Bio-Based Packaging E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: Wiley Series in Renewable Resources
- Sprache: Englisch
Bio-Based Packaging
Bio-Based Packaging
An authoritative and up-to-date review of sustainable packaging development and applications
Bio-Based Packaging explores using renewable and biodegradable materials as sustainable alternatives to non-renewable, petroleum-based packaging. This comprehensive volume surveys the properties of biopolymers, the environmental and economic impact of bio-based packaging, and new and emerging technologies that are increasing the number of potential applications of green materials in the packaging industry. Contributions address the advantages and challenges of bio-based packaging, discuss new materials to be used for food packaging, and highlight cutting-edge research on polymers such as starch, protein, polylactic acid (PLA), pectin, nanocellulose, and their nanocomposites.
In-depth yet accessible chapters provide balanced coverage of a broad range of practical topics, including life cycle assessment (LCA) of bio-based packaging products, consumer perceptions and preferences, supply chains, business strategies and markets in biodegradable food packaging, manufacturing of bio-based packaging materials, and regulations for food packaging materials. Detailed discussions provide valuable insight into the opportunities for biopolymers in end-use sectors, the barriers to biopolymer-based concepts in the packaging market, recent advances made in the field of biopolymeric composite materials, the future of bio-plastics in commercial food packaging, and more. This book:
- Provides deep coverage of the bio-based packaging development, characterization, regulations and environmental and socio-economic impact
- Contains real-world case studies of bio-based packaging applications
- Includes an overview of recent advances and emerging aspects of nanotechnology for development of sustainable composites for packaging
- Discusses renewable sources for packaging material and the reuse and recycling of bio-based packaging products
Bio-Based Packaging is essential reading for academics, researchers, and industry professionals working in packaging materials, renewable resources, sustainability, polymerization technology, food technology, material engineering, and related fields.
For more information on the Wiley Series in Renewable Resources, visit www.wiley.com/go/rrs
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
List of Contributors
Series Preface
Preface
1 Starch‐Based Packaging Materials
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Macrostructures and Phase Transitions of Starch
1.3 Extrusion Processing for Starch
1.4 Improving Mechanical Properties by Reinforcement
1.5 Reducing Moisture Sensitivity by Coating
1.6 Applications in Packaging
1.7 Summary and Future Work
Acknowledgments
References
2 Protein‐Based Materials for Packaging Applications
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Proteins
2.3 Protein Films for Food Packaging
2.4 Film Production Processes
2.5 Characterization of Films
2.6 Protein Films Application
2.7 Challenges and Future Perspectives
2.8 Conclusions
References
3 Protein‐Based Biodegradable Polymer: From Sources to Innovative Sustainable Materials for Packaging Applications
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Forms of Packaging Materials
3.3 Commercially Available Proteinous Material for Packaging
3.4 Preparation Methods for Protein‐Based Materials for Different Packaging Applications
3.5 Properties of Protein‐Based Packaging Materials
3.6 Nanomaterials Incorporated Protein‐Based Packaging Materials
3.7 Protein‐Based Blends as Packaging Materials
3.8 Conclusions
References
4 Chitin/Chitosan Based Films for Packaging Applications
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Chitin and Chitosan
4.3 Physicochemical and Biological Properties of Chitosan‐Based Films
4.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
5 Perspectives for Chitin/Chitosan Based Films as Active Packaging Systems on a Food Product
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Effect of the Incorporation of Chitosan on the Properties of Films
5.3 Blends of Chitosan and Other Biopolymers
5.4 Characterization of Chitosan Films with Nanofillers
5.5 Preparation of Chitosan Films with Active Compounds
5.6 Chitosan‐Based Films as Packaging Material Systems
5.7 Conclusions
References
6 Pectin‐Based Bionanocomposite Coating for Food Packaging Applications
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Polymers in Food Packaging
6.3 Surface Modification of Polymers
6.4 Antimicrobial Packaging
6.5 Biopolymers
6.6 Pectin
6.7 Bionanocomposites
6.8 Nanoclay
6.9 Silver Nanoparticles
6.10 Pectin‐Based Bionanocomposite Coating
6.11 Conclusions
References
7 Nanocomposite: Potential Nanofiller for Food Packaging Applications
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Nanofillers
7.3 Nanocomposites in Active Packaging
7.4 Nanocomposites in Intelligent Packaging
7.5 Nanomaterial Migration into the Food Matrix
7.6 Commercial Aspects of Food Packaging
7.7 Conclusion and Future Trends
References
8 Nanocellulose Reinforced Polypropylene and Polyethylene Composite for Packaging Application
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Plastic Packaging
8.3 Nanocellulose
8.4 Polypropylene and Polyethylene Nanocellulose Composites
8.5 Compatibility Between Nanocellulose with Polyethylene and Polypropylene Matrices
8.6 Processing Method of PP‐ and PE‐Nanocellulose Composites
8.7 Factors Influencing the Performance of the PP‐ and PE‐Nanocellulose Composites
8.8 Characteristics of the PP‐ and PE‐ Nanocellulose Composites
8.9 Conclusion and Future Recommendations
References
9 Green Food Packaging from Nanocellulose‐Based Composite Materials
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Synthesis of Cellulose Nanostructures
9.3 Modification of Nanocellulose
9.4 Properties of Nanocellulose‐Based Nanocomposites
9.5 Active Packaging Material
9.6 Nanocellulose in Smart Packaging
9.7 Future Trends and Conclusions
References
10 Nanocellulose Polylactide‐Based Composite Films for Packaging Applications
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Polylactide
10.3 Nanocellulose Classification
10.4 PLA/Nanocellulose Nanocomposites
10.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
11 Nanocellulose Composite Films for Packaging Applications
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Preparation of Nanocellulose
11.3 Nanocellulose Barrier Property
11.4 Nanocellulose in Films
11.5 Nanocellulose Film in Packaging
11.6 Conclusion
References
12 Utilization of Rice Straw as a Raw Material for Food Packaging
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Selling Rice Straw
12.3 Selling Pulp
12.4 Selling Pulp Molded Products
12.5 Selling Paper
12.6 Cost of Commercialization of Products from Rice Straw
12.7 Conclusions
References
13 Sustainable Paper‐Based Packaging
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Types of Raw Material for Paper‐Based Packaging
13.3 Papermaking
13.4 Types of Paper‐Based Packaging
