

47.4 HISTORY OF HYDROPOWER

47.5 WHERE HYDROPOWER IS GENERATED

47.6 HYDROPOWER AND THE ENVIRONMENT

47.7 TIDAL POWER

47.8 WAVE POWER

47.9 OCEAN THERMAL

48 HYDROPOWER—CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

PART V BATTERIES AND FUEL CELLS

49 FUEL CELL CONTROL

49.1 INTRODUCTION

49.2 CONTROL OBJECTIVES

49.3 CONTROL PROBLEM FORMULATION

49.4 CONTROL STRUCTURES

49.5 DYNAMIC MODELS FOR CONTROL

49.6 CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

50 RECENT TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF PROTON EXCHANGE MEMBRANE FUEL CELL SYSTEMS

50.1 INTRODUCTION

50.2 FUEL SOURCES FOR HYDROGEN PRODUCTION

50.3 FUEL PROCESSING FOR PEMFCS

50.4 PEMFC SYSTEM AT REFORMATE GAS OPERATION

50.5 PROSPECT OF USING AN INTEGRATED PEMFC SYSTEM FOR STATIONARY AND AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATIONS

50.6 CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

51 INTEGRATED SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL SYSTEMS FOR ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION—A REVIEW

51.1 INTRODUCTION

51.2 FUNDAMENTAL OF SOFC SYSTEM

51.3 SOFC-INTEGRATED PROCESSES

51.4 SOFC WITH HYDROGEN PRODUCTION SYSTEM

51.5 SOFC WITH GAS TURBINE

51.6 SOFC–GT HYBRID SYSTEMS

51.7 FUEL PROCESSOR COMBINED WITH SOFC–GT HYBRID SYSTEM

51.8 COMBINED COOLING, HEATING, AND POWER GENERATION FOR SOFC SYSTEM

51.9 CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

REFERENCES

52 POLYMER ELECTROLYTES FOR LITHIUM SECONDARY BATTERIES

52.1 INTRODUCTION

52.2 POLYMER ELECTROLYTES

52.3 BATTERY TECHNOLOGY

52.4 LOOKING TO THE FUTURE

REFERENCES

53 RECYCLING AND DISPOSAL OF BATTERY MATERIALS

53.1 INTRODUCTION

53.2 CHEMISTRY OF BATTERIES

53.3 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES RELATING TO SPENT BATTERY DISPOSAL

