Biodegradable Waste Management in the Circular Economy E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1175

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022

Beschreibung

Biodegradable Waste Management in the Circular Economy Presents the major developments in new technologies and strategies for more effective recovery of matter, resources, and energy from biodegradable waste The volume of biodegradable waste produced worldwide is progressively increasing--a trend that is predicted to continue well into the foreseeable future. Developing sustainable, cost-effective, and eco-friendly approaches for processing food waste, agricultural and organic industrial waste, cardboard, biodegradable plastics, sewage sludge, and other types of biodegradable waste is one of the most significant challenges of the coming decades. Biodegradable Waste Management in the Circular Economy provides a detailed overview of the latest advances in the management of biomass for economic development. Featuring contributions from an interdisciplinary team of experts, this comprehensive resource addresses various technologies and strategies for recycling organic matter and many other renewable compounds. In-depth chapters describe the concept of circular economy, identify new sources of biodegradable waste, explore technologies for the production of biodegradable waste end-products, discuss the positive and negative effects of end-products on soil and the environment, and more. Throughout the text, the authors explore systematic approaches for secure biodegradable management in various countries and regions around the world. * Explores the social, governance, and economic aspects of "waste as a resource" * Addresses metal recovery, biofuel and fertilizer production, and biosorbents and biochar derived from biomass waste * Discusses nutrient recovery and energy and bio-methane production from biodegradable waste * Covers use cases, collection systems, and regulation of agricultural, industrial, and municipal biodegradable waste streams * Presents various technologies for the production of biodegradable waste end-products, including biorefineries, anaerobic digestion, and hybrid methods Reflecting the latest trends in the rapidly changing field, Biodegradable Waste Management in the Circular Economy is essential reading for researchers, engineers, scientists, and consultants working in waste engineering and management, resource recovery, renewable resources, environmental science, agricultural and environmental engineering, soil science, and bioenergy.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Preface

1 Circular Bioeconomy and Sustainability

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Overlaps and Differences – Bioeconomy, Circular Economy, Circular Bioeconomy

1.3 Sustainability Strategies, Climate Action, and the Bioeconomy

1.4 The Bio‐based Industry Clusters Increased the Impact of Innovative Bioeconomies for a Healthy Future

Acknowledgement

References

2 Cradle to Cradle Marketplace

2.1 Introduction

2.2. Cradle to Cradle Concept

2.3. Cradle to Cradle History

2.4. Cradle to Cradle Design Criteria

2.5. Cradle to Cradle Certification Procedure

2.6 Cradle to Cradle Certified Products in the “Biological Nutrient” Cycle

2.7 Conclusion

References

3 New Products from Old Wastes Concept – Analysis of the Current State of CE in Biodegradable Waste Management

3.1 Valorization to Energy

3.1.1 Introduction

3.1.2 Feedstock for the Bioenergy Sector in the EU

3.1.3 Bioenergy from Biodegradable Waste

3.1.4 Conclusion

References

3.2 Valorization to Matter

3.2.1 Material Recycling of Bio‐waste

3.2.2 Characteristics of Bio‐waste and the Natural Cycles of Carbon, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus

3.2.3 Conversion Pathways to Recycling of Bio‐waste

3.2.4 Valorization to Matter by Composting

3.2.5 Valorization to Matter by Anaerobic Digestion

3.2.6 Valorization to Matter by Pyrolysis

3.2.7 Valorization to Matter by Biorefining

3.2.8 Conclusion and the Way Forward

References

3.3 Valorization of Food Waste to Food

3.3.1 Food Waste as a Resource and as a Challenge

3.3.2 Possible Paths for Circular Food Systems

3.3.3 Food Waste as Resource in Open Field Cultivation

3.3.4 Food Waste as Resource in Livestock Husbandry

3.3.5 Food Waste as a Resource in Greenhouse Farming

3.3.6 Conclusion and Way Forward

References

4 Definitions and Procedures for Characterization of Biodegradable Waste

4.1 Definitions

4.2 Production of Biodegradable Waste

4.3 The Selection of Technology

References

5 Biodegradable Waste Streams

5.1 Agriculture

5.2 Food Industry

5.3 Municipal Solid Waste

5.4 New Sources of Biodegradable Waste

References

6 Limitation for Use of Biodegradable Waste onto Soil

6.1 Organic, Inorganic, and Microbiological Contaminations in Biodegradable Waste

6.1.1 Directions for the Management of Biodegradable Waste and Biosolids

6.1.2 The Effect of Biodegradable Waste Addition on Soils

6.1.3 Restrictions on the Use of Biodegradable Waste/Biosolids to Soil (Organic, Inorganic, and Microbiological Contaminations)

