Biobased Composites E-Book
131,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Explore the world of biocomposites with this one-stop resource edited by four international leaders in the field Bio-based Composites: Characterization, Properties, and Applications delivers a comprehensive treatment of all known characterization methods, properties, and industry applications of bio-based composites materials. This unique, one-stop resource covers all major developments in the field from the last decade of research into this environmentally beneficial area. The internationally recognized editors have selected resources that represent advances in the mechanical, thermal, tribological, and water sorption properties of bio-based composites, and cover new areas of research in physico-chemical analysis, flame retardancy, failure mechanisms, lifecycle assessment, and modeling of bio-based composites. The low weight, low cost, excellent thermal recyclability, and biodegradability of bio-based composites make them ideal candidates to replace engineered plastic products derived from fossil fuel. This book provides its readers with the knowledge they'll require to understand a new class of materials increasingly being used in the automotive and packaging industries, aerospace, the military, and construction. It also includes: * An extended discussion of the environmental impact of bio-based composites using a lice cycle methodology * A review of forecasts of natural fiber reinforced polymeric composites and its degradability concerns * An analysis of the physical and mechanical properties of a bio-based composite with sisal powder * A comprehensive treatment of the mechanical, thermal, tribological, and dielectric properties of bio-based composites * A review of processing methods for the manufacture of bio-based composites Perfect for materials scientists in private industry, government laboratories, or engaged in academic research, Bio-Based Composites will also earn a place in the libraries of industrial and manufacturing engineers who seek a better understanding of the beneficial industrial applications of biocomposites in industries ranging from automobiles to packaging.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 501
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021
Ähnliche
Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Preface
1 Introduction to Biobased Composites
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Biodegradable Materials
1.3 Polymers in Tissue Engineering
1.4 Environmental Realization
1.5 Biomass Composites Characteristics and Testing
1.6 Life‐cycle Assessment
1.7 Conclusions
References
2 Processing Methods for Manufacture of Biobased Composites
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Biobased Materials
2.3 Processing Methods
2.4 Fabrication Techniques of Biobased Composites
2.5 Fillers and Reinforcements Used in the Preparation of Biobased Composites
2.6 Conclusion
References
3 Physicochemical Analysis of Biobased Composites
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Performance of Biocomposites
3.3 Physicochemical Properties
3.4 Conclusion
References
4 Characterization of Biobased Composites
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Conception of Composites
4.3 Classification of Biocomposites
4.4 Materials for the Synthesis of Biobased Composites
4.5 Challenges of the Introduction of Natural Fiber
References
5 Mechanical, Thermal, Tribological, and Dielectric Properties of Biobased Composites
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Characterization of Biobased Composites
5.3 Factors Influencing Various Properties of the Biobased Composites
5.4 Mechanical Properties of Biobased Composites
5.5 Thermal Properties of Biobased Composites
5.6 Tribological Properties of Biobased Composites
5.7 Dielectric Properties of Biobased Composites
5.8 Conclusions
References
6 Flame Retardancy of Biobased Composites
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Types of Biobased Polymer Composites Used in a Flame‐Retardant Application
6.3 Role and Effect of Natural Byproducts on the Flame‐Retardant Behavior of a Biocomposite
6.4 Role and Effect of Biobased Natural Fibers on the Flammability of a Biocomposite
6.5 Summary
References
7 Failure Mechanisms of Biobased Composites
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Matrix Materials for Biobased Composites
7.3 Trends in Biobased Composites
7.4 Adapted Manufacturing Technologies
7.5 Other Failure Criteria
7.6 Conclusion
References
8 Recent Advances and Technologies of Biobased Composites
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Recent Advances on Biobased Matrices
8.3 Recent Advances on Biobased Reinforcements
8.4 Recent Advances on Biobased Composite Processing
8.5 Conclusion
References
9 Biocomposites for Energy Storage
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Fundamental Concepts
9.3 Selection Parameters for Biocomposites
9.4 Biocomposites for Energy Storage
9.5 Bioinspired Composite Materials
9.6 Bioinspired Composites for Energy Storage
9.7 Enzyme‐Based Materials
9.8 Biosensing/Bioimaging Applications
9.9 Conclusion
References
10 Analysis of the Physical and Mechanical Properties of A Biobased Composite with Sisal Powder
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Biobased Composites
10.3 Polyester Matrix Composites
10.4 Manufacture of Composites
10.5 Physical–Mechanical Tests
10.6 Analysis of Physical and Mechanical Properties
10.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
11 Physico‐Mechanical Properties of Biobased Composites
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Physico‐Mechanical Property of the Biobased Composites
11.3 Applications of Biobased Composites
11.4 Conclusions
References
12 Synthesis and Utilization of Biodegradable Polymers
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Synthesis Techniques of Biodegradable Polymers
12.3 Biodegradable Polymers and Their Synthesis
12.4 Applications of Biopolymers in Industries
12.5 Conclusion
References
13 Forecasts of Natural Fiber Reinforced Polymeric Composites and Its Degradability Concerns – A Review
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Recent Trends of Natural Fiber Production from Plants
13.3 Magnitude of Natural Fibers at this Juncture
13.4 Constraints and Competence of Natural Fibers
13.5 Degradability of Polymeric Natural Fiber Composites
13.6 Marine Application of Natural Fiber Composites and Its Degradation
13.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
14 Biofibers and Biopolymers for Biocomposites – in the Eyes of Spectroscopy
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Characterization
14.3 Conclusions
References
15 Environmental Impact Study on Biobased Composites Using Lifecycle Methodology
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Lifecycle Assessment
15.3 Simplified Case Study
15.4 Goal and Scope
15.5 System Boundary
15.6 Inventory Analysis
15.7 Impact Assessment
15.8 Results
15.9 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Mechanical and physical characteristics of some natural fibers.
Table 1.2 Informative values on the different properties of the fibers.
Table 1.3 Specific properties of the fibers.
Table 1.4 Specific properties of the fibers with respect to the cost ratio.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Examples of commercially available biobased thermosetting polymers.
Table 2.2 Fabrication methods to produce biocomposites.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Degradation temperatures of some natural fibers.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Properties of natural fibers.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Thermal characterization techniques.
Table 5.2 Mechanical properties of biocomposites with agro‐based filler reinf...
Table 5.3 Popular thermal analysis techniques with their property measured.
Table 5.4 Essential findings of the DMA test.
Table 5.5 Different kinds of composites made up of biobased materials and the...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Various fire‐retardant properties of a biocomposite.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Classification of polymers based on biodegradability criteria.
Table 7.2 Properties of wood plastic composites [77].
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Bioinspired composite material for energy storage applications.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Classification of the samples.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Origin of common natural plant fibers.
Table 13.2 Properties of cellulose‐based natural fibers.
Table 13.3 Advantages and disadvantages of natural plant fibers and synthetic...