13.5 Packaging Requirement for Paper‐Based Packaging
References
14 Properties and Food Packaging Application of Poly‐(Lactic) Acid
14.1 Introduction: Background and Driving Forces
14.2 Properties of PLA
14.3 Mechanical
14.4 Food Packaging Application of PLA
14.5 Conclusions
References
15 Poly(Lactic) Acid Modified Films for Packaging Applications
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Biopolymers
15.3 Modified PLA Films
15.4 Conclusions
References
16 Polyhydroxyalkanoates for Packaging Application
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Biopolymers
16.3 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
16.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoate‐Based Composites for Packaging Applications
16.5 Chemical Recycling of PHAs
16.6 Future Direction and Recommendations
References
17 Manufacturing of Biobased Packaging Materials
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Bio‐Based Packaging Materials
17.3 Food Packaging Materials
17.4 Properties of Bio‐Based Packaging Materials
17.5 Manufacturing Food Applications
17.6 Food Industry and Bio‐Based Materials Demand
17.7 Conclusions and Remarks
Acknowledgments
References
18 Bioplastics: An Introduction to the Role of Eco‐Friendly Alternative Plastics in Sustainable Packaging
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Important Biopolymers for Food Packaging
18.3 Important Properties of Biopolymers for Food Packaging Applications
18.4 Biopolymers and the Future of Food Packaging
18.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
19 Bioplastics: The Future of Sustainable Biodegradable Food Packaging
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Types of Plastic for Food Packaging
19.3 Food Packaging
19.4 Active Food Packaging
References
20 Renewable Sources for Packaging Materials
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Packaging Materials from Bio‐based Materials
20.3 Development of Bio‐based Packages
20.4 Decomposition of Biodegradable Plastics
20.5 Renewable Energy Production Using Biobased Packaging Waste
20.6 Cost of Bio‐based Materials
20.7 Life Cycle Assessment
20.8 Social Consumption Behavior
20.9 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
21 Environmental Advantages and Challenges of Bio‐Based Packaging Materials
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Advantages of Bio‐Based Packaging Materials
21.3 Challenges of Bio‐Based Packaging Materials
21.4 Conclusions
References
22 Life Cycle Assessment of Bio‐Based Packaging Products
22.1 Packaging: Function and Materials
22.2 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
22.3 LCA Goal and Scope (Definition of a Functional Unit and System Boundary)
22.4 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)
22.5 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)
22.6 Life Cycle Results Interpretation
22.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
23 Reuse and Recycle of Biobased Packaging Products
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Waste Management Efficiency for Bioplastics
23.3 Prevention and Reduction
23.4 Reuse Bio‐Based Products
23.5 Packaging Material Recycling
23.6 Mechanical Recycling Process
23.7 Organic Recycling or Composting
23.8 Impact of Aging and Recycling on the Quality of Plastic Materials
23.9 Conclusions
References
24 Socioeconomic Impact of Bio‐Based Packaging Bags
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Socioeconomic Factors Influencing the Bioplastic‐Based Packaging Materials
24.3 Future Scope
24.4 Conclusion
References
25 The Assessment of Supply Chains, Business Strategies, and Markets in Biodegradable Food Packaging
25.1 The Context of Bio‐Packaging
25.2 Types of Biodegradable Food Packaging and Its Characteristics
25.3 Biodegradable Food Packaging Supply/Value Chain
25.4 Business Strategies and Market Assessment
25.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
26 The Market for Bio‐Based Packaging: Consumers' Perceptions and Preferences Regarding Bio‐Based Packaging
26.1 Introduction: The Need for Bio‐Based Packaging
26.2 Bio‐Based Packaging: An Overview
26.3 Consumer Perception of Bio‐Based Plastics
26.4 Consumer Perception of Bio‐Based Packaging
26.5 Consumer Identification of Bio‐Based Packaging
26.6 Industry Perspectives
26.7 Conclusion: Problems and Potential Solutions
References
27 Regulations for Food Packaging Materials
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Asia
27.3 Europe
27.4 North America and South America
27.5 Australia and Africa
27.6 Regulation for Food Packaging Materials in Africa
27.7 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1
Some research using different protein bases in the
...
Table 2.2
Studies evaluating the use of protein films in foo.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1
Some applications of chitosan‐based films.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1
The effect of the addition of nanofillers on funct
...
Table 5.2
Recent examples of the application of chitosan fil
...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1
Surface color values of Pectin/MMTK10/AgNPs nanocom
...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1
PP‐ and PE‐nanocellulose composites.
Table 8.2
Production methods of PP‐ and PE‐nanoce.
...
Table 8.3
Properties of PP‐ and PE‐ nanocellulos....
Chapter 10
Table 10.1
Effect of CNC on the mechanical properties of PLA.
Table 10.2
Barrier properties of PLA nanocellulose nanocomposites.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1
Summary of different types of nanocellulose.
Chapter 12
Table 12.1
Acreages of rice cultivation in Peninsular Malaysia.
Table 12.2
Requirement for rice straw sales.
Table 12.3
Pulping properties of rice straw.
Table 12.4
Pulp and paper properties of rice straw.
Table 12.5
Requirement for rice straw pulp sales.
Table 12.6
Global packaging markets [32].
Table 12.7
US green packaging demand [32].
Table 12.8
Requirement for pulp molded sales.
Table 12.9
Requirement for paper and paperboard sales.
Table 12.10
Comparison of cost and selling of products from rice straw.
Table 12.11
Business Model Canvas (BMC): molded products from
...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1
Difference between chemical and mechanical pulp.
Table 13.2
Properties of molded product.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1
Isothermal crystallization and melting behaviors of
...
Table 14.2
Isothermal crystallization kinetic of PLA composites
...
Table 14.3
Effects of stereochemistry and crystallinity on mech
...
Table 14.4
Mechanical characteristics of the NBR and its PLA bl....
Table 14.5
Physical properties of PLA and other biopolymers [21].
Table 14.6
Thermal properties of PLA/PBs blends [13, 39].
Table 14.7
PLA modifications for packaging applications [69].
Chapter 16
Table 16.1
Biodegradable and nonbiodegradable biopolymers.
Table 16.2
Example of bacteria strains and carbon sources used
...
Table 16.3
Mechanical properties of PHBV materials.
Table 16.4
Applications of PHAs.
Table 16.5
Tensile properties of selected PHAs/natural fiber c....
Table 16.6
Polymer blends of PHAs and their properties.