6.1.4 Conclusion

References

6.2 Toxicity Assessment

6.2.1 Introduction to Toxicity of Biodegradable Wastes onto Soil

6.2.2 Toxicity of Organic Compounds in Soils Treated with Biodegradable Wastes or their By‐products

6.2.3 Conclusion

References

7 Biodegradable Waste Collection Systems

7.1 Rules and Systems of Bio‐waste Collection

7.2 Environmental Impact of the Bio‐waste Collection System and Possibilities of Its Further Management

7.3 Examples of Bio‐waste Collection Systems Used Worldwide Related to Waste Management Methods

7.4 Conclusions

References

8 Anaerobic Digestion

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Feedstock for Anaerobic Digestion Processes

8.3 Anaerobic Digestion – Process Chemistry

8.4 The Anaerobic Digestion Systems

8.5 Commercial Technologies for AD of Biodegradable Waste

8.6 Anaerobic Digestion Intensification Methods

8.7 Conclusion

References

9 Types of Composting

9.1 Composting

9.1.1 Introduction

9.1.2 Composting Process

9.1.3 Key Factors Affecting Composting

9.1.4 Types of Composting

9.1.5 Case Studies from Developed and Developing Countries

9.1.6 Cutting Edge Technologies for Composting

9.1.7 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

Conflict of Interest

References

9.2 Vermicomposting

9.2.1 Introduction

9.2.2 Earthworms and Their Role in the Process

9.2.3 Parameters That Affect the Vermicomposting Process

9.2.4 Impact of Vermicomposting on Physicochemical Parameters of the Substrate and Stabilization of the Final Product

9.2.5 Characteristics of Vermicompost

9.2.6 Environmental Application of Vermicompost

9.2.7 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

10 Biorefineries

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Concept and Classification of Waste Biorefineries

10.3 Source of Feedstock for Biorefineries

10.4 Biorefineries in the World

10.5 Economic Aspect

10.6 Conclusion and Future Perspective

References

11 Impact of Processing Technology on the Chemical Contaminants Occurrence in End Products

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Biodegradable Waste Streams (Sources) and Their Associated Chemical Contaminant Occurrence

11.3 Impact of Existing Processing Technologies on the Fate of Chemical Contaminants in End Products

11.4 Conclusion

References

12 Effect of End Products on the Soil Microbial Communities

12.1 Impact of End Products on Microbial Communities with Special Reference to Pathogens

12.1.1 Introduction

12.1.2 Pathogen Survival in End Products

12.1.3 Pathogen Survival in Soils

12.1.4 Modification of Bio‐Wastes for Alteration of Soil Microbial Communities

12.1.5 Conclusion

References

13 The Use of End Products on Soil

13.1 The Use of Biodegradable End Products on Soil – Impact on Plant Productivity

13.1.1 Introduction

13.1.2 Biodegradable Bio‐wastes and Nutrient Management

13.1.3 Effect on Properties and Quality of Soils

13.1.4 Productivity in Wastes and End Products Amended Soils

13.1.5 Summary and Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

13.2 Biodegradable End Products for Bioremediation of Degraded Areas

13.2.1 Introduction

13.2.2 Degraded Soils and Magnitude

13.2.3 Bioremediation and Technologies

13.2.4 Improvement in Properties of Degraded Soils

13.2.5 Limitations and Negative Impacts on Soil Quality

13.2.6 Productivity of Improved Degraded Soils

13.2.7 Summary and Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

13.3 The Use of Biodegradable End Products for Reclamation of Metal Contaminated Soils

13.3.1 Introduction

13.3.2 Soil Contamination in Europe

13.3.3 Immobilization of Metals and Metalloids by Inorganic and Organic Amendments

13.3.4 Nutrient Supply Through Biowaste Use

13.3.5 Recycling of Biowaste

13.3.6 Persistence and Stabilization of Bio‐waste

13.3.7 Biowaste in Combination with Inorganic Material

13.3.8 Vegetation Cover and Phytostabilization

References

13.4 Biodegradable Waste: Ecotoxicological/Environmental Assessment

13.4.1 Introduction

13.4.2 Ecotoxicological Standardized Assays

13.4.3 New Ecotoxicological Approaches

13.4.4 Conclusions

References

14 Restoration, Sequestration and Modeling of Carbon in Degraded Soils

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Soil Degradation and SOC Stocks

14.3 Restoration and Sequestration of C in Degraded Soils

14.4 Summary and Conclusions

References

Note

15 Impact of Treatment of Biodegradable Waste on Nutrient Recovery

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Nutrient Composition of Biodegradable Municipal Solid Waste

