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- Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Understand the technology that will power our future with this comprehensive guide
Energy supply is perhaps the most challenging engineering problem and social and economic issue of the modern age. Energy storage technologies and in particular batteries are an important option to optimize energy supply systems both technically and economically. They help to drive down costs, make new products and services possible and can reduce emissions. Batteries are now key components for vehicles, portable products and the electricity supply system. Understanding batteries, in particular the two dominant battery technologies, lead-acid and lithium-ion, has therefore never been more essential to technological developments for these applications.
Battery Technology: Fundamentals of Battery Electrochemistry, Systems and Applications offers a comprehensive overview of how batteries work, why they are designed the way they are, the technically and economically most important systems and their applications. The book begins with background information on the electrochemistry, the structure of the materials and components and the properties of batteries. The book then moves to practical examples often using field data of battery usage. It can serve both as an introduction for engineering and science students and as a guide for those developing batteries and integrating batteries into energy systems.
Battery Technology readers will also find:
- A focused introduction to electrochemical and materials science aspects of battery research
- An author team with decades of combined experience in battery research and industry
- Clear structure enabling easy use
Battery Technology is ideal for materials scientists, software engineers developing battery management systems, design engineers for batteries, battery systems and the many auxiliary components required for safe and reliable operation of batteries.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Preamble
Abbreviations
About the Companion Website
1 Introduction
1.1 Energy Supply in General
1.2 Electrochemical and Non‐electrochemical Energy Technologies
1.3 Basic Properties of Batteries: Similarities and Differences
1.4 Bridging Time
1.5 Comparison of Battery Technologies
1.6 Applications and Integration of Batteries into Overall Systems
References
Tasks
Notes
2 Electrochemical Basics
2.1 Basic Electrochemical Terms
2.2 Electrochemical Thermodynamics
2.3 Electrochemical Kinetics
2.4 Equivalent Circuit Diagrams
2.5 Side Reactions
References
Tasks
Notes
3 Charging and Discharging Cells and Batteries
3.1 Definitions of Capacity and Internal Resistance
3.2 Terms Used for Charging and Discharging Batteries
3.3 Discharging and Charging the Electrodes of a Cell
3.4 Series Connection of Electrodes – Interactions Between Electrodes
3.5 Discharging and Charging Electrodes in a Cell
3.6 Effects of a Short Circuit in a Cell Connected in Series
3.7 Fault Propagation, Parallel Battery Strings, and More
References
Tasks
Notes
4 Structure of Electrodes, Design of Cells, and Complete Battery Systems
4.1 Electrochemical Requirements for the Structure of Active Masses
4.2 Structure of Cells
4.3 Combined Ion and Electron Conductivity of the Electrodes
4.4 Cell Containers and Battery Systems
References
Tasks
Notes
5 Thermal Properties of Cells and Batteries
5.1 Inhomogeneous Heat Capacity and Anisotropic Heat Conduction
5.2 Heat Generation
5.3 Heat Exchange with the Environment
5.4 Effect on Temperature
5.5 Determination of Thermal Parameters
References
Task
Note
6 Ageing Processes and Service Life of Batteries and Cells
6.1 Classification of Aging Processes
6.2 Service Life
6.3 Limits of the Service Life
6.4 Lifetime Prediction
References
Tasks
Notes
7 State of X Definitions and Calculations
7.1 Background
7.2 State of Charge, Depth of Discharge, State of Energy
7.3 State of Health and State of Function
7.4 State of Safety
References
Task
Notes
8 Battery Models
8.1 Classification, Use, and Limitations of Models
8.2 Equivalent Circuit Diagram Models
8.3 Models with Parameters Independent of State of Charge: The Shepherd Model
8.4 Models with State of Charge‐Dependent Parameters
8.5 Simulation Process
8.6 Comparison of Models
8.7 Modeling Larger Systems
References
Further Reading
Tasks
Note
9 Determination of Parameters
9.1 Definitions
9.2 Determination by Physicochemical Methods
9.3 Open‐Circuit Voltage Curves
9.4 Internal Resistance Determination with Current or Voltage Pulses
9.5 Short‐Circuit Current
9.6 Parameterization for the Randles Model Using Pulse Currents (Measurement in the Time Domain)
9.7 Parameter Determination by Measuring the Impedance Spectrum (Measurement in the Frequency Domain)
9.8 Measurement of the AC Resistance
9.9 Parameterization of the Randles Model Across All Operating States
References
Further Reading
Tasks
Notes
10 Battery Diagnostics and Analytics
10.1 Overview of Methods
10.2 Evaluation of Changes in Electrical Parameters
10.3 Electrochemical Analysis Methods
10.4 Chemical and Spectroscopic Methods –
Postmortem
Analysis Methods
10.5 In Situ Analysis Procedures
10.6 Summary
References
Tasks
Notes
11 Overview of Battery Systems
11.1 Physicochemical Data and Characteristics
11.2 Investment and Operating Costs
11.3 Market Structure
11.4 Availability of Information
11.5 Level of Standardization
Further Reading
Notes
12 Lead–Acid Batteries
12.1 Introduction and Economic Significance
12.2 Electrochemistry
12.3 Other Electrochemical Reactions
12.4 Active Materials
12.5 Electrolyte
12.6 Current Collectors, Grids
12.7 Manufacturing Process and Other Components for the Production of Cells or Blocks
12.8 Current Inhomogeneity
12.9 Acid Stratification
12.10 Design and Design Differences for Various Applications
12.11 Properties
12.12 Charging and Charging Characteristics
12.13 Aging Effects
12.14 Corrosion of the Positive Grid and Connector Lead, Negative Terminals and Intercell Connectors
12.15 Corrosion of the Intercell Connectors
12.16 Operating Strategies and Design Implications for Lead–Acid Batteries
12.17 Determination of Battery States
12.18 Safety
12.19 Battery Problems
References
Further Reading
Tasks
Notes