Table 16.7
Application of crotonic acid, 2‐pentenoic acid,
...
Chapter 17
Table 17.1
Classification of bioplastics durable and biodegradable.
Table 17.2
Classification of biomass plastic and biodegradable ...
Table 17.3
Number of producers and type of bio‐based mate...
Table 17.4
Food packaging production by using bio‐polymer
...
Chapter 20
Table 20.1
Overview of currently most important groups and types
...
Chapter 21
Table 21.1
Comparing bio‐based packaging with petroplastics.
Chapter 22
Table 22.1
Bio‐based polymers for packaging applications [10, 11].
Table 22.2
Selected recent studies on bio‐based polymer m
...
Table 22.3
LCI developed based on system boundary of biodegrada
...
Table 22.4
Key data in Bernstad and Saraiva's [29] packaging sy
...
Table 22.5
Different packaging materials and triggering factors
...
Table 22.6
LCA common impact and damage categories.
Table 22.7
ISO/TR 14047 (2003) environmental impact classificat
...
Table 22.8
Key impact findings in recent LCA studies on biobase
Chapter 23
Table 23.1
Examples of polymers of each category.
Chapter 24
Table 24.1
Production and market projection of the bio‐pl
...
Table 24.2
Commercially available bio‐based polymers, the
...
Table 24.3
End users of the commercially available completely b
...
Table 24.4
Initiatives from some of the countries on bio‐...
Table 24.5
Modified value chain for sustainability of the biopl...
Chapter 25
Table 25.1
The major global industry players for packaging sol...
Table 25.2
Brief strategies and market segments of the major g
...
Chapter 27
Table 27.1
General regulation on food contact materials (FCM).
Table 27.2
Examples of active packaging applications for use w
...
Table 27.3
Applications of active packaging technologies.
Table 27.4
Examples of some currently known active packaging s...
Table 27.5
A summary of various country treatments.
Table 27.6
Australian Packaging Covenant Strategic Plan 2017...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1
Chemical structures and physical schematic representation of (a)
...
Figure 1.2
Effect of amylose content on shear stress and melt viscosity of v
...
Figure 1.3
Photos of wheat and corn husks, and their images under SEM.
Figure 1.4
Granulated wheat (A,a) and corn (B,b) husk particles observed und
...
Figure 1.5
Effect of laver on water vapor transmission rate of starch films
...
Figure 1.6
Photo of starch‐based film with developed flavor bags for easy mu
...
Figure 1.7
Surface SEM images of starch film (a: pure starch film; b: contai
...
Figure 1.8
Variation of the ratio of the area of the Bands‐1 (starch)/Bands‐
...
Figure 1.9
Effect of temperature on the viscosity of HPMC/HPS blends: (1) 10
...
Figure 1.10
Photos of capsules made from solutions with different HPMC/HPS c
...
Figure 1.11
Inhibition zones of starch films filled with PGP against S. aure
...
Figure 1.12
Photos of commercialized starch‐based products.
Figure 1.13
Photos of starch foams: from foam ball to form sheet and post‐pr
...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1
Structural protein organization scheme.
Figure 2.2
Biodegradable films produced from different proteins and their bl
...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1
Mechanical properties of soy protein films at (a) 57% and (b) 97%
...
Figure 3.2
SEM image of neat (top) and benzilic acid (bottom) incorporated s
...
Figure 3.3
Antimicrobial properties of ZnSe incorporated SPI films.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1
Chemical structures: (a) chitin and (b) chitosan.
Figure 4.2
Scheme of the cross‐linking reaction between chitosan and citric
...
Figure 4.3
Scheme of interactions between chitosan and glycerol.
Figure 4.4
Interactions between chitosan and oils with different degrees of
...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1
The active properties of chitosan as one of the components of act
...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1
Coating thickness measurement by cross‐sectional method.
Figure 6.2
Tensile strength of Pectin/MMTK10/AgNPs nanocomposite coated film
...
Figure 6.3
OTR of Pectin/MMTK10/AgNPs nanocomposite coated films.
Figure 6.4
WVTR of Pectin/MMTK10/AgNPs nanocomposite coated films.
Figure 6.5
Opacity of Pectin/MMTK10/AgNPs nanocomposite coated films.
Figure 6.6
Contact angle of Pectin/MMTK10/AgNPs nanocomposite coated PP film
...
Figure 6.7
Peel strength of Pectin/MMTK10/AgNPs nanocomposite coated films.
...
Figure 6.8
Antimicrobial properties of pectin nanocomposite coated films: (a
...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1
Micrograph of (a) cellulose nanocrystals, (b) cellulose nanofiber
...
Figure 8.2
Chemical structure of (a) PP‐grafted‐maleic anhydride and (b) PE‐
...
Figure 8.3
Schematic image of extrusion process with liquid feeding.
Figure 8.4
Schematic design of one‐pot nanofibrillation and melt compounding
...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1
(a) SEM image of cellulose fibers form rice straw, (b) TEM microg
...
Figure 9.2
Inhibition zones of the prepared films against different bacteria
...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1
Desirable properties of packaging materials in contact with vari
...
Figure 10.2
Synthesis of PLA from L‐ and D‐lactic acids [6].
Figure 10.3
Barrier properties of PLA in comparison to other common polymers
...
Figure 10.4
Hierarchical structure of cellulose from plant [19].
Figure 10.5
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of (a) direct melt mix
...
Figure 10.6
Comparison of (a) complex viscosity(η*) and
...
Figure 10.7
Neat PLA film (a) and nanocomposite PLA films reinforced with (b
...
Figure 10.8
(a) Neat PLA showing unstable balloon and (b) PLA/L‐CNC‐0.3% com
...
Figure 10.9
PLA films containing (a) 1 wt% of CNC‐freeze dried and (b) 1 wt%
...
Figure 10.10
Comparison of the effect of CNC surface chemistry on the storag
...
Figure 10.11
Experimental and calculated values of storage modulus (using Ha
...
Figure 10.12
Polarized optical micrographs of neat PLA and PLA/CNC nanocompo
...
Figure 10.13
Isothermal melt crystallization at 130°C o
...
Figure 10.14
Schematic representation of the more tortuous path for water an
...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1
Crystalline and amorphous region in cellulose microfibril.
Figure 11.2
Extrusion process.
Figure 11.3
Laboratory papermaking machine for nanocellulose thin film makin
...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1
Areas of cultivation of rice in Peninsular Malaysia (colored gre
...