15.3 Nutrient Composition of Municipal Waste Water

15.4 Nutrient Composition of Agricultural Biodegradable Waste

15.5 The Nutrient Composition of Industrial Biodegradable Waste (Food Industry, Slaughterhouse)

15.6 Impact of Treatment of Biodegradable Waste on Nutrient Recovery from Bio‐waste

15.7 Conclusion

References

16 Energy and Biomethane Production

16.1 Biomethane Origin

16.2 Methane/Biomethane Sources

16.3 Biogas Treatment Technologies

16.4 Circular Economy

16.5 Summary

References

17 The Governance and Social Aspects

17.1 Criteria for Selecting the Best Solutions for a Safe Biodegradable Waste Management in Accordance with the Requirements of Closed‐Circular Management

17.2 Local Market Demand and the Paradigm “Waste as a Resource”

17.3 Legal Pluralism

17.4 Access Barriers

17.5 Setting Institutional Systems Promoting the Circular Economy

17.6 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

18 Biofuels – More than Electricity, Heat, and Biomethane

18.1 The Role of Biofuels in the Circular Economy

18.1.1. Biofuels and the Circular Economy

18.1.2. Biodiesel from Waste Resources

18.1.3. Bioethanol from Waste Resources

18.1.4. Biomethane (Upgraded Biogas) from Waste Resources

18.1.5. Biohydrogen

18.1.6. Environmental Impacts from Biofuels

18.1.7. Conclusion and the Way Forward

References

18.2 Metal Recovery

18.2.1. Introduction

18.2.2. Metal Sources in Biodegradable Waste

18.2.3. Metal Sorption on Nanoparticles

18.2.4. Summary

References

18.3 Biosorbents and Biochar Production

18.3.1. Introduction

18.3.2 Process of Biochar Production

18.3.3. Organic Residual Components for Biochar Feedstock and CO

2

Emission

18.3.4 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

18.4 Other Perspectives (e.g. Chitin Recovery, Carbon‐Coated Magnet‐Sensitive Nanoparticles, Proteins, Carbohydrates, and Humic Acid)

18.4.1. Chitin Recovery

18.4.2. Summary

18.4.3. Carbon‐Coated Magnet‐Sensitive Nanoparticles

18.4.4. Proteins, Carbohydrates, and Humic Acid

References

18.5 Biofuel Production from Agricultural Waste

18.5.1. Introduction

18.5.2. Major Biofuels and Potential Use of Agricultural Waste for Production

18.5.3. Agricultural Waste Potential for Biofuel Production

18.5.4. Processes for Converting Lignocellulosic Waste to Bioethanol

18.5.5. Economical Feasibility of Lignocellulosic Biofuel Production

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 3a

Table 3.1.1 Examples of plant energy recovery.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Positive List of Waste suitable for compost and digestate producti...

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Possibilities of application of bio‐based materials – directions o...

Table 5.2 Carbon and nutrient content in manure [12].

Table 5.3 Technological processes of phosphorus recovery from manure (full‐s...

Table 5.4 Processes utilized in the technologies of green biorefineries [49]...

Table 5.5 Content of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin in softwood and ha...

Table 5.6 Components of industrial food‐waste streams [127].

Table 5.7 Industrial food waste and potential products [127].

Table 5.8 Main food waste streams – appropriate for valorization [132].

Table 5.9 Advantages and non‐advantages for other utilization of sewage slud...

Table 5.10 Concentrations of P and other elements in sewage sludge ash [295,...

Table 5.11 Overview of technology (full scale and pilot scale) of P‐recovery...

Table 5.12 Comparison of traditional plastics and bioplastics [319, 365, 366...

Chapter 6a

Table 6.1.1 Production and utilization of biosolids and municipal waste targ...

Table 6.1.2 A comparison of the physico‐chemical properties of biosolids of ...

Table 6.1.3 Comparison of the permissible metal concentration values in rela...

Table 6.1.4 Permissible content of heavy metals in sewage sludge intended fo...

Table 6.1.5 Comparison of law limits for heavy metals and organic pollutants...

Table 6.1.6 The occurrence of different groups of microorganisms in sewage s...

Chapter 6b

Table 6.2.1 Identification of risk factors persistence, bioaccumulation, and...

Table 6.2.2 Highest concentration reported PPCPs detected in edible tissue o...

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Biogas potential of organic waste.

Table 8.2 Examples of waste feedstock for AD, adopted from references [22, 2...

Table 8.3 Characteristics of the different fractions of OFMSW [29].

Table 8.4 Composition of biogas from OFMSW [41].

Table 8.5 Methane content in biogas from anaerobic digestion of various feed...