13 Lithium‐Ion Batteries
13.1 Introduction and Economic Significance
13.2 Electrochemistry
13.3 Active Materials
13.4 Electrolyte
13.5 Solid–Electrolyte Interface and Its Significance for Lithium‐Ion Batteries
13.6 Current Collectors
13.7 Production of Electrodes
13.8 Separators
13.9 Safety Measures
13.10 Types of Lithium‐Ion Batteries
13.11 Dimensioning of Cells and Design Differences for Different Applications
13.12 Properties
13.13 Internal Resistance Measurement
13.14 Charging and Charging Characteristics
13.15 Aging Effects
13.16 Influence of Calendar and Cyclic Aging and Modeling
13.17 Battery Management Systems and Battery Operating Strategies
13.18 Determination of Battery States and Parameters
13.19 Safety
13.20 Causes and Test Conditions for Thermal Runaway and Thermal Propagation
13.21 Thermal Runaway
13.22 Thermal Propagation
13.23 Safety Engineering
13.24 Further Battery Problems
References
Further Reading
Tasks
Notes
14 Other Battery Technologies
14.1 Alkaline Nickel Batteries
14.2 Zinc–Air Batteries
14.3 Redox‐Flow Batteries
14.4 High‐Temperature Batteries
14.5 Lithium Solid‐State Electrolyte Batteries
14.6 Lithium–Sulfur Batteries
14.7 Lithium–Air Batteries
14.8 Sodium–Air Batteries
14.9 Sodium‐Ion Batteries
14.10 Ultracapacitors and Hybrid Batteries
References
Tasks
Notes
15 Overview of Applications
15.1 General Remarks
15.2 Use of Battery
15.3 State of Charge and Remaining Capacity
15.4 Efficiency
15.5 Safety and Environmentally Friendly Handling of Batteries
15.6 Subdivision into Application Areas
References
Task
Note
16 Starter Batteries for Vehicles (Starting, Lighting, Ignition — SLI)
16.1 Definition
16.2 Requirements for the Battery
16.3 Choice of Battery Technology
16.4 Operation and Design
16.5 Monitoring of the Battery
16.6 Other
Reference
Tasks
Notes
17 Batteries for Electromobility
17.1 Definition
17.2 Requirements for the Battery
17.3 Choice of Battery Technology
17.4 Structure of the Battery System
17.5 Design and Operation
17.6 Monitoring the Battery
17.7 Other Aspects
References
Tasks
Notes
18 Traction Batteries for Material Handling
18.1 Industrial Trucks for Material Handling
18.2 Small Traction Batteries
References
Notes
19 Stationary Applications of Batteries
19.1 Standby Parallel Operation for Emergency Power Supply and UPS Systems
19.2 Diesel Start for Emergency Power Supply Systems
19.3 Batteries for Balancing Electricity Demand and Supply Over Time
19.4 Batteries for Stabilizing the Energy Supply System
References
Task
Notes
20 Batteries for Portable Applications
20.1 Definition
20.2 Requirements for the Battery
20.3 Choice of Battery Technology
20.4 Design and Operation
20.5 Monitoring the Batteries
20.6 Other Aspects
References
Tasks
Notes
Appendix A: Overview of Terms
A.1 Galvanic Elements
A.2 Cells, Blocks, Modules, and Batteries
A.3 Reactions for Energy Conversion
A.4 Terms Used to Describe Electrochemical Reactions
A.5 Components of Galvanic Elements
A.6 Characteristics of Cells and Batteries
A.7 Operating Modes (According to DIN EN 50272‐2)
A.8 State Variables
Appendix B: Safe and Environmentally Friendly Handling of Batteries
B.1 General Information
B.2 Electrical Safety
B.3 Fire Protection
B.4 Explosion Protection
B.5 Requirements for Site of Installation and Transportation
B.6 Environmental Impact and Disposal
References
Notes
Appendix C: Overview of Standards
C.1 Importance and Role of Standards and Technical Regulations
C.2 Overview of Standards and Other Relevant Documents
Notes
Appendix D: Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS)
D.1 Overview of Terms
D.2 Representation of Results
D.3 Determination of Cell Parameters Using Impedance Spectroscopy
D.4 Quality of Parameter Determination
References
Notes
Appendix E: Acid Stratification
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Comparison of different energy storage technologies.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Overview of the main anodic and cathodic reactions (simpl...
Table 2.2 Theoretical specific capacity of a lead‐acid battery and ...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Charging characteristics in different notations.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Comparison of the simulation results.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Overview of battery diagnostics and analysis methods.
Table 10.2 Summary of some characterization methods for batteries....
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Overview of important battery systems.
Table 11.2 Comparison of the properties of lead–acid and lithium‐i...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Overview of the relevant electrochemical reactions duri...
Table 12.2 Equilibrium voltage as a function of concentration at 2...
Table 12.3 Overview of properties of active masses (for both NAM a...
Table 12.4 Discharge currents and capacity for a cell used in stat...
Table 12.5 Overview of the components of a lead–acid battery and c...
Table 12.6 Good and bad charging according to Ref. [15].
Table 12.7 Overview of the components of a lead–acid battery and c...
Table 12.8 Measurements of the lead sulfate content in various ele...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Advantages and disadvantages of lithium‐ion batteries....
Table 13.2 Common material combinations and voltage levels for lit...
Table 13.3 Comparison of some selected cathode materials.
Table 13.4 Comparison of some selected anode materials.
Table 13.5 Properties of some important solvent components of lith...
Table 13.6 Performance data of some commercial lithium‐ion batteri...
Table 13.7 Voltage comparison of batteries for vehicle electrical ...
Table 13.8 Summary of cathode aging.
Table 13.9 Modeling for battery systems at different levels.
Table 13.10 Various hazard levels according to EUCAR for use in e...
Table 13.11 ASIL determination according to ISO 26262.
Table 13.12 Typical values for the composition of the gas release...
Table 13.13 Trigger methods and commentary on their supposed fiel...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Data for different alkaline nickel battery systems.
Table 14.2 Anode alloys of NiMH batteries.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Market share for different battery applications.