Figure 12.2
Harvesting rice.
Figure 12.3
Baler machine with capacity of 120–240 bales per hour.
Figure 12.4
Rice straw bale weight of 500 kg.
Figure 12.5
Rice straw bales in rice field.
Figure 12.6
Storage of rice straw bales.
Figure 12.7
Rice straw cutter – reduce rice straw to 10–30 mm in length.
...
Figure 12.8
Pulping machines – converting rice straw into pulp.
Figure 12.9
Washing pulp.
Figure 12.10
Clean and dried pulp are kept in jumbo bag for transportation a
...
Figure 12.11
Stock preparation – pulp beating, mixing with additives, and me
...
Figure 12.12
The pulp was molded into fruit tray articles.
Figure 12.13
Quality control and packaging prior sales.
Figure 12.14
Pressure screener to purify pulp during stock preparation.
Figure 12.15
Paper forming, drying, and calendaring in paper making.
Figure 12.16
Finishing and packaging.
Figure 12.17
S.W.O.T. analysis in utilization of rice straw as a raw materia
...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1
Worldwide consumption of paper by region in 2016.
Figure 13.2
Development of paper technology.
Figure 13.3
Global consumer packaging by type.
Figure 13.4
Global paper production volume.
Figure 13.5
Source of fiber.
Figure 13.6
Types of pulp and their yield.
Figure 13.7
Global pulp production by grade.
Figure 13.8
Recycling system in Malaysia [8].
Figure 13.9
Types of paper‐based packaging.
Figure 13.10
Types of paper sheet for packaging.
Figure 13.11
Greaseproof paper.
Figure 13.12
Glassine paper.
Figure 13.13
Vegetable parchment paper.
Figure 13.14
Waxed paper.
Figure 13.15
Decorative paper.
Figure 13.16
Paper‐based packaging for food and beverage.
Figure 13.17
Packaging for transportation.
Figure 13.18
Packaging requirements for consumers.
Figure 13.19
Common tests for paper and board.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1
Interaction mechanism for PLA/POCFA [17].
Figure 14.2
(a) Tensile strength, (b) elongation, and (c) impact strength of
...
Figure 14.3
(a) Thermogravimetric and (b) differential scanning calorimetry
...
Figure 14.4
Percent transmission versus wavelength for PLA (98% L‐lactide),
...
Figure 14.5
WVP (water vapor permeability) for the whole experimental design
...
Figure 14.6 PLA film samples and
scanning electron microscopy
(
SEM
) images ...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1
Different structures for PLA/layered silicate composites [8].
Figure 15.2
The effect of clay (C30B) on oxygen permeability of PLA/PBS (80/
...
Figure 15.3
The tensile strength of the PLA, PLA/MWCNT‐COOH, and PLA/MWCNT‐g
...
Figure 15.4
(a) Water vapor permeability and (b) oxygen permeability for PLA
...
Figure 15.5
The percentage of light transmission (%T) values for PLA and PLA
...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1
Overview of carbon cycle and chemical recycling of PHAs.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1
The classification of a bio‐based polymer.
Figure 17.2
Basic characters of food packaging materials.
Figure 17.3
Some common sources of bio‐based polymers and their usage.
Figure 17.4
Preparation of maleated EuTPI (MTPI).
Figure 17.5
Oil‐based polymers and their usage.
Figure 17.6
Chemical structure representative of PLA.
Figure 17.7
Production of foam bio‐based polyurethane using liquid branched
...
Figure 17.8
The synthesis steps of biomass plastic from plant.
Figure 17.9
Stage production of polylactic acid.
Figure 17.10
Structure of P3HB and its derivatives.
Figure 17.11
Physical appearance of bacterial cellulose.
Figure 17.12
Nanoplant structure of PLLA and BC fiber.
Figure 17.13
Production capacity of bio‐based polymer in 2015/2016 and 2020.
...
Figure 17.14
Future prospects of eco‐friendly plastics process.
Figure 17.15
Calculation of bio‐polymers from 2015 to 2020.
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1
Different sources for biopolymers [25, 26].
Figure 18.2
Mechanical properties of PLA/MFC composite [44].
Figure 18.3
Showing (a) oxygen and (b) water vapor permeability of selected
...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1
Plastic life cycle [20].
Figure 19.2
Biopolymer categorization [24].
Figure 19.3
Chemical structure of polybutylene succinate (PBS) [34].
Figure 19.4
Synthesis of PBS [36].
Figure 19.5
The direct polycondensation for PLA synthesis [45].
Figure 19.6
The ring opening polymerization mechanism for PLA synthesis [45]
...
Figure 19.7
Illustrating the azeotropic dehydrative condensation for PLA syn
...
Figure 19.8
Commercially available types of active packaging [49].
Figure 19.9
Molecular structure of starch [52].
Figure 19.10
Food quality indicators: main indirect indicators and the trend
...
Figure 19.11
Concept of packaging functions including its advanced packaging
...
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1
Representation of packaging and packaging waste standards [40].
...
Figure 20.2
Conventional petroleum‐based plastics and bioplastics that made
...
Figure 20.3
Diagram of biodegradation made with enzymes [14].
Figure 20.4
Molecular structures of chitin and chitosan, and their sources a
...
Figure 20.5
Biobased package life cycle [14].
Figure 20.6
Basic model to a consumer's behavior [39].
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1
Biodegradable process of bio‐based material.
Figure 21.2
The flow chart (a) and schematic diagram (b) of the composting s
...
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1
Bio‐based polymer categories [5].
Figure 22.2
Packaging product life cycle [24].
Figure 22.3
Municipal solid‐waste life cycle with end of life options [25].
...
Figure 22.4
Life cycle of packaging made from petroleum‐based materials, pap
...
Figure 22.5
Phases of an LCA framework according to ISO 14040:2006.
Figure 22.6
Main elements of the first phase of LCA.
Figure 22.7
Biocomposite film production based on orange peel‐derived pectin
...
Figure 22.8
System boundary of LCA for PLA‐based and PET packages from the c
...
Figure 22.9
System boundary used for mango packaging and composite packaging
...
Figure 22.10
Eight criteria of data selection for the development of LCI as
...
Figure 22.11
Relationship of LCI to midpoint and endpoint indicators [24].
Figure 22.12
Monte‐Carlo characterized LCIA comparison between the biocompos
...
Figure 22.13
Percentile distribution of the impacts into processes in the li
...