Table 13.4 Degradation temperature of plant fibers and man‐made fibers.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Inventory data for Lifecycle Assessment.
Table 15.2 Environmental damage of Eco‐indicator 99.
Table 15.3 Environmental indicators.
Table 15.4 Weighting comparison of a biocomposite and a GF/polyester.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Nanocellulose applications.
Figure 1.2 Illustration for the structure of cellulose extracted from plants...
Figure 1.3 Classification of polymers.
Figure 1.4 Commonly used forms of scaffolds in tissue engineering.
Figure 1.5 Number of publications considering natural fiber composites.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Steps involved in solvent casting and particulate leaching.
Figure 2.2 Fabrication of electrospun nanofibers under high voltage.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Classification of composites.
Figure 4.2 Classification of biocomposites.
Figure 4.3 Examples of biopolymers.
Figure 4.4 The influence of plant's components on the properties of plant fi...
Figure 4.5 Chemical structure of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin.
Figure 4.6 Methods of natural fiber modifications.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Characterization techniques commonly used to assess the propertie...
Figure 5.2 Major factors influencing the properties of biocomposites.
Figure 5.3 Properties of biobased composite based on the constituents.
Figure 5.4 Properties of the composites influenced by the fiber parameters....
Figure 5.5 Composite fabrication techniques.
Figure 5.6 Additive manufacturing technology using a 3D printer.
Figure 5.7 Aging test for biocomposites.
Figure 5.8 Factors influencing the thermal properties of biocomposites.
Figure 5.9 Basic principle of DMA operation.
Figure 5.10 Pin‐on‐disc apparatus with computer‐aided data acquisition.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Major fire reaction properties that influence fire growth.
Figure 6.2 Major components of plant fibers.
Figure 6.3 Schematic representation of the cellulose degradation process....
Figure 6.4 Combustion cycle of polymeric materials.
Figure 6.5 Steps to accomplish the reduced flammability in polymer composite...
Figure 6.6 Various kinds of wastes used as a reinforcement in the manufactur...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Fiber–matrix debonding caused by moisture absorption in fibers. (...
Figure 7.2 Fractured surface analysis showing fiber failures in a fiber rein...
Figure 7.3 Fiber failure caused by acoustic emission. (a) Axial split. (b) D...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Chemical structure of vegetable oils. R, R′, and R″ are linear ca...
Figure 8.2 Chemical structure of (a) PLA and (b) PHAs. R represents alkyl ch...
Figure 8.3 (a) Epoxidized soybean oil (ESO). (b) Acrylated epoxidized soybea...
Figure 8.4 Crystalline and amorphous regions of lignin.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Variation of atmospheric CO
2
concentration from 1958 to 2018.
Figure 9.2 Technologies/methods and materials available for CCS.
Figure 9.3 Typical CCS technologies for coal‐power plants.
Figure 9.4 Material properties of bioinspired materials.
Figure 9.5 N, F codoped 3D porous carbon supported nanocrystals.
Figure 9.6 Muscle‐inspired spindle composite morphology [98].
Figure 9.7 Creatine amidinohydrolase catalyzed hydrolysis of creatine.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 (a) Residue; (b) residue after crushing and sifting (particles)....
Figure 10.2 Samples for tensile tests with different concentrations of fiber...
Figure 10.3 (a) Curved stress and strain of samples with styrene; (b) stress...
Figure 10.4 Results of (a) Young modulus at break and (b) specific modulus a...
Figure 10.5 Results of tenacity of the samples studied.
Figure 10.6 Morphology of the samples with styrene.
Figure 10.7 Curing time of the samples with styrene.
Figure 10.8 Results of water absorption of the samples studied.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Various types of fabrication processes of composite materials.
Figure 11.2 Classification of biobased composites according to their origin....
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Biodegradable polymers derived from renewable resources and petr...
Figure 12.2 Abiotic degradation of biodegradable polymers.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Distribution of diverse fibers.
Figure 13.2 Range of major constituents in plant fiber.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Classification of biodegradable polymers.
Figure 14.2 Structure of a biofiber.
Figure 14.3 SEM micrographs of the sisal fibers.
Figure 14.4 SEM micrographs of untreated and treated wood fibers.
Figure 14.5 SEM of the composite showing excellent fiber–matrix adhesion....
Figure 14.6 SEM of untreated and 8% NaOH treated (a) jute fiber and (b) sisa...
Figure 14.7 Optical photographs of (a) filter paper and all cellulose compos...
Figure 14.8 Optical micrographs of acrylate broom fibers.
Figure 14.9 AFM image data showing the morphology of fiber surfaces before (...
Figure 14.10 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images of cellulose nano...
Figure 14.11
1
H NMR spectrum of CTA obtained from ramie fiber.
Figure 14.12
1
H NMR spectrum of lignin processed from sisal fiber.
Figure 14.13 CP/MAS NMR spectrum of southern pinewood.
Figure 14.14 The FT‐IR spectrum of raw cellulosic pine needles.
Figure 14.15 FT‐IR spectra of transgenic flax fibers.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 System boundary for LCA.
Figure 15.2 Environmental impact of biocomposite fabrication.
Figure 15.3 Normalized value of biocomposite fabrication.
Figure 15.4 Weighting of biocomposite fabrication.
Figure 15.5 Comparison chart of a biocomposite and a GF/polyester.
Figure 15.6 End‐of‐life scenario comparison of a biocomposite.
Guide
Cover Page
Biobased Composites
Copyright
List of Contributors
Preface
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
Pages
iii
iv
ix
x
xi
xii
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
Biobased Composites
Processing, Characterization, Properties, and Applications
First Edition
Anish Khan
King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Sanjay M. Rangappa
King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand
Suchart Siengchin
King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand
Abdullah M. Asiri
King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
This edition first published 2021.© 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Published by Jon Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New JerseyPublished simultaneously in Canada.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Anish Khan, Sanjay M. Rangappa, Suchart Siengchin and Abdullah M. Asiri to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
Registered OfficeJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
Editorial Office111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print‐on‐demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyIn view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of experimental reagents, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each chemical, piece of equipment, reagent, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762‐2974, outside the United States at (317) 572‐3993 or fax (317) 572‐4002.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com.
Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Khan, Anish, author. | Rangappa, Sanjay Mavinkere, author. | Siengchin, Suchart, author. | Asiri, Abdullah M., author. Title: Biobased composites : processing, characterization, properties, and applications / Anish Khan, King Abdulaziz University, Sanjay M Rangappa, King Mongkut’s University of Technology, Suchart Siengchin, King Mongkut’s University of Technology, Abdullah M. Asiri, King Abdulaziz University. Description: First edition. | Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2021. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020036206 (print) | LCCN 2020036207 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119641797 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119641810 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119641827 (epub) Subjects: LCSH: Fibrous composites. | Biomass chemicals. Classification: LCC TA418.9.C6 K478 2021 (print) | LCC TA418.9.C6 (ebook) | DDC 620.1/97–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020036206LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020036207
Cover image: © Zukvosten / Getty ImagesCover design by Wiley
List of Contributors
Nikita AgrawalDepartment of Pedodontics, People’s College of Dental Sciences, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
Jamal Akhter SiddiqueDepartment of Chemistry, School of Basic and Applied Sciences, Lingaya's Vidyapeeth (Formerly known as Lingaya's University), Faridabad, Haryana, India
Faris M. AL‐OqlaDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hashemite University, Zarqa, Jordan
Marcos AquinoDepartment of Textile Engineering, Textile Engineering Laboratory, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
V. Arul Mozhi SelvanDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, India
Abdullah M. AsiriCenter of Excellence for Advanced Materials Research and Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Aftab Aslam Parwaz KhanCenter of Excellence for Advanced Materials Research and Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Nadir AyrilmisDepartment of Wood Mechanics and Technology, Faculty of Forestry, Istanbul University‐Cerrahpasa, Istanbul, Turkey
E. BiswasChemistry and Biochemistry Department, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, USA
M. ChandrasekarSchool of Aeronautical Sciences, Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Piotr CzubDepartment of Chemistry and Technology of Polymers, Cracow University of Technology, Cracow, Poland
D. DivyaResearch and Development Department, Pinnacle Bio‐Sciences, Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu, India
Rubens FonsecaDepartment of Textile Engineering, Textile Engineering Laboratory, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
Brijesh GangilDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, H.N.B. Garhwal University, Srinagar, Uttarakhand, India
T. F. GarrisonChemistry Department, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
S. HawkinsChemistry and Biochemistry Department, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, USA
Mohit Hemath KumarDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India
S. IndranDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Rohini College of Engineering and Technology, Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu, India
N. B. Karthik BabuDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India
S. KarthikeyanDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education, Krishnankoil, Tamil Nadu, India
Anish KhanCenter of Excellence for Advanced Materials Research and Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
A. V. KiruthikaAssistant Professor of Physics, Seethalakshmi Achi College for Women, Pallathur, Tamil Nadu, India
Dipen Kumar RajakDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Sandip Institute of Technology and Research Centre, Nashik, Maharashtra, India
Pawan Kumar RakeshDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, NIT, Srinagar, Uttarakhand, India
J. ManirajDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, KIT‐Kalaignarkarunanidhi Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Moises MeloDepartment of Textile Engineering, Laboratory of Characterization of the Textile Materials, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
H. MohitDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, India
K. MonroeChemistry and Biochemistry Department, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, USA
Kátia MoreiraDepartment of Textile Engineering, Textile Engineering Laboratory, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
Durgesh D. PagarDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, K. K. Wagh Institute of Engineering Education and Research, Nashik, Maharashtra, India
Catalin I. PruncuDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College London, London, UKDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
R. L. QuirinoChemistry and Biochemistry Department, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, USA
N. Rajesh Jesudoss HynesDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu, India
L. Rajesh KumarDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, KPR Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
N. RajiniDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education, Krishnankoil, Tamil Nadu, India
M. RameshDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, KIT‐Kalaignarkarunanidhi Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
P. RameshDepartment of Production Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, India
T. RameshDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India
Lalit RanakotiDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, NIT, Srinagar, Uttarakhand, India
M. R. SanjayNatural Composites Research Group Lab, Academic Enhancement Department, King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand
Thiago SantosDepartment of Textile Engineering, Textile Engineering Laboratory, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
Caroliny SantosDepartment of Textile Engineering, Textile Engineering Laboratory, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
K. SenthilkumarDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education, Krishnankoil, Tamil Nadu, IndiaDepartment of Mechanical and Process Engineering, The Sirindhorn International Thai German Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS), King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand
T. Senthil Muthu KumarDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education, Krishnankoil, Tamil Nadu, IndiaDepartment of Mechanical and Process Engineering, The Sirindhorn International Thai German Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS), King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand
P. Shenbaga VeluDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, P.S.R Engineering College, Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu, India
Suchart SiengchinDepartment of Materials and Production Engineering, The Sirindhorn International Thai German Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS), King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, ThailandNatural Composites Research Group Lab, King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand
Anna SienkiewiczDepartment of Chemistry and Technology of Polymers, Cracow University of Technology, Cracow, Poland
N. J. VigneshDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu, India
Madhu YadavDepartment of Chemistry, Bioorganic Research Laboratory, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, IndiaGGIC, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India
Preface
The objective of this book is to summarize many of the recent developments in the area of biobased composites. As the title indicates, this book emphasizes new challenges for the characterization, properties, and applications of biobased composites. This book provides an update of all the important areas of (processing, characterisation, properties and application) biobased composites in a comprehensive manner. This book covers the void for the need of one‐stop reference book for the researchers. Leading researchers from industry, academy, government, and private research institutions across the globe have contributed the chapters for the book. Academics, researchers, scientists, engineers, and students in the field of biobased composites will benefit from this book, which is highly application oriented.
The editors are thankful to all the authors for their contribution. The editors also thank the editorial and publishing team for their guidance and support.
1Introduction to Biobased Composites
Faris M. AL‐Oqla
Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Hashemite University, Zarqa 13133, Jordan
1.1 Introduction
Tons of industrial wastes are dumped daily in every region of the world, making the recycling of these wastes a very critical environmental concern. For environmental‐friendly industries, materials from renewable resources should be used to replace conventional materials. Hence, the sustainability will be ensured, and cheaper as well as ecological alternative products will compete with the current products from nonrenewable resources [1–3].
Biobased composite materials and green products are increasingly substituting the traditional materials and products in a wide range of applications for sustainable industries, though massive efforts are still essential to better exploit such biomaterials as well as to expand their applications [4–6]. Moreover, the necessity to advance their potentials for consistent and reliable performance is still demanding [7]. To achieve these goals, founding a well‐organized and robust evaluation and selection system for the composite constituents is the most important step [8, 9]. In such techniques, several preferred fibers as well as polymer assets including mechanical, physical, economic, and environmental, have to be revealed in parallel and assessed to determine the best type of fibers for a certain application [9–11]. Further, proper capabilities and performance of new materials including the biobased ones, would enhance their industrial applications.
The weather, on the other hand, is also reaching more extremes in both hot and cold conditions and negatively affecting the available resources and the environment. Ice formation is sharply decaying over the past years due to climate changes. It is believed that the fast‐increasing manner of temperature over years due to global warming leads to shorter winters, breaking the natural balance in climate resulting in the destruction of available resources. The rising of sea level due to melting of ice is also a serious problem that can lead to catastrophic disasters on the sea‐neighbor lands, which would negatively affect the environment. Natural fibers are considered renewable resources and can be recycled from many industrial process wastes. These natural fibers are obtained from plant sources, such as hemp, or from animal sources [12, 13]. Natural fibers of plant sources comprise cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin; natural fibers of animal sources consist of mainly proteins. Natural fibers can be utilized in various sizes from macro‐ to nanoscale fibers. For instance, the nanocellulose fibers can be utilized in a wide range of applications as indicated in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1 Nanocellulose applications.