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Overview of similarities and differences between batter...
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Overview of mono (D), baby (C), mignon (AA), micro (AAA...
Appendix B
Table B.1 Schematic calculation of the voltage across a resistor (h...
Appendix D
Table D.1 Fundamental types of impedance.
Table D.2 Equivalent circuit diagrams, their impedance spectrum, an...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Electrochemical energy storage as part of the power sup...
Figure 1.2 Overview of the functional principle of batteries and v...
Figure 1.3 Ragone diagram of various battery technologies based on...
Figure 1.4 Comparison of energy storage systems based on the respe...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 (a) Schematic representation of the number of charge ca...
Figure 2.2 Measurement of the reversible heat of a lithium‐ion cel...
Figure 2.3 Schematic representation of the discharging process of ...
Figure 2.4 Current‐voltage characteristic curve (BV equation) of a...
Figure 2.5 BV equation for different values of the transfer coeffi...
Figure 2.6 Illustration of the (a) BV equations and (b) the straig...
Figure 2.7 (a) Current‐voltage characteristics and (b) Tafel curve...
Figure 2.8 Current dependence (a) and voltage dependence (b) of th...
Figure 2.9 (a) Current‐voltage characteristics and (b) Tafel curve...
Figure 2.10
U
‐
I
characteristics of batteries. (a) Schematic curve...
Figure 2.11 Equivalent circuit diagrams showing the voltage‐formi...
Figure 2.12 Equivalent circuit diagram at constant current. (a) N...
Figure 2.13 Mixed potentials. (a) Equivalent circuit diagram of t...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 (a) Voltage and (b) current curves for different types ...
Figure 3.2 Current‐voltage curves for important charging methods: ...
Figure 3.3 Schematic diagram of a pulse charging method in which a...
Figure 3.4 Representation of the function
ln(1/(1 − t))
...
Figure 3.5 Measured discharge voltages of a lead‐acid battery and ...
Figure 3.6 Voltage and current curves of: (a) a 10 Ah lithium‐ion ...
Figure 3.7 Current‐voltage characteristics of two electrodes of a ...
Figure 3.8 Equivalent circuit diagram of a battery with
n
cells in...
Figure 3.9 Current paths through the defective cell in different p...
Figure 3.10 Measured discharge curve of a 48 V lead‐acid battery ...
Figure 3.11 Individual cell voltages of a 22‐cell nickel‐cadmium ...
Figure 3.12 Equivalent circuit diagram of (a) a short‐circuited c...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Schematic diagram of the structure of the active materi...
Figure 4.2 Schematic diagram of a bipolar plate design similar to ...
Figure 4.3 Schematic diagram of stacked cells. The connection of a...
Figure 4.4 (a) Wound round cell and (b) wound prismatic cell.
Figure 4.5 (a) Equivalent circuit diagram showing the resistance o...
Figure 4.6 Equivalent circuit diagram of a cell consisting of two ...
Figure 4.7 Equivalent circuit diagram to explain the differences i...
Figure 4.8 Equivalent circuit diagram to illustrate the current de...
Figure 4.9 Schematic diagram of the ratio of electron and ion curr...
Figure 4.10 Weight distribution of the components of a 2.1 Ah lit...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Diagram showing schematically the anisotropy of the the...
Figure 5.2 Diagram showing schematically the proportions of the va...
Figure 5.3 Temperature measurements of a lithium‐ion battery.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Number of equivalent full cycles of a lithium‐ion batte...
Figure 6.2 Schematic diagram of a lifetime vector.
Figure 6.3 Diagram showing schematically the development of intern...
Figure 6.4 Measured and simulated curves of (a) capacitance and (b...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Open‐circuit voltage measurement of a lithium‐ion batte...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Complete equivalent circuit diagram of a cell without s...
Figure 8.2 Voltage curve of a 12 V lead–acid battery with a nomina...
Figure 8.3 Equivalent circuit diagram of a cell showing current in...
Figure 8.4 Shepherd model as an equivalent circuit diagram.
Figure 8.5 Randles model.
Figure 8.6 Diagram showing schematically the simulation process to...
Figure 8.7 Comparison of the terminal voltage of measured voltage ...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Voltage curve of a lithium‐ion cell during discharging....
Figure 9.2 Voltage curve for charging and discharging pulses.
Figure 9.3 Diagram showing schematically the measuring points for ...
Figure 9.4 Resistance determination at different measuring points....
Figure 9.5 Diagram showing schematically the calculation of the in...
Figure 9.6 Measurement principle of impedance spectroscopy.
Figure 9.7 Comparison of measured and simulated voltage values. Th...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Different methods of capacity analysis. (a) Open‐circ...
Figure 10.2 (a)–(f) SEM images of different surface segments (top...
Figure 10.3 EDX spectrum of a surface segment in the middle of an...
Figure 10.4 Example of a Raman spectrum for a sample containing s...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Complete equivalent circuit diagram of lead–acid batt...
Figure 12.2 Equivalent circuit diagram for detecting overdischarg...
Figure 12.3 Development of individual block voltages of 12 V lead...
Figure 12.4 Equivalent circuit diagram of a cell to explain the o...
Figure 12.5 Voltages of the negative electrodes in flooded and se...
Figure 12.6 Pressure curve of two 12 V blocks in trickle charge m...
Figure 12.7 Diagram showing schematically the agglomerate of sphe...
Figure 12.8 Conductivity of the active masses as a function of th...
Figure 12.9 Deposition and dissolution of lead sulfate before and...
Figure 12.10 Scanning electron microscope images of the active m...
Figure 12.11 Specific conductivity of aqueous sulfuric acid as a...
Figure 12.12 (a) Expanded metal grid and (b) cast grid with curv...
Figure 12.13 Starter battery in block design without a lid. (a) ...
Figure 12.14 Spatially segmented equivalent circuit diagram (3 ×...
Figure 12.15 Schematic diagram of the main reaction current dens...
Figure 12.16 Development of acid concentration along the length ...