Chapter 23
Figure 23.1
Garbage on Laysan Island in the Hawaiian Island.
Figure 23.2
Examples of products that use bio‐based materials for packaging.
...
Figure 23.3
Labels for bio‐packaging products [41].
Figure 23.4
Ways of discarding bioplastics product [42].
Figure 23.5
Product recirculation through general examples of reuse, recycle
...
Figure 23.6
Decision flowchart for bio‐based products designed to be recircu
...
Figure 23.7
The end‐of‐life options for bioplastics in the mechanical recyli
...
Chapter 24
Figure 24.1
Classification of bioplastic‐based packaging materials.
Figure 24.2
Factors influencing bioplastic‐based packaging materials.
...
Chapter 25
Figure 25.1
The range of the bio‐packaging supply chain.
Figure 25.2
Types of biodegradable food packaging structure.
Figure 25.3
Value chain of the food packaging industry.
Figure 25.4
Value chain of the food and packaging business sector for Mitsui
...
Chapter 26
Figure 26.1
Categorization of packaging materials based on the resources use
...
Figure 26.2
Categorization of bio‐based materials [17].
Figure 26.3
Shares of different applications in the production capacities of
...
Figure 26.4
Packaging attributes identified as “environmentally friendly” by
...
Chapter 27
Figure 27.1
Characteristic properties of food packaging material [9].
Figure 27.2
Malaysia's awareness regarding. Recyclable plastic items.
...
Figure 27.3
Current framework of food packaging material standard in China.
...
Figure 27.4
EU food‐contact materials legislations.
Figure 27.5
Authorization procedure as defined by Reg. 1935/2004 EC.
Figure 27.6
Percentages of food packaging materials that are widely used in
...
Figure 27.7
Over time, recovery rates in SA for packaging of cans, glass, PE
...
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Wiley Series in Renewable Resources
Series Editor:
Christian V. Stevens, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Belgium
Titles in the Series:
Wood Modification: Chemical, Thermal and Other Processes
Callum A. S. Hill
Renewables‐Based Technology: Sustainability Assessment
Jo Dewulf, Herman Van Langenhove
Biofuels
Wim Soetaert, Erik Vandamme
Handbook of Natural Colorants
Thomas Bechtold, Rita Mussak
Surfactants from Renewable Resources
Mikael Kjellin, Ingegärd Johansson
Industrial Applications of Natural Fibres: Structure, Properties and Technical Applications
Jörg Müssig
Thermochemical Processing of Biomass: Conversion into Fuels, Chemicals and Power
Robert C. Brown
Biorefinery Co‐Products: Phytochemicals, Primary Metabolites and Value‐Added Biomass Processing
Chantal Bergeron, Danielle Julie Carrier, Shri Ramaswamy
Aqueous Pretreatment of Plant Biomass for Biological and Chemical Conversion to Fuels and Chemicals
Charles E. Wyman
Bio‐Based Plastics: Materials and Applications
Stephan Kabasci
Introduction to Wood and Natural Fiber Composites
Douglas D. Stokke, Qinglin Wu, Guangping Han
Cellulosic Energy Cropping Systems
Douglas L. Karlen
Introduction to Chemicals from Biomass, 2nd Edition
James H. Clark, Fabien Deswarte
Lignin and Lignans as Renewable Raw Materials: Chemistry, Technology and Applications
Francisco G. Calvo‐Flores, Jose A. Dobado, Joaquín Isac‐García, Francisco J. Martin‐Martínez
Sustainability Assessment of Renewables‐Based Products: Methods and Case Studies
Jo Dewulf, Steven De Meester, Rodrigo A. F. Alvarenga
Cellulose Nanocrystals: Properties, Production and Applications
Wadood Hamad
Fuels, Chemicals and Materials from the Oceans and Aquatic Sources
Francesca M. Kerton, Ning Yan
Bio‐Based Solvents
François Jérôme and Rafael Luque
Nanoporous Catalysts for Biomass Conversion
Feng‐Shou Xiao and Liang Wang
Thermochemical Processing of Biomass: Conversion into Fuels, Chemicals and Power, 2nd Edition
Robert C. Brown
Chitin and Chitosan: Properties and Applications
Lambertus A.M. van den Broek and Carmen G. Boeriu
The Chemical Biology of Plant Biostimulants
Danny Geelen, Lin Xu
Biorefinery of Inorganics: Recovering Mineral Nutrients from Biomass and Organic Waste
Erik Meers, Evi Michels, René Rietra, Gerard Velthof
Process Systems Engineering for Biofuels Development
Adrián Bonilla‐Petriciolet, Gade P. Rangaiah
Waste Valorisation: Waste Streams in a Circular Economy
Carol Sze Ki Lin, Chong Li, Guneet Kaur, Xiaofeng Yang
Forthcoming Titles:
High‐Performance Materials from Bio‐based Feedstocks
Andrew J. Hunt, Nontipa Supanchaiyamat, Kaewta Jetsrisuparb, Jesper T.N. Knijnenburg
Bio-Based Packaging
Material, Environmental and Economic Aspects
Edited by
S.M. SAPUAN
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
R.A. ILYAS
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia
This edition first published 2021
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Sapuan, S.M., editor. | R.A. Ilyas, editor.
Title: Bio‐based packaging : material, environmental and economic aspects / edited by S.M. Sapuan, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia, R.A. Ilyas, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia.
Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2021. | Series: Wiley series in renewable resources | Includes index. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020024015 (print) | LCCN 2020024016 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119381075 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119381044 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119381051 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Packaging–Materials. | Packaging–Environmental aspects. | Packaging–Economic aspects. | Food–Packaging. | Biodegradable products.