Figure 1.2 Illustration for the structure of cellulose extracted from plants.
Figure 1.2 illustrates the structure of cellulose extracted from plants as a 3D illustration showing the plant cross‐sectional walls, hemicellulose, lignin, fibril, microfibrils, the amorphous region, and cellulose.
In general, the natural fibers are used in polymer composites as reinforcement [14–17]. Hence, the properties of these composites will directly be influenced by the type of fibers used, their aspect ratio (length/width), their extraction processes, and their interaction with the matrix material [18–20].
1.2 Biodegradable Materials
Biodegradable materials are increasingly demanded to replace the conventional materials. Thermoplastic starch, for instance, is obtained from corn, potatoes, or other cereals. It mainly consists of amylose and amylopectin. As thermoplastic starch has highly sensitivity toward hydrolysis, and due to its low mechanical performance, it is usually used as a matrix for composites and not as a reinforcement. However, the starch phase is blended with polyesters to produce very interesting biodegradable products [21–23]. Examples of such products are commercially available in many fields such as the food packaging industry and in the manufacture of disposable items and films. Biomaterials are more and more in demand to replace the conventional materials and products in some applications. Thus, more efforts are still required to include their use in many industrial fields such as automobile, aerospace, construction, electronic, and food industries. However, before using the biodegradable materials in these industries, their reactions and performance with fire should be carefully assessed with various tools as well as with most newly established materials [24–29]. Thermoplastic starch has demonstrated good flame retardancy by including aluminum trihydroxide and coconut fibers; fire growth rate and the total heat release were significantly suppressed. This is due to the increase in carbonaceous char accompanied by the reduction of carbon content in the pyrolysis products. Also, using coconut fibers replaced a significant portion the aluminum trihydroxide causing its overall reduction in the thermoplastic starch. These results of flame retardancy opened the gate for researchers to explore alternatives from natural fibers to replace the current flame‐retardant additives for the thermoplastic starch biocomposites [30]. Thermoplastic starch‐blend materials are mainly produced for compostability. Hence, the organic wastes will be reduced, and the biogases will be decreased.
1.3 Polymers in Tissue Engineering
With the increasing trend toward using biomaterials in tissue engineering, great efforts are taken to develop biomaterials with desired characteristics, such as the ease of production, the compatibility with the host tissues, and the improvement of the healing rates. Polymeric‐based biomaterials are increasingly replacing the metallic and ceramic‐based biomaterials. As the latter type possesses high elastic modulus, the distribution of the stresses on the host bones will change completely, leading to alterations in the stress concentrations as well as relocating their locations [31]. In addition, polymeric materials are generally easier to be manufactured or shaped, and compatible with the host tissues [32]. Some classifications of polymers are illustrated in Figure 1.3. Moreover, some characteristics such as their mechanical performance and degradations can be controlled easily. Hence, they can perfectly be dedicated to a certain purpose once they are implanted in the host tissues.
For the last 50 years, many researchers have been concerned in investigating and developing potential natural and synthetic polymers for different applications in medical engineering such as biodegradable sutures, tissue scaffolds, and cardiovascular stents [33–35]. Polymers of natural resources are biocompatible and biodegradable in nature. Thus, they are readily suited for many medical applications such as tissue engineering applications and drugs production. Commonly used forms of scaffolds in tissue engineering are illustrated in Figure 1.4. Biobased composites are gaining more and more attention, and they are a concern for many researchers internationally due to their availability, recyclability, degradability, sustainability, low cost, light weight, and most importantly their high mechanical performance. The continuous improvements of the biocomposites will surely lead to new materials with a high potential to replace the conventional composites in the current applications or for future applications. In biocomposites, a material which is strong and similar to cement is made by the natural merging of different cells of hard plant fibers by lignin. These composites also possess high electric resistance due to the presence of cellulose fibrils embedded in lignin.
Figure 1.3 Classification of polymers.
Figure 1.4 Commonly used forms of scaffolds in tissue engineering.
1.4 Environmental Realization
Due to the severe environmental impact of the petro‐based plastics which are produced from nonrenewable resources, biobased composites of renewable resources with relatively fast biodegradability are preferred as ecofriendly alternatives. Thus, natural fibers as reinforcement of polymeric based composites can offer excellent ecofriendly alternatives and good environmental indices at a low cost. This is due to the fact that most of the natural fibers have specific reasonable mechanical properties comparable to the traditional synthetic fibers [16–19, 36–41]. Because of this, several researchers have considered the natural fibers in biomaterials as environmental alternatives of low cost materials. The number of researches that considered natural fibers as reinforced materials in polymeric based composites in three years from 2016 to 2018 is illustrated in Figure 1.5. However, the aspect of the biobased composites is challenging and huge efforts are still required to replace the petro‐based composites with these biobased composites. Nevertheless, biobased composites have already been commercialized in many industrial applications such as the automotive and packaging industries.
More promising aspects and applications are under development using biobased composites, and the total weight of the biocomposite productions is expected to exceed thousands of tons annually in the few coming years [43]. It is believed that during the last three decades, the generation of solid wastes was almost doubled and about one third of these wastes were from packaging materials, especially the food packaging wastes. Hence, using biobased materials just for food packaging can yield a considerable impact on the environment by replacing the nondegradable materials with degradable and composting materials [44–46].
Figure 1.5 Number of publications considering natural fiber composites.
Source: Peças et al. [42]. Licensed under CC BY 4.0.
1.4.1 Green Biomass‐based Composites
An increasing environmental awareness for the people helped in adopting a public trend toward replacing the petro‐based composites with sustainable biobased ones. In general, biobased composites are a combination of fibers and polymer material (matrix), with at least one of them from a natural resource [47–49]. Hence, the combinations of natural fibers and petro‐based polymers, synthetic fibers and biobased polymers, and natural fibers and biobased polymers are all called conventional biocomposites. Here, the first and second combinations are not fully ecofriendly, whereas the third combination, that is the combination of natural fibers and biobased polymers (commonly known as a green biocomposite), is more ecofriendly [6, 50–52]. A biocomposite is called biodegradable when the matrix material is biodegradable. This can be for both biobased and petro‐based composites provided that they are degradable. Biopolymers are different from biodegradable polymers in their raw material. The latter can be formed from either biobased or petroleum‐based composites and can be categorized as green polymeric matrices. When both the fiber and matrix are from renewable resources, they are referred to as biobased composites or biocomposites (fully biodegradable green composite). These biocomposites have less environmental impact.