Figure 12.17 Electrolyte level in flooded starter batteries whil...
Figure 12.18 Schematic diagram of a voltage dip across the indiv...
Figure 12.19 Discharging and charging curve of a cell with rest ...
Figure 12.20 Voltage curve at constant currents as a function of...
Figure 12.21 Capacity as a function of temperature and discharge...
Figure 12.22
SoC‐
dependent power of batteries for mild hyb...
Figure 12.23 IR‐free charging: (a) Schematic diagram of the curr...
Figure 12.24 Lander curve, voltage‐dependent corrosion rate of l...
Figure 12.25 Schematic diagram of the local voltage conditions a...
Figure 12.26 Section through the positive group bar of a starter...
Figure 12.27 Schematic diagram of a two‐cell block battery with ...
Figure 12.28 State of charge and current curve when charging two...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Rocking chair cell principle.
Figure 13.2 Relative voltage of cathode and anode materials for l...
Figure 13.3 Overview of cathode materials for lithium‐ion batteri...
Figure 13.4 Triangle of property optimization in the NMC system....
Figure 13.5 Structure of the cathode with current collector, acti...
Figure 13.6 (a) Graphene layer, (b) hexagonal graphite with stack...
Figure 13.7 Stepwise lithium‐ion intercalation in graphene: Layer...
Figure 13.8 Components of the SEI. White: Inorganic lithium compo...
Figure 13.9 Current collector for (a) the anode (Cu) and (b) the ...
Figure 13.10 Principle of the shutdown separator.
Figure 13.11 Equivalent circuit diagram of various safety compon...
Figure 13.12 (a) Round cell, (b) prismatic cell.
Figure 13.13 Internal structure of a lithium‐ion cell.
Figure 13.14 Discharge curves of a prismatic cell from Clarios w...
Figure 13.15 Temperature‐controlled charging process.
Figure 13.16 Voltage dependence of the most important aging proc...
Figure 13.17 Points of attack for aging mechanisms on the cathod...
Figure 13.18 Aging of the anode and the SEI.
Figure 13.19 Capacity of an 18650 NMC cell, cycled at 30 °C with...
Figure 13.20 Schematic diagram of four cells in series with a pa...
Figure 13.21 Semënov diagram for a thermal runaway. In the tempe...
Figure 13.22 Phases of a thermal runaway.
Figure 13.23 Chemical reactions during a thermal runaway.
Figure 13.24 Possible, but rejected propagation test.
Figure 13.25 Device for generating an internal short circuit, pa...
Figure 13.26 Local heating element for triggering a cell by exte...
Figure 13.27 Sequence of a laser‐triggered propagation test.
Figure 13.28 Data of an electric vehicle with lithium‐ion batter...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Principle of a flow cell.
Figure 14.2 Conductivity for lithium ions of promising material c...
Figure 14.3 Charge and discharge curve of lithium–sulfur batterie...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Diagram of an energy supply system in which the batte...
Figure 15.2 Current and voltage curve of a battery in trickle cha...
Figure 15.3 Block diagram of a photovoltaic system with battery a...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Current (a) and voltage (b) curve of a starting proce...
Figure 16.2 Voltage curve of a fire engine (24 V/140 Ah) over a p...
Figure 16.3 Current and voltage curve of a starter battery when s...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Hybridization concepts for vehicles; HC = hydrocarbon...
Figure 17.2 Schematic diagram of current amplitude and range of
S
...
Figure 17.3 Current, voltage, and state of charge curve of an ele...
Figure 17.4 Diagrams showing 203 days of operating data from meas...
Figure 17.5 Histograms of three load profiles of an electric vehi...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Average daily use of the battery capacity of a fleet ...
Figure 18.2 Current and voltage curve of a lead–acid battery (750...
Figure 18.3 Utilization profile of a traction battery (80 V/600 A...
Figure 18.4 Usage data of a traction battery (80 V/450 Ah) in opp...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Measurement of the float charge current and voltage o...
Figure 19.2 Schematic diagram of the options for connecting paral...
Figure 19.3 Schematic diagram for determining the remaining runti...
Figure 19.4 Schematic diagram of the float charge current over th...
Figure 19.5 Diagram showing schematically the internal resistance...
Figure 19.6 Voltage curve of a battery with a nominal voltage of ...
Figure 19.7 Discharge curves of sixteen 12 V blocks from a UPS sy...
Figure 19.8 State of charge curves over 1 year for batteries in o...
Figure 19.9 Schematic diagram showing the voltage curve of batter...
Appendix D
Figure D.1 Diagram showing the complex impedance in the complex nu...
Figure D.2 Nyquist plot of an equivalent circuit diagram with a re...
Figure D.3 Bode plot of an equivalent circuit diagram with a resis...
Figure D.4 Relationship between experimental results, mathematical...
Figure D.5 Impedance spectra of a commercial lithium‐ion cell.
Appendix E
Figure E.1 Schematic diagram showing the development of acid strat...
Figure E.2 Schematic diagram showing the development of acid strat...
Figure E.3 Changes in the acid concentration along the length of t...
Figure E.4 Development of the acid concentration along the length ...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Preamble
Abbreviations
About the Companion Website
Begin Reading
Appendix A Overview of Terms
Appendix B Safe and Environmentally Friendly Handling of Batteries
Appendix C Overview of Standards
Appendix D Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS)
Appendix E Acid Stratification
Index
End User License Agreement
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Battery Technology
Fundamentals of Battery Electrochemistry, Systems and Applications
Alexander Börger and Heinz Wenzl
Authors
Dr. Alexander BörgerAn der Schule 3238165 LehreGermany
Prof. Dr. Heinz WenzlTechnical University of ClausthalInstitute of Electrical Power Engineering and Energy SystemsLeibnizstr. 2838678 Clausthal‐ZellerfeldGermany
Cover Images: © Kashtanowww/Shutterstock (background), Courtesy of the Authors (circular element)
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Preamble
Global transformation processes have led to a significant increase in the number and energy content of batteries as the most adaptable and scalable energy storage system. The driving factors include electric road vehicles, the growing number of conventional road vehicles, including trucks, and their need for increased energy efficiency; the growth of digital infrastructure with the requirement for data centers and their large uninterruptible power supply systems; the flood of portable electronic devices; and the impact of photovoltaics and wind turbines on electricity systems. These drivers will lead to considerable technical development and increased economic importance for batteries in the future. Industry expectations are that the dominant battery technologies, lead–acid and lithium‐ion, will both benefit from this growth. Lead–acid batteries may not be the focus of scientific and public interest but will continue to be an important technology for many years to come.