Classification: LCC TS198.2 .B56 2021 (print) | LCC TS198.2 (ebook) | DDC 664/.09–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020024015
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020024016
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Images: Trees growing on coins © wk1003mike/Shutterstock, Turtle in ocean © Krofoto/Shutterstock, Eco friendly dishware © jannoon028/Shutterstock
List of Contributors
Sharmiza Adnan Pulp and Paper Laboratory, Biomass Technology Programme, Forest Products Division, Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong, Selangor, 52109, Malaysia
Z.M.A. Ainun Program of Pulp and Paper and Pollution Control, Laboratory of Biopolymer and Derivatives, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
H.A. Aisyah Institute of Tropical Forest and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
Dogan Arslan Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Department, Faculty of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak, Istanbul, 34469, Turkey
M.R.M. Asyraf Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
M.S.N. Atikah Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
Min Min Aung Higher Education Centre of Excellence (HiCoE), Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products, University Putra Malaysia
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University Putra Malaysia
Chemistry Division, Centre of Foundation Studies for Agricultural Science, University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
Rafiqah S. Ayu Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
T.R.S. Cadaval Jr School of Chemistry and Food, Federal University of Rio Grande–FURG, km 8 Italia Avenue, 96203–900 Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
M. Chandrasekar School of Aeronautical Sciences, Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science, Padur, Kelambakkam, Chennai 603103, Tamilnadu, India
Ying Chen Centre for Polymer from Renewable Resources, South China University of Technology, Wushan, Guangzhou, 510640, China
Aamir Hussain Dar Department of Food Technology, Islamic University of Science and Technology, Awantipora, Jammu and Kashmir, India
B.S. Farias School of Chemistry and Food, Federal University of Rio Grande–FURG, km 8 Italia Avenue, 96203–900 Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
Gaiping Guo College of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Petrochemical Technology, Beijing 102617, China
Mohd Idham Hakimi Department of Bioprocess Technology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
A.S. Harmaen Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
Carsten Herbes Nuertingen‐Geislingen University, Germany
M.R.M. Huzaifah Institute of Tropical Forest and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
Rushdan bin Ibrahim Pulp and Paper Laboratory, Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong, Selangor, 52109, Malaysia
R.A. Ilyas School of Chemical and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
Centre for Advanced Composite Materials, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
M.R. Ishak Department of Aerospace Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
Ewelina Jamróz Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Food Technology, University of Agriculture in Cracow, ul. Balicka Street 122, 30–149 Cracow, Poland
Jissy Jacob PG & Research Department of Chemistry, St. Thomas College, Pala, Kerala‐686574, India
School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala‐686560, India
Latifah Jasmani Pulp and Paper Laboratory, Biomass Technology Programme, Forest Products Division, Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong, Selangor, 52109, Malaysia
Mohd Azwan Jenol Department of Bioprocess Technology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
A. Khalina Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia
Engineering Faculty, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
Moe Tin Khaing Department of Chemistry, Yadanabon University, Mandalay, Myanmar
Shafat Khan Department of Food Technology, Islamic University of Science and Technology, Awantipora, Jammu and Kashmir, India
Piotr Kulawik Department of Animal Products Technology, Faculty of Food Technology, University of Agriculture in Cracow, Balicka Street 122, 30–149 Cracow, Poland
Rakesh Kumar Department of Biotechnology, Central University of South Bihar, Gaya 824236, India
T. Senthil Muthu Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education, Krishnankoil–626126, Tamil Nadu, India
Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, The Sirindhorn International Thai German Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS), King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, 1518 Wongsawang Road, Bangsue, Bangkok 10800, Thailand
Centre for Composite Materials, International Research Centre, Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education, Krishnankoil–626126, Tamil Nadu, India
Usman Lawal Electrochemical Power Source Division, CSIR‐ Central Electro Chemical Research Institute (CECRI), Karaikudi‐630003, Tamil Nadu, India
Academy of Science and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
C.H. Lee Institute of Tropical Forest and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
Hongsheng Liu Centre for Polymer from Renewable Resources, South China University of Technology, Wushan, Guangzhou, 510640, China
Sino‐Singapore International Joint Research Institute, Guangzhou Knowledge City, China
Sravanthi Loganathan Processing Engineering Division, CSIR‐ Central Electrochemical Research Institute (CECRI), Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu‐630003, India
Kai Lu Centre for Polymer from Renewable Resources, South China University of Technology, Wushan, Guangzhou, 510640, China
Lu Lu Taung Mai Higher Education Centre of Excellence (HiCoE), Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products, University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
Ishrat Majid Department of Food Technology, Islamic University of Science and Technology, Awantipora, Jammu and Kashmir, India
P.C. Martins Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
M.T. Mastura Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering Technology, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM), Hang Tuah Jaya, Durian Tunggal, Melaka, 76100, Malaysia
V.G. Martins Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
L.N. Megashah Department of Bioprocess Technology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
J.M. Moura School of Chemistry and Food, Federal University of Rio Grande–FURG, km 8 Italia Avenue, 96203–900 Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
Syed Umar Faruq Syed Najmuddin Laboratory of Vaccines and Immunotherapeutics (LIVES), Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
Mohammadreza Nofar Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Department, Faculty of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Istanbul Technical University Maslak, Istanbul, 34469, Turkey
Polymer Science and Technology Program, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak, Istanbul, 34469, Turkey
D. Nogueira Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
K. Norfaryanti Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
Mohd Nor Faiz Norrrahim Research Centre for Chemical Defence (CHEMDEF), Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia, Kem Perdana Sungai Besi, Kuala Lumpur, 57000, Malaysia
N. Mohd Nurrazi Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
Fatih Özogul Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
L.A.A. Pinto School of Chemistry and Food, Federal University of Rio Grande–FURG, Rio Grande, RS Brazil
Nur Farisha Abd Rahim Level 3, Putra Business School, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
Priya Rani Department of Biotechnology, Central University of South Bihar, Gaya 824236, India
Marwah Rayung Higher Education Centre of Excellence (HiCoE), Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products, University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
Nur Amira Mamat Razali Department of Physics, Center for Defence Foundation Studies, Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia, Kem Perdana Sungai Besi, Kuala Lumpur, 57000, Malaysia
M.H. Abdel Rehim Packaging Materials Department, National Research Centre, Egypt
V.P. Romani Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
F.A. Sabaruddin Institute of Tropical Forest and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
S.O.A. SaifulAzry Institute of Tropical Forest and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
H.N. Salwa Institute of Tropical Forest and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
S.M. Sapuan Advanced Engineering Materials and Composites Research Centre (AEMC), Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
N.H. Sari Department of mechanical Engineering, University of Mataram, West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia
K. Senthilkumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education, Krishnankoil–626126, Tamil Nadu, India
Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, The Sirindhorn International Thai German Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS), King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, 1518 Wongsawang Road, Bangsue, Bangkok 10800, Thailand
Centre for Composite Materials, International Research Centre, Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education, Krishnankoil–626126, Tamil Nadu, India
R.M. Shahroze Department of Aerospace Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
Rafeeya Shams Sher‐e‐Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Jammu, India
Suchart Siengchin Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, The Sirindhorn International Thai German Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS), King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, 1518 Wongsawang Road, Bangsue, Bangkok 10800, Thailand
S. Suteja Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Mataram, West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia
I.S.M.A. Tawakkal Engineering Faculty, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
Sabu Thomas School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University
International and Inter University Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi University
School of Energy Materials, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala‐686560, India
Huafeng Tian Beijing Key Laboratory of Quality Evaluation Technology for Hygiene and Safety of Plastics, School of Material and Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 100048, China
Hiroshi Uyama Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, Suita 565‐0871, Japan
Ravi Babu Valapa Electrochemical Power Source Division, CSIR‐ Central Electro Chemical Research Institute (CECRI), Karaikudi‐630003, Tamil Nadu, India
Emre Vatansever Polymer Science and Technology Program, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak, Istanbul, 34469, Turkey
M. Vishnuvarthanan Department of Printing Technology, College of Engineering Guindy, Anna University, Chennai – 600 025, Tamil Nadu, India
Yunxuan Weng Beijing Key Laboratory of Quality Evaluation Technology for Hygiene and Safety of Plastics, School of Material and Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 100048, China
Tengku Arisyah Tengku Yasim‐Anuar Department of Bioprocess Technology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
Long Yu Centre for Polymer from Renewable Resources, South China University of Technology, Wushan, Guangzhou, 510640, China
Sino‐Singapore International Joint Research Institute, Guangzhou Knowledge City, China
S. Zaiton Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Faculty of Economics and Management, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
Khairul Zaman Polycomposite Sdn Bhd, Taman Mutiara Galla, 70300 Seremban, Negeri Sembilan
M.Y.M. Zuhri Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
Series Preface
Renewable resources, their use and modification, are involved in a multitude of important processes with a major influence on our everyday lives. Applications can be found in the energy sector, paints and coatings, and the chemical, pharmaceutical, and textile industries, to name but a few.