1.4.2 Selection Considerations
To select the most appropriate alternative materials for various applications, several evaluation criteria have to be considered, most of which may be conflicting. Thus, the selection process and considerations may contain several aspects and may become a sophisticated issue with a manner of multicriteria decision making problem that requires proper decisions to be made via various optimizations as well as other methods like that of analytic hierarchy process, which are utilized in various engineering problems [18, 37, 53–57].
1.4.2.1 Materials Implementation Requirements
Before commercializing a new material for use in industry, it has to undergo a series of sequence steps. First, the new material is introduced. Then a possible application is identified, and the material specifications needed to meet the requirements of this application should be listed. The material specifications are mainly varieties of physical, mechanical, economical, and environmental properties such as density, appearance, strength, cost, availability, reliability, etc. Hence, the new material should meet all the required specifications through a long journey of tests and verifications. In the next step, a prototype is made to check the performance of the proposed material. In the last step, a management plan is established for studying the market needs, supplying raw materials, and ensuring the availability of raw materials in a sustainable manner. The time spent through all these preceding steps is completely unpredictable, adding great stress on the competing manufacturers. After going through all these steps, the new material is now ready for production. However, a manufacturing process must first be established.
1.4.2.2 Material Cost
Cost is very essential in the material selection process for any application, and the target cost is set in the early stages of any application development. A tradeoff between the cost and the performance is sometimes required in the decision‐making stage.
1.5 Biomass Composites Characteristics and Testing
Combining fibers with polymers in biomaterials usually produces composites with totally different characteristics as well as superior desired performance over the utilized constituents. Biobased plastics are dominating the new trends in plastic industry since the petro‐based plastics are nonrenewable (help in depletion of petroleum resources), nondegradable (cause shortage in landfills), and very harmful to the environment. These new trends are focusing more specifically on the renewable plants and on agro waste fiber composites. However, it is not possible to completely replace all the petro‐based productions with biobased ones [25]. In such cases, the concept of combining biomaterials with petro‐based products should be adopted. Natural biocomposites have become well recognized for their low cost and low density. In addition, the ease of shaping and processing due to the low abrasiveness when compared to synthetic fiber‐based composites gives the biobased composites extra advantages. On the other hand, many difficulties arise in using the biobased composites in industry. One of these difficulties is the incompatibility issue between the fiber and the polymer. This is due to both the hydrophilic characteristic of the natural fibers and the hydrophobic characteristic in polymers. Reducing the incompatibility requires physical and chemical treatments for the fibers, as well as using various additives as coupling agents between the fibers and the polymers. Once the composite material is well fabricated, its characteristics are required to be tested and improved. The most critical properties are the mechanical ones, namely the tensile strength, the tensile modulus, the fatigue strength, the creep rate, and the impact strength. Agro waste natural fibers are normally suitable to reinforce polymers due to their relative high mechanical performance and their low densities.
The mechanical properties of the composite materials are the most essential characteristics even if the composites are not used in loaded applications. A certain level of strength is required for the composites to at least maintain their shapes during service. However, for some composites, it is very hard to estimate their mechanical properties as is the case with biocomposites of short natural fibers. This is due to many reasons, such as the fiber dimensions, fiber quality, fiber orientation and distribution, the fiber–matrix interface quality, as well as the matrix characteristics [41, 58]. Table 1.1 demonstrates the mechanical and physical characteristics of some natural fibers.
Improving the composite properties can sometimes be achieved by controlling some key factors, such as the fiber aspect ratio (L/D) and volume fraction of the fibers with respect to the matrix [59]. If the aspect ratio of the fiber is very small, insufficient load will transfer from the matrix to the fiber; in such cases, the fibers will work just as fillers and no considerable improvements will be achieved in the composite's mechanical performance. On the other side, high aspect ratio usually leads to poor fiber dispersion, substantially poor mechanical performance. Regarding the volume fraction, the low percentile causes discontinuities in transferring the load over the fibers; thus, the composite strength will decline. Also, the high percentile can produce the same effect due to fiber clustering.
Table 1.1 Mechanical and physical characteristics of some natural fibers.
Source: AL‐Oqla et al. [16]. © 2015, Elsevier.
Fiber type
Coir
Date palm
Flax
Hemp
Sisal
Density (g/cm
3
)
1.15–1.46
0.9–1.2
1.4–1.5
1.4–1.5
1.33–1.5
Length (mm)
20–150
20–250
5–900
5–55
900
Diameter (μm)
10–460
100–1000
12–600
25–500
8–200
Tensile strength (MPa)
95–230
97–275
343–2000
270–900
363–700
Tensile modulus (GPa)
2.8–6
2.5–12
27.6–103
23.5–90
9–38
Specific modulus (approx.)
4
7
45
40
17
Elongation to break (%)
15–51.4
2–19
1.2–3.3
1–3.5
2–7
Table 1.2 Informative values on the different properties of the fibers.
Fiber type
Density (g/cm
3
)
Tensile strength (MPa)
Tensile modulus (GPa)
Elongation to break (%)
Cost per weight (USD/kg)
Coir
1.15–1.46 (1.31)
95–230 (162.5)
2.8–6 (4.4)
15–51.4 (33.2)
0.3
Date palm
0.9–1.2 (1.05)
97–275 (186)
2.5–12 (7.25)
2.0–19 (10.5)
0.02
Jute
1.3–1.49 (1.4)
320–800 (560)
8–78 (43)
1–1.8 (1.4)
0.3
Hemp
1.4–1.5 (1.45)
270–900 (585)
23.5–90 (56.75)
1–3.5 (2.25)
1.3
Kenaf
1.4
223–930 (576.5)
14.5–53 (33.75)
1.5–2.7 (2.1)
0.5
Oil palm
0.7–1.55 (1.13)
80–248 (164.0)
0.5–3.2 (1.85)
17–25 (21)
0.3
On the other hand, an obvious lack of research regarding the evaluation and selection processes of the natural fiber composites (NFCs) is observed. More specifically, evaluating and selecting the proper agro waste natural fibers for the NFCs is not investigated comprehensively regarding the desired features [9]. Hence, more efforts to establish sufficient comparison criteria are required in order to precisely evaluate and select the appropriate fiber type for the biobased products. The overall characteristics and capabilities of the NFCs depend on the physical, mechanical, chemical, and economic features of the composites' constituents. Therefore, in order to exploit the benefits of these materials to the full extent, comprehensive investigations of the previously mentioned features have to be completed as a primary stage in any industrial application. New techniques have been developed by AL‐Oqla and Sapuan [20] for the assessment and selection of the composites. A wide range of valuable criteria has been discussed by AL‐Oqla and Sapuan [20] to demonstrate that natural fibers have a primary role in natural fiber reinforced polymer composites. Another technique to evaluate various raw fibers was presented by AL‐Oqla et al. [10], where six different types of natural fibers were considered in the evaluation process. These were coir, jute, hemp, kenaf, oil palm, as well as date palm. The physical, mechanical, and economic properties of these types were considered simultaneously. Informative values on the different properties of the considered fibers are listed in Table 1.2. They are obtained from literature based on experimental works, where the average values were adopted assuming that the data is uniformly distributed within the data range found in literature.