53.4 DISPOSAL OPTIONS

53.5 THE CHALLENGES OF RECYCLING

53.6 RECYCLING AND RECOVERY METHODS

53.7 DEVELOPING CELL TECHNOLOGIES AND IMPLICATIONS FOR RECYCLING

REFERENCES

54 AC OR DC

PART VI RENEWABLE ENERGY CONCEPTS

55 WILL RENEWABLES CUT CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS SUBSTANTIALLY?

55.1 INTRODUCTION

55.2 INTERMITTENCY, STORAGE, AND BACKUP

55.3 AUTOMOBILE FUEL EFFICIENCY

55.4 CONCLUSIONS

NOTES

56 THE CONCEPT OF BASE-LOAD POWER

56.1 BALANCING SUPPLY AND DEMAND IN CONVENTIONAL SYSTEMS

56.2 ENTER THE NEW RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

56.3 FLEXIBLE AND VARIABLE RENEWABLE ELECTRICITY SOURCES

56.4 DEMAND REDUCTION AND “SMART” GRIDS

56.5 CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

57 TIDAL POWER HARNESSING

57.1 INTRODUCTION

57.2 THE ANCESTORS OF THE TIDAL POWER PLANT

57.3 THE EXISTING TIDAL POWER PLANTS

57.4 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

57.5 MODUS OPERANDI MODIFICATIONS AT THE RANCE

57.6 NEW TURBINES

57.7 TIDE CURRENT [TIDAL STREAM]

57.8 NEW APPROACHES AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES

NOTES

REFERENCES

58 THE LOADING OF WATER CURRENT TURBINES: THE BETZ LIMIT AND DUCTED TURBINES

58.1 INTRODUCTION

58.2 THE BETZ ANALYSIS AND THE CORRESPONDING LIMIT

58.3 CAVITATION AND MULTISTAGED TURBINES

58.4 FREE SURFACE IMPLICATIONS

58.5 DUCTED MARINE TURBINE CONCEPTS

REFERENCES

59 BOTTLED GAS AS HOUSEHOLD ENERGY

59.1 PATTERNS OF HOUSEHOLD ENERGY USE

59.2 LPG SUPPLY AND ECONOMICS

59.3 FACTORS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD CHOICE OF LPG

59.4 LPG MARKETS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

59.5 CONTRIBUTING TO UNIVERSAL ACCESS TO MODERN ENERGY

NOTE

REFERENCES

60 EXERGY ANALYSIS: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

60.1 INTRODUCTION

60.2 DEFINITION OF EXERGY

60.3 REFERENCE ENVIRONMENT FOR EXERGY

60.4 EXERGY QUANTITIES

60.5 EXERGY BALANCE

60.6 EXERGY ANALYSIS

60.7 EXERGY EFFICIENCIES

60.8 BENEFITS OF EXERGY ANALYSIS

60.9 EXERGY ANALYSIS AND ECONOMICS

60.10 EXERGY ANALYSIS AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

60.11 APPLICATIONS OF EXERGY ANALYSIS

60.12 CASE STUDY 1: NATIONAL ENERGY SYSTEM

60.13 CASE STUDY 2: COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT

60.14 TUTORIAL ON APPLYING EXERGY ANALYSIS TO PROCESSES RELATING TO POWER GENERATION AND COGENERATION

60.15 CLOSING REMARKS

NOMENCLATURE

REFERENCES

61 GLOBAL TRANSPORT ENERGY CONSUMPTION

61.1 GLOBAL TRANSPORT ENERGY STATISTICS: PAST AND PRESENT

61.2 GLOBAL TRANSPORT ENERGY PROJECTIONS

61.3 FUTURE TRANSPORT: ENERGY USE, EFFICIENCY

REFERENCES

62 BIOMASS: RENEWABLE ENERGY FROM PLANTS AND ANIMALS

62.1 BIOMASS BASICS

62.2 WOOD AND WOOD WASTE

62.3 WASTE-TO-ENERGY

62.4 BIOGAS

62.5 BIOMASS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

NOTE

63 PLANTING AND MANAGING SWITCHGRASS AS A BIOMASS ENERGY CROP

63.1 INTRODUCTION

63.2 ESTABLISHING SWITCHGRASS

63.3 POSSIBLE REASONS FOR POOR STAND ESTABLISHMENT

63.4 FERTILIZATION NEEDS IN THE FIRST AND SUBSEQUENT YEARS

63.5 SOIL CONDITIONS AT HARVEST

63.6 HARVEST MANAGEMENT

63.7 WILDLIFE CONSIDERATIONS

63.8 STAND LONGEVITY

REFERENCES

64 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE—CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

65 ETHANOL—CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

66 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF METHANE HYDRATE BY EXPERIMENT AND MODELING AND IMPACTS UPON TECHNOLOGY