The use of the term “battery” follows the established scientific convention. Differentiations are made, whenever appropriate, between individual cells, modules consisting of a number of cells connected in series and/or parallel, and battery systems that include all safety‐relevant auxiliary components and a monitoring system.
The electrochemical principles of all batteries are identical, regardless of whether they are rechargeable (accumulators, secondary galvanic systems) or non‐rechargeable (primary galvanic systems). For this reason, the basics of battery technology for lead–acid and lithium‐ion batteries are discussed together. Examples of other battery technologies are used where they provide further insight. Fuel cells, on the other hand, are energy conversion devices and not energy storage systems and are therefore not included.
Battery technology requires the combination of many scientific and technical disciplines. Our readers will therefore have a wide range of backgrounds: electrochemistry, chemistry, physics, electrical engineering, material sciences, and software engineering, to name just a few. In addition, some may still be students, while others are experienced scientists and engineers who already have some knowledge of batteries.
The aim of this book is to explain how batteries work and how they should be used for safe and reliable operation. We bridge the gap between a black‐box approach to batteries for non‐electrochemists and enable electrochemists to understand the many technical and practical problems that arise from connecting many cells in series and parallel as part of complex energy systems.
Why do lithium‐ion batteries require extensive monitoring, for example, single‐cell voltage measurements and complex, real‐time data evaluation, but lead–acid batteries do not?
Why is the internal resistance of a battery a function of the current amplitude, current direction, and state of charge?
Why is the heat conductivity of cells anisotropic and heat generation inhomogeneously distributed, depending on current amplitude and direction?
Why do cells cool down during discharging or charging?
Why is the calculation of state of charge so difficult?
This book deals with batteries but does not attempt to add to the already very good selection of books on electrochemistry. We hope that our descriptions will also provide some new insights into battery technology for electrochemists, for example, our use of the Butler–Volmer equation to explain the voltage curve of a battery during discharging and charging and our use of equivalent circuit diagrams that show that an ideal voltage source and a resistor, under certain conditions, are a correct representation of a battery and not a simplification. We are also sure that our discussion of a safe zone that will prevent the occurrence of thermal runaway will be of interest.
For many applications, lead–acid and lithium‐ion batteries offer the best combination of properties and thus dominate the market. In the second part of the book, they are therefore described in detail. Other battery systems that are still used because of very special properties and/or established market structures are described briefly. Upcoming battery systems that may have the potential to compete with either lead–acid or lithium‐ion batteries in the future are dealt with in a separate chapter. The path from a laboratory cell with highly attractive properties to a complete battery system which meets all requirements is long and uncertain.
The main aspect that we would like to stress in the third part of the book is the wide range of operating conditions which batteries are subjected to. In many applications, the battery current is highly dynamic with fast changes from discharging to charging. Phases with constant or only slowly varying currents are likely to be the exception. Particularly when troubleshooting, knowledge of the past operating conditions is crucial and no effort should be spared to understand how a particular battery has been used. We refrain from comparisons between different energy storage systems – flywheels do not compete with pumped hydro storages and capacitors do not compete with batteries. When selecting a battery system for an application, a decision can only be made when all technical and economic constraints are known. In some applications, lead–acid batteries and lithium‐ion batteries are alternatives or may be used in parallel. It is therefore necessary to have an understanding of both battery technologies. In addition, we strongly believe that knowledge of both technologies leads to a much deeper understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of each technology.
The appendix contains terms used in battery technology, an overview of safety issues and precautions, and an overview of norms and standards.
Each chapter contains a list of relevant references and tasks for further study which have been used by us as part of our teaching experience at Clausthal University of Technology and the Technical University of Brunswick, both in Germany.
To write this book, we had invaluable discussions with colleagues who kindly provided us with diagrams and measurements to illustrate important aspects of battery technology. Special thanks go to research assistants and the staff of the Institute for Electrical Power Engineering and Energy Systems of Clausthal University of Technology who helped us in different ways to complete this book.
Writing this book has been very time‐consuming and demanded patience from our families. We are very grateful for their support.
Abbreviations
BMS
Battery management system
BV
Butler‐Volmer
CT
Charge transfer
About the Companion Website
Battery Technology: Fundamentals of Battery Electrochemistry, Systems and Applications, is accompanied by a companion website.
www.wiley.com/go/Börger/Battery_Technology
The website includes:
Notes on tasks answers and solutions
Tasks
Chapter tasks
1Introduction
Batteries and other energy storage systems are options for the technical and economic optimization of an energy supply system and, in many cases, indispensable for ensuring the required functions. Very often, however, batteries are in competition with other technologies, which impact the development and market opportunities of batteries.
A comparison of batteries with other energy storage technologies is of little value without precise knowledge of the application and limitations of competing technologies.
All batteries are based on the same physical and chemical principles. Different electrochemically active materials and designs lead to major differences in properties, including the necessity of additional components required for safe and long‐lasting operation.
Batteries are usually categorized according to their bridging time and application areas: portable, mobile, and stationary.
1.1 Energy Supply in General
Energy storage systems are an option for the technical and economic optimization of an energy supply system because they allow energy generation1 to be quickly and efficiently adapted to energy consumption. Without energy storage systems that can both store and release energy, generation and consumption units would always have to adapt to each other with very high dynamics. Fast response times are often not possible or only possible at great expense. Energy storage systems also serve as an energy source for technical systems that do not have their own energy supply from primary energy sources, as well as for starting up systems that in most cases cannot be started without the provision of electrical energy from an energy storage system or the electrical grid.