Table 1.3 Specific properties of the fibers.
Fiber type
Specific tensile strength (MPa)/(g/cm
3
)
Specific tensile modulus (GPa)/(g/cm
3
)
Specific elongation (%)/(g/cm
3
)
Cost ratio
Coir
124.05
3.36
25.34
0.231
Date palm
177.14
6.90
10.00
0.015
Jute
400.00
30.71
1.00
0.231
Hemp
403.45
39.14
1.55
1
Kenaf
411.79
24.11
1.50
0.385
Oil palm
145.13
1.64
18.58
0.231
Table 1.4 Specific properties of the fibers with respect to the cost ratio.
Fiber type
Specific tensile strength (MPa)/(g/cm
3
)/cost ratio
Specific tensile modulus (GPa)/(g/cm
3
)/cost ratio
Specific elongation (%)/(g/cm
3
)/cost ratio
Coir
537.53
14.55
109.82
Date palm
11 514.29
448.81
650.00
Jute
1 733.33
133.10
4.33
Hemp
403.45
39.14
1.55
Kenaf
1 070.64
62.68
3.90
Oil palm
628.91
7.09
80.53
Hence, Table 1.3 lists the specific properties for the fibers (the average values of each property divided by the average values of the density).
The obtained specific properties calculated in Table 1.3 are further calculated with respect to the cost ratio as tabulated in Table 1.4.
It is believed that a comparison of the natural fibers using the combined physical, mechanical, and economic information would result in better evaluation of the available natural fibers and resources. It can be noticed here that the specific tensile strength to cost ratio for the date palm was five times that of jute. Therefore, combined evaluations would lead to better evaluation of fibers as it can be realized that date palm fiber is better than jute once specific properties to cost ratio evaluation criterion is considered.
1.6 Life‐cycle Assessment
The Life‐cycle assessment (LCA), as the name implies, is an assessment method of the environmental impacts along the whole life of the product, starting from preparing the raw materials, and passing through producing, distributing, using, maintaining, and ending by disposing or recycling. Designers use this method in evaluating their products. It can widen the view of the environmental concerns through compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental releases; assessing the potential effects accompanying the identified inputs and outputs; and helping in adopting more realistic decisions. In general, the LCA used an iterative process to arrive at the results. These results provide further information to the production process and guide toward the most important environmental input or output that should be highly monitored. Several case studies for the environmental impacts of the life cycle of many products were reported in the literature [60–64]. All the studies conclude that the LCA is an effective tool to assess the environmental impacts of the different products along their life, as well as it aids in selecting ecofriendly materials. Hence, using LCA in planning and management strategies helps in delivering more sustainable products and protecting the health of the people. The extra information obtained from LCA can help in improving the inventory analysis, and in adopting more informative decisions. Further environmental improvements can be achieved using LCA through evaluating the potential effects accompanying specified inputs and outputs.
There are three types of LCA; these are: conceptual, simplified, and detailed. These types can be applied in many ways where each type has its own strengths and weaknesses. The life cycle of each product passes through many stages starting from extracting and preparing the raw materials, manufacturing, distributing, storing, using, and ending by disposing or recycling the products to reduce the environmental effect.
Recycling is defined as converting the materials and the products at the end of their life to new useful products. It exploits the potentially useful materials from waste, reduce the demands for raw materials, reduce the energy consumption, and reduce the air and water pollutions. Each stage of the LCA have inputs (raw materials and energy) and outputs (gas emissions and solid wastes). Thus, the role of the LCA is to study the environmental impacts of these inputs and outputs on each stage of the product life, and trying to reduce these impacts and deriving the potential benefits from them. The LCA is composed of four phases:
Goal and scope
The purpose of this study is to select a product and determine the objective of the study (comparison, improvement) and fix boundaries accordingly.
Inventory analysis
Collecting as much information as possible on the inputs and outputs at each stage of the product life.
Impact analysis
Studying the environmental impacts of the inputs and the outputs at each stage of the product life.
Interpretation
Using the data and information collected, the product life cycle will be improved, and the environmental impact will be reduced.
The LCA is performed by passing over these phases frequently in an iterative manner.
1.7 Conclusions
Improving the different features of the biobased composites is directly reflected by the progress achieved in the evaluation and selection processes of their constituents, in addition to the preparation and treatment of fiber–polymers. Therefore, it is very important to build robust and efficient selection methods to improve the performance of the biocomposites, and to reduce the negative environmental effects. Doing this would lead to more informed decisions and save efforts and time. Application of such methods can be expanded to include more characteristics and more potential types of the composites' constituents to derive new biomaterials with optimal performance for a greener future.
References
1
AL‐Oqla, F.M., Sapuan, M.S., Ishak, M.R., and Nuraini, A.A. (2015). Selecting natural fibers for bio‐based materials with conflicting criteria.
American Journal of Applied Sciences
12 (1): 64–71.
2
AL‐Oqla, F.M. and Sapuan, S. (2015). Polymer selection approach for commonly and uncommonly used natural fibers under uncertainty environments.
JOM
67 (10): 2450–2463.
3
Al‐Oqla, F.M. and Sapuan, S. (2018). Natural fiber composites. In:
Kenaf Fibers and Composites
, vol. 1 (eds. S.M. Sapuan, J. Sahari, M.R. Ishak and M.L. Sanyang). CRC Press.
4
AL‐Oqla, F.M. (2017). Investigating the mechanical performance deterioration of Mediterranean cellulosic cypress and pine/polyethylene composites.
Cellulose
24 (6): 2523–2530.
5
Al‐Oqla, F.M. and El‐Shekeil, Y. (2019). Investigating and predicting the performance deteriorations and trends of polyurethane bio‐composites for more realistic sustainable design possibilities.
Journal of Cleaner Production
222: 865–870.
6
Alaaeddin, M., Sapuan, S., Zuhri, M. et al. (2018). Properties and common industrial applications of polyvinyl fluoride (PVF) and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF). In:
IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering
, vol. 409, 012021. IOP Publishing.
7
Al‐Oqla, F.M., Hayajneh, M.T., and Fares, O. (2019). Investigating the mechanical thermal and polymer interfacial characteristics of Jordanian lignocellulosic fibers to demonstrate their capabilities for sustainable green materials.
Journal of Cleaner Production
241: 118256.