The area interconnects several scientific disciplines (agriculture, biochemistry, chemistry, technology, environmental sciences, forestry, etc.), which makes it very difficult to have an expert view on the complicated interactions. Therefore, the idea to create a series of scientific books, focusing on specific topics concerning renewable resources, has been very opportune and can help to clarify some of the underlying connections in this area.
In a very fast‐changing world, trends are not only characteristic of fashion and political standpoints; science too is not free from hypes and buzzwords. The use of renewable resources is again more important nowadays; however, it is not part of a hype or a fashion. As the lively discussions among scientists continue about how many years we will still be able to use fossil fuels – opinions ranging from 50 to 500 years – they do agree that the reserve is limited and that it is essential not only to search for new energy carriers but also for new material sources.
In this respect, the field of renewable resources is a crucial area in the search for alternatives for fossil‐based raw materials and energy. In the field of energy supply, biomass‐ and renewables‐based resources will be part of the solution alongside other alternatives such as solar energy, wind energy, hydraulic power, hydrogen technology, and nuclear energy. In the field of material sciences, the impact of renewable resources will probably be even bigger. Integral utilization of crops and the use of waste streams in certain industries will grow in importance, leading to a more sustainable way of producing materials. Although our society was much more (almost exclusively) based on renewable resources centuries ago, this disappeared in the Western world in the nineteenth century. Now it is time to focus again on this field of research. However, it should not mean a “retour à la nature”, but should be a multidisciplinary effort on a highly technological level to perform research towards new opportunities, and to develop new crops and products from renewable resources. This will be essential to guarantee an acceptable level of comfort for the growing number of people living on our planet. It is “the” challenge for the coming generations of scientists to develop more sustainable ways to create prosperity and to fight poverty and hunger in the world. A global approach is certainly favored.
This challenge can only be dealt with if scientists are attracted to this area and are recognized for their efforts in this interdisciplinary field. It is, therefore, also essential that consumers recognize the fate of renewable resources in a number of products. Furthermore, scientists do need to communicate and discuss the relevance of their work. The use and modification of renewable resources may not follow the path of the genetic engineering concept in view of consumer acceptance in Europe. Related to this aspect, the series will certainly help to increase the visibility of the importance of renewable resources. Being convinced of the value of the renewables approach for the industrial world, as well as for developing countries, I was myself delighted to collaborate on this series of books focusing on the different aspects of renewable resources. I hope that readers become aware of the complexity, the interaction, and interconnections, and the challenges of this field, and that they will help to communicate on the importance of renewable resources.
I certainly want to thank the people of Wiley's Chichester office, especially David Hughes, Jenny Cossham, and Lyn Roberts, in seeing the need for such a series of books on renewable resources, for initiating and supporting it, and for helping to carry the project to the end.
Last, but not least, I want to thank my family, especially my wife Hilde and children Paulien and Pieter‐Jan, for their patience, and for giving me the time to work on the series when other activities seemed to be more inviting.
Christian V. Stevens
Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Belgium
Series Editor, “Renewable Resources”
June 2005
Preface
The plastic industry was initiated in the early 1900s when the first synthetic plastic was produced by Leo Hendrik Baekeland in the United States of America. Since the industry began, annual global plastic production has exploded from some 1.5 million metric tons in 1950 to 348 billion metric tons in 2017. Cumulatively, plastic production has reached 8.3 billion metric tons worldwide, with a dramatic increase in the amount of plastics anticipated to be produced globally by the year 2050. Of the amount produced, most plastics are single use and afterwards are immediately disposed of, usually into landfills. Currently, the packaging industry relies strongly on the use of petroleum‐derived plastic materials, which raise some concerns from both an environmental and economic perspective. Furthermore, because of their lack of biodegradability, these products can pose significant waste disposal problems in some areas. Growing environmental concerns regarding usage of these toxic pollutants containing materials that are harmful to people, animals, and plants are motivating the use of bio‐based materials as alternatives.
The global plastic sustainability issue has grown significantly in the last few years, encouraging academia as well as industry players to develop sustainable alternatives for preserving resources for future generations. Development of bio‐based packaging is one of the important factors for sustainable growth of the packaging industry. Recent trends in the consumer market have moved towards greener packaging. In 2019, the global production capacity of biodegradable bioplastics was 941 000 metric tons. The global biodegradable plastic packaging market was valued at US$4.65 billion in 2019 and is expected to reach a market value of US$12.06 billion by 2025, registering a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 17.04% during the forecast period of 2020–2025. The successful use of renewable bio‐based packaging for the production of packaging materials will overcome the environmental problems caused by petroleum‐derived plastics. Bio‐based packaging materials have attracted huge considerable research and development interest for a significant length of time, and in recent years these materials have reached the market. Eco‐concerns played a major role in encouraging the development of biopolymers in packaging applications. This occurred directly via consumer demand for environmentally friendly products as well as indirectly via the political and ensuing environmental legislation and regulation. Furthermore, technological advances, such as nanotechnology, are forecasted to continue improving biopolymer properties and increasing the number of potential applications for such bio‐based materials in packaging.