The use of batteries is indispensable in many cases to ensure the required functions. The following examples of electromobility and the electricity supply system will show that the overall technical and economic context must always be carefully considered when estimating and forecasting the future importance of batteries.
Figure 1.1 shows the integration of energy storage systems into the overall electrical energy supply system and illustrates in particular that energy storage2 competes with many technical alternatives to ensure the required functions. In addition to highly dynamic generation units, which, unlike conventional thermal power plants, can adapt their power output very quickly to demand, alternatives for quickly balancing power generation and consumption are primarily load management systems and switchable loads, in particular heat generators (power‐to‐heat).
Figure 1.1 Electrochemical energy storage as part of the power supply system.
Electricity from a photovoltaic system that is not consumed immediately at the site of installation can be used locally or, for example, it is to be
stored in a battery,
used as thermal energy for space heating or hot water supply via an electrically operated heating cartridge,
used by switching on household loads such as washing machines or refrigerators depending on the supply, or
made available to the electrical grid for loads elsewhere.
From a system perspective, these alternatives are equivalent and therefore are often referred to as storage‐equivalent systems or functional storage systems.
Electrochemical energy storage systems are also in technical and economic competition with other energy storage technologies, see Ref. [1].
1.2 Electrochemical and Non‐electrochemical Energy Technologies
In principle, energy can be stored in very different ways, that is, in different forms of energy, namely
mechanically, for example, in the form of potential energy in pumped storage power plants or in the form of rotational energy in flywheels,
magnetically, for example, in the magnetic field of a superconducting coil,
electrically, for example, in the electric field of double‐layer capacitors,
chemically, for example, by conversion to hydrogen,
thermally, for example, in the form of hot water storage tanks or in steam boilers, and
electrochemically, that is, by converting electrical energy into chemical energy.
Table 1.1 provides a short summary of these technologies and the basic physical formulas.
Table 1.1 Comparison of different energy storage technologies.
Energy type
Principle
Examples
Potential energy
E
=
mg
Δ
h
Pumped storage power plants
Gas pressure
E
=
p
Δ
V
Compressed air storage
Rotational energy
E
= 0.5
Jω
2
Flywheels
Magnetic energy
E
= 0.5
LI
2
Loss‐free direct current flowing in a superconducting coil (so‐called SMES)
Electrical energy
E
= 0.5
CU
2
Double‐layer capacitors (ultracapacitors, electrolytic capacitors, etc.)
Chemical energy
E
=
n
Δ
r
G
Hydrogen storage
Thermal energy
E
=
C
i
Δ
T
Hot water tank
Electrochemical energy
E
= ∫
UI
d
t
Batteries
Explanation of symbols: m: mass, g: gravity constant, h: height, p: pressure, V: volume, J: moment of inertia, ω: rotational speed, L: inductance, I: current, C: capacitance (in Farad), U: voltage, n: amount of substance, ΔrG: free enthalpy of reaction, Ci: heat capacity of substance i, ΔT: temperature difference, t: discharge time.
With some energy storage technologies, particularly thermal storage, the stored energy cannot be made available to the overall system as electrical energy or only at great cost. Despite various limitations, different energy storage systems compete with each other in certain applications. Before discussing electrochemical energy storage systems in detail in the following chapters, here are some comments on non‐electrochemical energy storage systems.
1.2.1 Capacitors and Ultracapacitors
The energy content of capacitors is very low, even for the group of so‐called ultracapacitors or supercapacitors3 (ultracaps) with very high capacitances (unit Farad: 1 F = 1 As/V). At a nominal voltage of 2.5 V and a capacity of 3000 F, for example, the energy content is only approx. 2.6 Wh, of which normally only 75% can be technically extracted, compared to approx. 9 Wh for a small 2.5 Ah lithium‐ion cell, which is significantly more compact, lighter, and cheaper. In terms of specific power (W/kg), however, ultracapacitors can deliver significantly higher electrical power and are therefore used in special applications.
Ultracapacitors have a high self‐discharge rate (they are often completely discharged within 24 hours) and therefore a high energy loss in standby mode. They require a similarly complex charge control as lithium‐ion batteries.
Other types of capacitors, such as classic electrolytic capacitors, only have a capacitance in the micro‐ or millifarad range and less and are therefore not able to store large amounts of energy, even if their rated voltage is very high.
1.2.2 Superconducting Coils
The magnetic field present in a current‐carrying coil stores usable amounts of energy at high currents. The losses are only sufficiently low if the resistance of the coil is minimized by superconductivity. However, energy storage systems based on superconductivity require complex cooling and therefore have high standby losses. In the 1990s, superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) systems with an output of 1 MW for 10 seconds and an energy content of several kilowatt‐hours were built to stabilize the power grid.
1.2.3 Flywheels
The energy content stored in flywheels depends on the square of the rotational speed and is proportional to the moment of inertia. Slowly rotating flywheels (with up to approx. 4000 rpm) are commercial products for uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems with an output of 1.6 MW for 15 seconds (Powerbridge, Piller GmbH), corresponding to 6.7 kWh energy content, of which only 75% can be technically extracted. These flywheels are a technical and economical alternative to batteries for bridging times of a few seconds until the starting of diesel power generation units.
Very fast rotating flywheels (up to 100,000 rpm) are light and very powerful, whereby the power is a function of the generator coupled to it. Such flywheels have been used in motorsport.
All flywheels are characterized by very high self‐discharge rates, even when using vacuum and magnetic bearings to minimize friction. The stored energy is generally lost after approx. 24 hours. Use in vehicles as a replacement for starter batteries is therefore not possible.
1.2.4 Compressed Air and Pumped Water Storage
Small compressed air energy storage, excluding compressed air storage for optimizing air supply in factories, is sometimes used for starting diesel engines for emergency power generation. A few large‐scale compressed air energy storage systems for utility‐scale energy storage (100 MWh range) have been built worldwide in the past but have a low energy efficiency and do not seem to be an option in the future.