8
AL‐Oqla, F.M. and Omari, M.A. (2017). Sustainable biocomposites: challenges, potential and barriers for development. In:
Green Biocomposites: Manufacturing and Properties
(eds. M. Jawaid, S.M. Sapuan and O.Y. Alothman), 13–29. Cham: Springer.
9
AL‐Oqla, F.M. and Salit, M.S. (2017). Material selection of natural fiber composites using the analytical hierarchy process. In:
Materials Selection for Natural Fiber Composites
, vol. 1, 169–234. Cambridge, USA: Woodhead Publishing, Elsevier.
10
AL‐Oqla, F.M., Sapuan, M.S., Ishak, M.R., and Aziz, N.A. (2014). Combined multi‐criteria evaluation stage technique as an agro waste evaluation indicator for polymeric composites: date palm fibers as a case study.
BioResources
9 (3): 4608–4621.
https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.9.3.4608‐4621
.
11
AL‐Oqla, F.M., Sapuan, M.S., Ishak, M.R., and Nuraini, A.A. (2015). Decision making model for optimal reinforcement condition of natural fiber composites.
Fibers and Polymers
16 (1): 153–163.
12
AL‐Oqla, F.M. and Sapuan, S. (2018). Investigating the inherent characteristic/performance deterioration interactions of natural fibers in bio‐composites for better utilization of resources.
Journal of Polymers and the Environment
26 (3): 1290–1296.
13
Al‐Oqla, F.M., Sapuan, S., Anwer, T. et al. (2015). Natural fiber reinforced conductive polymer composites as functional materials: a review.
Synthetic Metals
206: 42–54.
14
Al‐Oqla, F.M., Sapuan, S., and Fares, O. (2018). Electrical‐based applications of natural fiber vinyl polymer composites. In:
Natural Fibre Reinforced Vinyl Ester and Vinyl Polymer Composites
, 349–367. Elsevier.
15
AL‐Oqla, F.M., Sapuan, S., Ishak, M., and Nuraini, A. (2015). A model for evaluating and determining the most appropriate polymer matrix type for natural fiber composites.
International Journal of Polymer Analysis and Characterization
20: 191–205. (just‐accepted).
16
AL‐Oqla, F.M., Sapuan, S., Ishak, M., and Nuraini, A. (2015). Predicting the potential of agro waste fibers for sustainable automotive industry using a decision making model.
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture
113: 116–127.
17
AL‐Oqla, F.M., Sapuan, S., Ishak, M., and Nuraini, A. (2016). A decision‐making model for selecting the most appropriate natural fiber – polypropylene‐based composites for automotive applications.
Journal of Composite Materials
50 (4): 543–556.
18
AL‐Oqla, F.M., Sapuan, S., Ishak, M., and Nuraini, A. (2014). A novel evaluation tool for enhancing the selection of natural fibers for polymeric composites based on fiber moisture content criterion.
BioResources
10 (1): 299–312.
19
AL‐Oqla, F.M., Sapuan, S., and Jawaid, M. (2016). Integrated mechanical–economic – environmental quality of performance for natural fibers for polymeric‐based composite materials.
Journal of Natural Fibers
13 (6): 651–659.
20
AL‐Oqla, F.M. and Sapuan, S. (2014). Natural fiber reinforced polymer composites in industrial applications: feasibility of date palm fibers for sustainable automotive industry.
Journal of Cleaner Production
66: 347–354.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.10.050
.
21
Iannotti, G., Fair, N., Tempesta, M. et al. (2018). Studies on the environmental degradation of starch‐based plastics. In:
Degradable Materials
, 425–446. CRC Press.
22
Ibrahim, H., Farag, M., Megahed, H., and Mehanny, S. (2014). Characteristics of starch‐based biodegradable composites reinforced with date palm and flax fibers.
Carbohydrate Polymers
101: 11–19.
23
Ilyas, R., Sapuan, S., Ishak, M., and Zainudin, E. (2018). Development and characterization of sugar palm nanocrystalline cellulose reinforced sugar palm starch bionanocomposites.
Carbohydrate Polymers
202: 186–202.
24
AL‐Oqla, F.M., Almagableh, A., and Omari, M.A. (2017).
Design and Fabrication of Green Biocomposites Green Biocomposites
, 45–67. Cham: Springer.
25
AL‐Oqla, F.M., Alothman, O.Y., Jawaid, M. et al. (2014). Processing and properties of date palm fibers and its composites. In:
Biomass and Bioenergy
, 1–25. Cham: Springer.
26
Al‐Oqla, F.M. and Omar, A.A. (2015). An expert‐based model for selecting the most suitable substrate material type for antenna circuits.
International Journal of Electronics
102 (6): 1044–1055.
27
AL‐Oqla, F.M., Omar, A.A., and Fares, O. (2018). Evaluating sustainable energy harvesting systems for human implantable sensors.
International Journal of Electronics
105 (3): 504–517.
28
Alaaeddin, M., Sapuan, S., Zuhri, M. et al. (2019). Lightweight and durable PVDF–SSPF composites for photovoltaics backsheet applications: thermal, optical and technical properties.
Materials
12 (13): 2104.
29
Almagableh, A., Al‐Oqla, F.M., and Omari, M.A. (2017). Predicting the effect of nano‐structural parameters on the elastic properties of carbon nanotube‐polymeric based composites.
International Journal of Performability Engineering
13 (1): 73.
30
Toldy, A., Szolnoki, B., and Marosi, G. (2011). Flame retardancy of fibre‐reinforced epoxy resin composites for aerospace applications.
Polymer Degradation and Stability
96 (3): 371–376.
31
Li, J., Baker, B.A., Mou, X. et al. (2014). Biopolymer/calcium phosphate scaffolds for bone tissue engineering.
Advanced Healthcare Materials
3 (4): 469–484.
32
Butcher, A.L., Offeddu, G.S., and Oyen, M.L. (2014). Nanofibrous hydrogel composites as mechanically robust tissue engineering scaffolds.
Trends in Biotechnology
32 (11): 564–570.
33
Freeman, R., Boekhoven, J., Dickerson, M.B. et al. (2015). Biopolymers and supramolecular polymers as biomaterials for biomedical applications.
MRS Bulletin
40 (12): 1089–1101.
34
Joung, Y.H. (2013). Development of implantable medical devices: from an engineering perspective.
International Neurourology Journal
17 (3): 98–106.
https://doi.org/10.5213/inj.2013.17.3.98
.
35
Modjarrad, K. and Ebnesajjad, S. (2013).
Handbook of Polymer Applications in Medicine and Medical Devices
. Elsevier.
36
AL‐Oqla, F.M. and Sapuan, S.M. (2014). Date palm fibers and natural composites.
Postgraduate Symposium on Composites Science and Technology 2014 & 4th Postgraduate Seminar on Natural Fibre Composites 2014
. Putrajaya (28 January 2014).