This book looks at how biopolymers might be used in packaging as a potential green solution. It addresses commentary from leading industrial and academic experts in the field who present cutting‐edge research on bio‐based materials for the packaging industry. It includes new potential materials to be used for food packaging applications, such as starch, protein, pectin, chitin, chitosan, natural fibre, cellulose, nanocellulose, polylactic acid (PLA), polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), etc., as well as their manufacturing processes and legislative demands for food contact packaging materials. It also gives an overview of the most recent advances and emerging new aspects of nanotechnology for development of composites for environmentally compatible packaging materials. Furthermore, this book covers a life cycle assessment of bio‐based packaging products and the market for bio‐based packaging, on how consumer perceptions and preferences regard bio‐based packaging, as well as an assessment of supply chains, business strategies, and markets in biodegradable food packaging. This book covers economic issues and environmental issues of bio‐based packaging, including the socioeconomic impact of bio‐based packaging, the future of sustainable packaging, renewable sources for packaging material, environmental advantages and challenges of bio‐based packaging materials, a life cycle assessment (LCA) of bio‐based packaging products, as well as the reuse and recycle of bio‐based packaging products. Lastly, it also elaborates the opportunities for biopolymers in key end‐use sectors and penetration of biopolymer‐based concepts in the packaging market, as well as barriers to widespread commercialization.
1Starch‐Based Packaging Materials
Ying Chen1, Kai Lu1, Hongsheng Liu1,2, and Long Yu1,2
1School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Wushan, Guangzhou, 510640, China
2Sino‐Singapore International Joint Research Institute, Guangzhou Knowledge City, Guangzhou, 510663, China
1.1 Introduction
Packaging has played an important role in world pollution in recent decades as multimillions tons of packaging waste have resulted in environmental issues [1, 2]. Due to the environmental challenges many researchers have formulated biodegradable and ecofriendly composite materials to replace conventional packaging materials [3]. In fact, more and more countries have recently passed regulations or laws to ban the application of disposable plastic packages, which enhanced the work in this area. The high cost of producing bioplastics has hindered its further development, so alternative low‐cost and renewable substrates have been proposed using agricultural waste [4]. Starch‐based materials are the promised alternative to synthetic ones in food packaging and handling in many aspects [5].
Starch films have been widely used in food and medicine packaging [6–10], in which the film should be edible in many cases, such as applications in candy wrappers and medicine capsules, etc. [11, 12]. Such films maintain the shelf life of foods for distant marketing, either by acting as a barrier for gases and volatile compounds or by controlling water permeability [13–15]. Improvement of mechanical properties and reducing moisture sensitivity are two ongoing challenges for starch‐based materials. To achieve these two goals, various blending and compositing techniques have been developed, such as blending with other polymers or reinforcing with particle or fiber‐fillers [16–19]. However, incorporation of any additive is sensitive when developing food contactable or edible packaging films, due to safety issues.
On the other hand, the unique microstructures of different starches and their multiphase transitions during thermal processing can be used as an outstanding model system to illustrate our conceptual approach to understanding the structure–processing–property relationships in polymers [20–27].
This chapter introduces the development of starch‐based materials, in particular their application in packaging, including both fundamental and application researches. It starts from fundamental issues of starch microstructures and phase transition to application techniques of extrusion processing, and then moves to show how to solve the well‐recognized weaknesses of starch‐based materials.
1.2 Macrostructures and Phase Transitions of Starch
1.2.1 Microstructures of Starch Granules
Synthetic polymers have been developed to the point where microstructures can be designed and molecular weight and molecular weight distribution can be controlled. However, the mesoscopic structure within a starch granule has evolved to suit a plant's own needs and is therefore much more complex. Starch is a polysaccharide produced by mostly higher‐order plants as a means of storing energy. It is stored intracellularly in the form of spherical granules 2–100 μm in diameter. Most commercially available starches are isolated from grains such as corn, rice, and wheat or from tubers such as potato and cassava (tapioca).
Chemically, starch is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of anhydroglucose units linked together primarily through α‐d‐(1 → 4) glucosidic bonds [22, 26–38]. Although the detailed microstructures of different starches are still being clarified, it has generally been established that starch is a heterogeneous material containing two types of microstructures – linear (amylose) and branched (amylopectin). Amylose is essentially a linear structure of α‐1,4 linked glucose units, while amylopectin is a highly branched structure of short α‐1,4 chains linked by α‐1,6 bonds. Figure 1.1 shows the chemical structure and a schematic representation of amylose and amylopectin starches. The linear structure of amylose makes its behavior more closely resemble that of conventional synthetic polymers. Depending on its source and the processing conditions employed during its extraction, the molecular weight of amylose is about ×106, which is 10 times higher than conventional synthetic polymers. Amylopectin, on the other hand, is a branched polymer and its molecular weight is much greater than amylose, with light‐scattering measurements indicating a molecular weight in the millions. The high molecular weight and branched structure of amylopectin reduce the mobility of the polymer chains and interfere with any tendency for them to become oriented closely enough to permit significant levels of hydrogen bonding. Between the linear amylose and short‐branched amylopectin, a long‐branched structure has been detected, such as that found in tapioca starch.
Physically, most native starches are semi‐crystalline, having a crystallinity of about 20–45% [22, 39–41]. Amylose and the branching points of amylopectin form amorphous regions. The short‐branched chains in the amylopectin are the main crystalline components in granular starch. Crystalline regions are present in the form of double helices with a length of ∼5 nm. The amylopectin segments in the crystalline regions are all parallel to the axis of the large helix. The molecular weight of amylopectin is about 100 times higher than that of amylose. The ratio of amylose to amylopectin depends upon the source and age of the starch and it can also be controlled by the extraction process employed. Starch granules also contain small amounts of lipids and proteins.
Figure 1.1Chemical structures and physical schematic representation of (a) amylose starch and (b) amylopectin starch.
Figure 1.2 shows the chemical structures and physical schematic representation of (a) amylose starch and (b) amylopectin starch.