Pumped water storage systems have energy capacities of around 100–10,000 MWh and are relevant energy storage systems in the electricity industry worldwide for covering peak loads and storing energy during times of low electricity demand. They are characterized by very high initial investment and environmental impact but low operating costs.
Very large battery storage systems with energy contents of several hundred MWh, which are currently being built in some regions, could become technical alternatives in the future.
1.3 Basic Properties of Batteries: Similarities and Differences
Batteries are electrochemical energy converters. The fundamental principles of all battery technologies are based on the same physical and chemical laws. The basic requirements for their design and operation are also very similar.
Batteries are DC voltage sources whose voltage is a function of the materials used and their local concentrations as well as the current flowing through them. In most cases, it is necessary to connect individual cells in series and integrate them into a power supply system using converters (DC/DC or DC/AC converters) and/or use loads with a wide range of input voltages. The maximum charging voltage is often approx. 1.5 times the minimum discharge voltage and even higher for some battery technologies and applications.
There are many different battery technologies, which differ in many other characteristics apart from their voltage level. Figure 1.2 shows an overview of the functional principle and different battery systems.
Figure 1.2 Overview of the functional principle of batteries and various materials. For details, see chapters 12–14.
In all cases, chemical energy is converted directly into electrical energy. Only in the case of accumulators, that is, rechargeable galvanic secondary elements, it is possible to convert electrical energy back into chemical energy (and vice versa) easily and frequently. All such systems are referred to below as batteries.
An important differentiation between batteries concerns systems in which the active material is an integral part of the electrodes, and therefore energy content (Wh) and power (W) are always coupled, and battery systems in which the active materials are stored externally in tanks and pumped into the space between the electrodes – so‐called flow batteries or redox flow batteries. In flow batteries, the energy content can be increased as required using large tanks without increasing the power provided by the reaction chamber. Flow batteries are related to fuel cells in which one of the active materials (hydrogen) is supplied from a tank and the other active material (oxygen) is taken from the air. Metal–air systems are also related to flow systems and fuel cells, except that one of the active materials (the metal) is in solid form (and can be renewed by mechanical exchange, if necessary), while the oxygen is taken from the air – possibly requiring a purification stage.
Battery technologies differ in terms of internal resistance, energy content, specific energy (Wh/kg), energy density (Wh/l), specific power (W/kg), power density (W/l), permissible temperature range, options for monitoring the battery system, calendar and cyclical service life, and the system components required for safe and economical operation and their operating conditions. Modifications of design and materials also lead to considerable differences in properties within a battery technology.
Most of the materials used in batteries are toxic and/or corrosive. If environmental impacts during production, use, and disposal as well as investment costs and the total costs of operation are taken into account, the range of properties to be considered when choosing a battery system expands considerably. The dominance of lead‐acid and lithium‐ion batteries is due to their favorable overall properties for many different applications. Current market research shows that at the time of writing this book (2024), the value of lithium‐ion and lead‐acid batteries constitutes over 80% of all battery sales, with the share of lead‐acid batteries slightly below that of lithium‐ion batteries since 2023. Growth rates are expected to be slightly higher for lithium‐ion batteries than for lead‐acid batteries.4 In terms of energy content, lead‐acid batteries dominate lithium‐ion batteries by a huge margin.
1.4 Bridging Time
A common classification of batteries is based on their bridging time, the ratio of energy content to the power that can be constantly drawn from a battery until the end‐of‐discharge voltage is reached.
For all batteries, the amount of energy that can be drawn decreases with increasing power. The diagram of the characteristic curve of the specific energy content (kWh/kg) at different specific outputs (kW/kg) is known as the Ragone diagram. Figure 1.3 is a Ragone diagram based on data sheet information for various battery technologies, see Ref. [2] for details of the calculation.
Figure 1.3 Ragone diagram of various battery technologies based on data sheet information (see Ref. [2] for further details).
For more precise sizing of a battery system and to optimize the technical and economic use of batteries, a method was proposed in Ref. [3] to create a Ragone diagram based on measurements of discharge curves at different power levels. The method described in Ref. [3] results in deviations from the diagram shown in Figure 1.3. These can be significant for the design of battery systems.
Figure 1.4 shows a different representation of power and energy content. This makes the frequent division of storage systems into short‐term and long‐term storage systems particularly clear. The straight lines in the figure represent equal bridging times regardless of the energy content of the energy storage system under consideration. Bridging times of a few seconds are relevant for power quality applications to stabilize the voltage in the electricity grid during short interruptions of power. Bridging times of 15 minutes to a few hours are required in applications for ensuring the power supply in the event of a power failure (emergency lighting systems, UPS systems) for computers and telecommunications equipment, etc. In the field of renewable energies, bridging times of approx. one day to several days are required, depending on the system design, and a bridging time of several months would be required for seasonal balancing between generation and consumption (energy systems based primarily on hydropower, wind power, or photovoltaics). Task 1.1 shows how large electricity storage systems would have to be designed for the Federal Republic of Germany if the electricity generation system were to be based exclusively on wind power and photovoltaic systems.
Figure 1.4 Comparison of energy storage systems based on the respective bridging time.
With batteries and many other energy storage technologies, the relationship between energy content and power is determined by technical and economic factors. In fuel‐based energy systems, on the other hand, power and energy content are independent of each other. For a better understanding, Figure 1.4 shows the energy content of 100 l of diesel fuel. Since there is no technical link between energy content (proportional to the size of the tanks) and power (dimensioning of the engines), the associated power range extends over several orders of magnitude, and the term “bridging time” is no longer applicable without further information.
The points shown represent various energy storage systems – the marked areas are only intended as a guideline.
Figure 1.4 shows that few energy storage systems are technical and economic alternatives for any specific application (bridging time and power).