66.1 INTRODUCTION

66.2 EXPERIMENTAL MEASURMENTS

66.3 MOLECULAR DYNAMIC SIMULATIONS

66.4 RESERVOIR SIMULATION

66.5 CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

NOMENCLATURE

SUBSCRIPTS

REFERENCES

PART VII SHALE GAS

67 SHALE GAS WILL ROCK THE WORLD

67.1 CORRECTION AND AMPLIFICATION

68 WHAT IS SHALE GAS?

68.1 WHAT IS SHALE GAS AND WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

68.2 HORIZONTAL DRILLING AND HYDRAULIC FRACTURING

68.3 THE UNITED STATES HAS ABUNDANT SHALE GAS RESOURCES

68.4 ENOUGH FOR 110 YEARS OF USE

68.5 WHAT IS A SHALE “PLAY”?

68.6 HORIZONTAL DRILLING

68.7 HYDRAULIC FRACTURING

68.8 SHALE GAS VERSUS CONVENTIONAL GAS

68.9 NATURAL GAS: A CLEAN-BURNING FUEL

68.10 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

69 DIRECTIONAL AND HORIZONTAL DRILLING IN OIL AND GAS WELLS

69.1 WHAT IS DIRECTIONAL DRILLING?

69.2 WHY DRILL WELLS THAT ARE NON-VERTICAL?

69.3 ROCK UNITS THAT BENEFIT MOST FROM HORIZONTAL DRILLING

69.4 HORIZONTAL DRILLING AND HYDRAULIC FRACTURING IN SHALES

69.5 DRILLING METHODOLOGY

69.6 A NEW LEASE AND ROYALTY PHILOSOPHY

70 HYDRAULIC FRACTURING OF OIL AND GAS WELLS DRILLED IN SHALE

70.1 WHAT IS HYDRAULIC FRACTURING?

70.2 HOW LONG HAS HYDRAULIC FRACTURING BEEN USED?

70.3 SUCCESSFUL USE OF HYDRAULIC FRACTURING IN SHALE

70.4 HYDRAULIC FRACTURING IN OTHER SHALE PLAYS

70.5 FRACTURING FLUIDS

70.6 PROPPANTS

70.7 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

70.8 PRODUCTION BENEFITS

71 HYDRAULIC FRACTURING: A GAME-CHANGER FOR ENERGY AND ECONOMIES

71.1 INTRODUCTION

71.2 THE EXTRACTION PROCESS

71.3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

71.4 OIL AND GAS REGULATION

71.5 CONCLUSION

NOTES

72 ZERO DISCHARGE WATER MANAGEMENT FOR HORIZONTAL SHALE GAS WELL DEVELOPMENT

72.1 CURRENT STATE OF TECHNOLOGY

72.2 DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES

72.3 FUTURE

REFERENCES

73 ABOUT OIL SHALE—WHAT IS OIL SHALE?

73.1 WHAT IS OIL SHALE?

73.2 OIL SHALE RESOURCES

73.3 THE OIL SHALE INDUSTRY

73.4 OIL SHALE MINING AND PROCESSING

73.5 SURFACE RETORTING

73.6 IN SITU RETORTING

REFERENCES

74 NATURAL GAS BASICS—HOW WAS NATURAL GAS FORMED?

74.1 HOW DO WE GET NATURAL GAS?

74.2 GETTING NATURAL GAS TO USERS

74.3 WHAT IS LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS?

74.4 WHERE OUR NATURAL GAS COMES FROM

74.5 NATURAL GAS IMPORTS AND EXPORTS

74.6 USES OF NATURAL GAS

74.7 NATURAL GAS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

NOTES

75 NATURAL GAS—CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

75.1 NATURAL GAS

76 ENERGY MINERAL DIVISION OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF PETROLEUM GEOLOGISTS, SHALE GAS AND LIQUIDS COMMITTEE ANNUAL REPORT, FY 2014

INTRODUCTION

ANTRIM SHALE (DEVONIAN), MICHIGAN BASIN, USA

BAKKEN FORMATION (UPPER DEVONIAN–LOWER MISSISSIPPIAN), WILLISTON BASIN, USA

BARNETT SHALE (MISSISSIPPIAN), FORT WORTH BASIN, USA

EAGLE FORD SHALE AND TUSCALOOSA MARINE SHALE (CRETACEOUS), GULF COAST BASIN, USA

REFERENCES

FAYETTEVILLE SHALE (MISSISSIPPIAN), ARKOMA BASIN, USA

HAYNESVILLE/BOSSIER SHALE (JURASSIC), TEXAS AND LOUISIANA, USA

REFERENCES

MAQUOKETA AND NEW ALBANY SHALES, ILLINOIS BASIN

REFERENCES

MARCELLUS SHALE (DEVONIAN) – APPALACHIAN BASIN, USA

REFERENCES

NIOBRARA FORMATION (CRETACEOUS), ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION, USA

REFERENCES

UTAH SHALES, USA

REFERENCES

UTICA SHALE (ORDOVICIAN), APPALACHIAN BASIN, USA

REFERENCES

WOODFORD SHALE (LATE DEVONIAN-EARLY MISSISSIPPIAN), ANADARKO, ARKOMA, AND ARDMORE BASINS, USA

REFERENCES

CANADIAN SHALES

REFERENCES

SHALE GAS/SHALE OIL IN EUROPE

REFERENCES

APPENDIX 1.

APPENDIX 3

CHINA SHALE GAS AND SHALE OIL

INDEX

EULA

List of Tables

Introduction

Table I.1

Table I.2

Table I.3

Table I.4

Chapter 2

Table 2.1

Table 2.2

Table 2.3

Table 2.4

Table 2.5

Table 2.6

Chapter 5

Table 5.1

Table 5.2

Table 5.3

Table 5.4

Table 5.5

Table 5.6

Table 5.7

Table 5.8

Chapter 9

Table 9.1

Chapter 10

Table 10.1

Chapter 11

Table 11.1

Table 11.2

Table 11.3

Chapter 16

Table 16.1

Chapter 19

Table 19.1

Chapter 20

Table 20.1

Table 20.2

Table 20.3

Table 20.4

Table 20.5

Table 20.6

Chapter 26

Table 26.1

Table 26.2

Table 26.3

Chapter 27

Table 27.1

Chapter 28

Table 28.1

Table 28.2

Chapter 29

Table 29.1

Table 29.2

Table 29.3

Table 29.4

Table 29.5

Table 29.6

Table 29.7

Chapter 30

Table 30.1

Chapter 31

Table 31.1

Table 31.2

Table 31.3

Table 31.4

Chapter 33

Table 33.1

Table 33.2

Table 33.3

Table 33.4

Table 33.5

Table 33.6

Table 33.7

Table 33.8

Table 33.9

Table 33.10

Chapter 40

Table 40.1

Chapter 45

Table 45.1

Table 45.2

Table 45.3

Table 45.4

Chapter 50

Table 50.1

Table 50.2

Table 50.3

Table 50.4

Chapter 52

Table 52.1

Table 52.2

Table 52.3

Chapter 53

Table 53.1

Table 53.2

Chapter 59

Table 59.1

Table 59.2

Table 59.3

Table 59.4

Chapter 60

Table 60.1

Table 60.2

Table 60.3

Table 60.4

Table 60.5

Table 60.6

Table 60.7

Table 60.8

Table 60.9

Table 60.10

Table 60.11

Table 60.12

Table 60.13

Table 60.14

Table 60.15

Table 60.16

Chapter 61

Table 61.1

Table 61.2

Chapter 63

Table 63.1

Table 63.2

Table 63.3

Table 63.4

Table 63.5

Chapter 66

Table 66.1

Chapter 71

Table 71.1

Chapter 76

Table 76.1

Table 76.2

Table 76.3

Table 76.4

Table 76.5

Table 76.6

Table 76.7

Table 76.8