37
AL‐Oqla, F.M. and Sapuan, S.M. (2014). Enhancement selecting proper natural fiber composites for industrial applications.
Postgraduate Symposium on Composites Science and Technology 2014 & 4th Postgraduate Seminar on Natural Fibre Composites 2014
. Putrajaya (28 January 2014).
38
Khairul, M., Faris, S., AL‐Oqla, F.M., and Zainudin, E. (2019). Experimental investigation and numerical prediction for the fatigue life durability of austenitic stainless steel at room temperature.
Engineering Solid Mechanics
7 (2): 121–130.
39
Rashid, B., Leman, Z., Jawaid, M. et al. (2017). Eco‐friendly composites for brake pads from agro waste: a review. In:
Reference Module in Materials Science and Materials Engineering
. Elsevier.
40
Sadrmanesh, V., Chen, Y., Rahman, M., and Al‐Oqla, F.M. (2019). Developing a decision making model to identify the most influential parameters affecting mechanical extraction of bast fibers.
Journal of Cleaner Production
238: 117891.
41
Sapuan, S.M., Pua, F.‐L., El‐Shekeil, Y.A., and AL‐Oqla, F.M. (2013). Mechanical properties of soil buried kenaf fibre reinforced thermoplastic polyurethane composites.
Materials & Design
50: 467–470.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2013.03.013
.
42
Peças, P., Carvalho, H., Salman, H., and Leite, M. (2018). Natural fibre composites and their applications: a review.
Journal of Composites Science
2 (4): 66.
43
Yousef, S., Mumladze, T., Tatariants, M. et al. (2018). Cleaner and profitable industrial technology for full recovery of metallic and non‐metallic fraction of waste pharmaceutical blisters using switchable hydrophilicity solvents.
Journal of Cleaner Production
197: 379–392.
44
Alaaeddin, M., Sapuan, S., Zuhri, M. et al. (2019). Development of photovoltaic module with fabricated and evaluated novel backsheet‐based biocomposite materials.
Materials
12 (18): 3007.
45
Majeed, K., Jawaid, M., Hassan, A. et al. (2013). Potential materials for food packaging from nanoclay/natural fibres filled hybrid composites.
Materials & Design
46: 391–410.
46
Sanyang, M., Ilyas, R., Sapuan, S., and Jumaidin, R. (2018). Sugar palm starch‐based composites for packaging applications. In:
Bionanocomposites for Packaging Applications
, 125–147. Springer.
47
AL‐Oqla, F.M., Omari, M.A., and Al‐Ghraibah, A. (2017). Predicting the potential of biomass‐based composites for sustainable automotive industry using a decision‐making model. In:
Lignocellulosic Fibre and Biomass‐Based Composite Materials
, 27–43. Elsevier.
48
AL‐Oqla, F.M. and Rababah, M. (2017). Challenges in design of nanocellulose and its composites for different applications. In:
Cellulose‐Reinforced Nanofibre Composites
, 113–127. Elsevier.
49
Alaaeddin, M., Sapuan, S., Zuhri, M. et al. (2019). Polymer matrix materials selection for short sugar palm composites using integrated multi criteria evaluation method.
Composites Part B: Engineering
176: 107342.
50
Abdulrahman, K.O., Abed, A.M., Bayode, A. et al. (2018).
Hierarchical Composite Materials: Materials, Manufacturing, Engineering
, vol. 8. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG.
51
Alaaeddin, M., Sapuan, S., Zuhri, M. et al. (2019). Photovoltaic applications: status and manufacturing prospects.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
102: 318–332.
52
Alaaeddin, M., Sapuan, S., Zuhri, M. et al. (2019). Physical and mechanical properties of polyvinylidene fluoride – short sugar palm fiber nanocomposites.
Journal of Cleaner Production
235: 473–482.
53
Faris Mohammed Khair Faris AL‐Oqla (2015).
Enhancement of Evaluation Methodologies for Natural Fiber Composites Material Selection System (Ph.D)
. UPM.
54
Al‐Widyan, M.I. and Al‐Oqla, F.M. (2011). Utilization of supplementary energy sources for cooling in hot arid regions via decision‐making model.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications
1 (4): 1610–1622.
55
Al‐Widyan, M.I. and Al‐Oqla, F.M. (2014). Selecting the most appropriate corrective actions for energy saving in existing buildings A/C in hot arid regions.
Building Simulation
7 (5): 537–545.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12273‐013‐0170‐3
.
56
Dalalah, D., Al‐Oqla, F., and Hayajneh, M. (2010). Application of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) in multi‐criteria analysis of the selection of cranes.
Jordan Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, JJMIE
4 (5): 567–578.
57
Dweiri, F. and Al‐Oqla, F.M. (2006). Material selection using analytical hierarchy process.
International Journal of Computer Applications in Technology
26 (4): 182–189.
https://doi.org/10.1504/IJCAT.2006.010763
.
58
Alves, C., Ferrão, P., Silva, A. et al. (2010). Ecodesign of automotive components making use of natural jute fiber composites.
Journal of Cleaner Production
18 (4): 313–327.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2009.10.022
.
59
Shah, D.U. (2016). Damage in biocomposites: stiffness evolution of aligned plant fibre composites during monotonic and cyclic fatigue loading.
Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing
83: 160–168.
60
Arena, M., Azzone, G., and Conte, A. (2012). A streamlined LCA framework to support early decision making in vehicle development.
Journal of Cleaner Production
41: 105–113.
61
Black, M., Whittaker, C., Hosseini, S. et al. (2011). Life cycle assessment and sustainability methodologies for assessing industrial crops, processes and end products.
Industrial Crops and Products
34 (2): 1332–1339.
62
Luz, S.M., Caldeira‐Pires, A., and Ferrao, P. (2010). Environmental benefits of substituting talc by sugarcane bagasse fibers as reinforcement in polypropylene composites: ecodesign and LCA as strategy for automotive components.
Resources, Conservation and Recycling
54 (12): 1135–1144.
63
Milani, A., Eskicioglu, C., Robles, K. et al. (2011). Multiple criteria decision making with life cycle assessment for material selection of composites.
eXPRESS Polymer Letters
5 (12): 1062–1074.
https://doi.org/10.3144/expresspolymlett.2011.104
.
64
Pegoretti, D.S., Mathieux, F., Evrard, D. et al. (2014). Use of recycled natural fibres in industrial products: a comparative LCA case study on acoustic components in the Brazilian automotive sector.
Resources, Conservation and Recycling
84: 1–14.
2Processing Methods for Manufacture of Biobased Composites
P. Shenbaga Velu1, N. J. Vignesh2, and N. Rajesh Jesudoss Hynes2
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, P.S.R Engineering College, Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu, India
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu, India