1.5 Comparison of Battery Technologies
When comparing different battery technologies, it is necessary to know the specific application so that the data presented in a comparison can also be used to select the most suitable storage technology. The following list provides an overview of the most important points to consider:
Definition of the system environment:
Energy storage systems require various additional components to ensure safe, reliable, and economical operation. When comparing large lead‐acid and lithium‐ion batteries, the comparison of cells is often only of minor importance because, for safety reasons, lithium‐ion batteries must be equipped with various monitoring and protective devices in an overall system, which are not required for lead‐acid batteries. All safety and monitoring devices that are necessary for safe and long‐lasting operation must be included. The comparison of systems with different safety standards and expected service lives is only meaningful if the differences are carefully evaluated from a technical and economic point of view.
Costs:
The costs of the overall system must be considered with comparable system delimitation.
Energy content:
Only the energy content that can actually be used during operation and with which the desired service life can be achieved should be considered. In many battery systems, for operational and/or service life reasons, the usable energy content must be significantly limited compared to the energy content of the fully charged battery.
Volume and weight:
The overall system must be considered.
Other technically relevant properties:
response time to performance requirements;
temperature range within which the system can be operated;
additional heating or cooling in the system must be taken into account because they affect weight, volume, and costs; and
maintenance and monitoring options.
Other economically relevant properties:
maintenance costs over the service life,
energy consumption when stationary and in use, and
efficiency.
General comparisons of energy storage systems, as shown in Figure 1.4 or as shown in tabular form in many studies, can only serve as a guideline. Detailed comparisons without a description of the specific application often do not allow any useful conclusions to be drawn. When describing the applications and additional conditions to be considered, the number of suitable energy storage technologies is often considerably reduced. For technical and economic reasons, there is often only one energy storage technology that can be considered for the application in question. Pumped storage plants do not compete with flywheel mass storage systems!
1.6 Applications and Integration of Batteries into Overall Systems
Batteries are usually coupled in parallel with generation systems and consumers. In many cases, this arrangement leads to a highly dynamic current load on the battery with frequent changes between charging and discharging currents. This behavior is immediately clear in hybrid vehicles, whose battery constantly alternates between absorbing braking energy and releasing energy to support acceleration. However, batteries for autonomous power supply systems or in standby parallel operation are also often subject to a rapid change from charging to discharging currents due to the residual current ripple and the control characteristics of the chargers and consumers. Measurements often show a superposition of the battery current with an alternating current, the amplitude of which can significantly exceed the value of the direct current. This is discussed in more detail in the overview of applications for electrochemical energy storage systems from chapter 15 onward.
It is often useful to differentiate between portable, mobile, and stationary applications, whereby a distinction between grid‐connected and autonomous energy supply systems is helpful for stationary applications.
Mobile applications:
In some traction applications, the battery (e.g. industrial trucks and electric vehicles) is discharged during use, interrupted only by occasional regenerative braking, etc. and then recharged in a separate step.
However, hybrid vehicles have their own power generation unit (combustion engine, etc.) as part of the overall mobile system, which can also charge the battery during use. The battery current and state of charge fluctuate greatly depending on the operating strategies.
In mobile applications, apart from traction, the battery is often only used for self‐starting (so‐called black start) of the overall system (power supply for the engine and onboard electronics, starting the combustion engine), independent of other energy sources.
The requirements for energy content, weight, and many other properties differ greatly between these areas of application.
Stationary applications:
In autonomous, non‐grid‐connected energy systems, the battery serves as the sole source of energy when primary energy generation is not available (no wind, no solar radiation, generator motor not in operation) and to absorb electrical energy when generation exceeds consumption. A constant alternation between charging and discharging processes must be assumed.
In grid‐connected overall systems, the battery is usually used to secure the power supply in the event of grid failures and voltage problems (emergency power systems, UPS systems) and to provide and absorb power fluctuations to stabilize the power grid. With increasing electricity generation from wind power and photovoltaic systems, energy storage systems are also used to temporarily store electricity from renewable energies.
Portable applications:
The batteries in a device are designed to only be discharged during use and then recharged on a charger. Use during charging is the exception rather than the rule. The obvious criteria are low volume and weight.
References
1
Energy Research Center of Lower Saxony (2016).
Potentials of Electrochemical Storage in Electrical Grids in Competition with Alternative Technologies and System Solutions (ESPEN (Original Germna title: Potenziale elektrochemischer Speicher in elektrischen Netzen in Konkurrenz zu alternativen Technologien und Systemlösungen (ESPEN), Abschlussbericht), Final Report)
. Goslar: EFZN.
2
Wenzl, H., Benger, R., and Hauer, I. (2024). Power. In:
Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Power Sources
, 2e, vol. I (ed. J. Garche). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
3
Sarpal, I., Bensmann, A., Mähliß, J. et al. (2018). Characterisation of batteries with E‐P curves: quantifying the impact of operating conditions on battery performance.
Electrical Power and Energy Systems
99: 722–732.
Tasks
Task 1.1Design of electricity storage systems with electricity exclusively generated from photovoltaic and wind power plants
Germany consumes around 500 TWh of electricity per year. An electricity system based exclusively on‐wind and photovoltaics must be able to cover periods of no wind and no sun, sometimes referred to as “dunkelflaute.” The maximum duration of no wind and no sun is usually given as 21 days.
Assume that the daily generation capacity is 10 GW even during such phases (generation by hydropower plants, combined heat and power plants that have to be operated due to heat demand, hazardous waste incineration plants, etc.).
What quantities of energy need to be stored in electricity storage systems?
Can you assume that the electricity storage units are fully charged at the beginning of a no wind, no sun period? What quantities of energy should still be available in the electricity storage systems at the end of the no wind, no sun period so that the supply remains secure in the event of an immediate shortfall in electricity demand from the generation units?
What safety margins for the duration of a no wind, no sun period do you assume (maximum expected duration in the coming decades)? What percentage of the installed electricity storage systems will not be used at all or only once over the period under consideration?
Which industries or groups of households will be the first to be shut down if the storage facilities are not large enough?