Table 8.6 Anaerobic digestion process efficiency for different organic waste...

Table 8.7 The process parameters range suitable for methanogen bacteria grow...

Table 8.8 Pros and cons of selected AD systems [11, 72].

Table 8.9 Examples of commercial AD technologies [73–77].

Table 8.10 Comparison of the methane production for various feedstock in sel...

Table 8.11 Comparison of the Cambi technology with classic AD process [83]....

Table 8.12 Influence of selected methods of feedstock pre‐treatment on the A...

Table 8.13 The effect of introducing the co‐substrate into the anaerobic dig...

Chapter 9a

Table 9.1.1 Difference between aerobic and anaerobic processes.

Table 9.1.2 Pros and cons of passive windrow composting.

Table 9.1.3 Difference between traditional composting and vermicomposting.

Table 9.1.4 Difference between various types of composting.

Table 9.1.5 Types of additives with advantages and disadvantages.

Chapter 9b

Table 9.2.1 The composition of several vermicomposts obtained from various s...

Table 9.2.2 The influence of vermicomposting on shoot, root, and total bioma...

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Definition of a biorefinery [1].

Table 10.2 Classification of biorefineries based on their concepts [13, 16]....

Table 10.3 Examples of project funded by EU to support LCFBR [24–26].

Table 10.4 Category of feedstock used in biorefineries in the EU [27].

Table 10.5 Examples of biorefineries in the world [29–31].

Table 10.6 Cost of production of different bioproducts for a plant size of 0...

Table 10.7 Cost of production of various products in biorefineries based on ...

Table 10.8 SWOT analysis for waste biorefinery based on [7, 13, 33, 37–39]....

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 Occurrence and concentrations of some compounds detected in certa...

Table 11.2 Contaminant compounds removal efficiency through activated treatm...

Table 11.3 Contaminant compounds removal efficiency through constructed wetl...

Table 11.4 Contaminant compounds removal efficiency through advanced oxidati...

Chapter 13a

Table 13.1.1 Soil physical properties as affected by long‐term application o...

Table 13.1.2 Effects of organic amendments and mineral fertilizers on nutrie...

Table 13.1.3 Yield (Mg ha

−1

) of mustard and pearl millet as influenced...

Table 13.1.4 Balance of soil organic matter (OM) for a farm (breeding cows a...

Chapter 13b

Table 13.2.1 Continental and global estimated soil degradation (million ha) ...

Table 13.2.2 Changes in soil parameters after sewage sludge application und...

Chapter 13c

Table 13.3.1 Examples of hyperaccumulator plants accumulating high levels of...

Chapter 13d

Table 13.4.1 European regulations on the composition of biosolids that can b...

Table 13.4.2 ISO standardized tests to assess soil quality using physico‐che...

Table 13.4.3 ISO standardized tests to assess soil quality with tests based ...

Table 13.4.4 ISO standardized tests to assess the quality of soils with test...

Table 13.4.5 ISO standardized tests to assess soil quality based on animal t...

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Extent of the status of human‐induced soil degradation in the wor...

Table 14.2 Description of the scenarios and land use categories used for the...

Table 14.3 Summary report following the UNFCCC common reporting guidelines....

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Composition of different gases [6] modified.

Chapter 17

Table 17.1 The current and potential compost production in Europe [8].

Table 17.2 Estimated amounts and value of avoidable household food waste (EE...

Table 17.3 Estimated quantity of compost/digestate in the EU28 by feedstock ...

Table 17.4 Maximum level of contaminations according to EU Regulations (2019...

Table 17.5 The general process requirements for compost and digestate [22]....

Table 17.6 Quality management systems for the production of compost from bio...

Chapter 18b

Table 18.2.1 Common methods of metal recovery.

Table 18.2.2 Adsorption capacity of algal biosorbents for the removal of met...

Chapter 18c

Table 18.3.1 Selected properties of biochar, depending on the feedstocks app...

Table 18.3.2 Selected biochar contaminant adsorption and mechanisms.

Chapter 18d

Table 18.4.1 Applications of chitin and its derivatives as a biomaterial....

Chapter 18e

Table 18.5.1 Estimated annual biofuel production potential of agricultural w...

Table 18.5.2 Cellulose content of various agricultural wastes.

Table 18.5.3 Most common pre‐treatment methods applied to agricultural waste...

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 The linear economy with and without recycling feedback, circular ...

Figure 1.2 Product cascading. Use of biomass can be cascaded to include para...

Figure 1.3 A sustainable healthy future with bio‐based economies depends on ...

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Graphical design of the Cradle to Cradle concept working within h...

Figure 2.2 Three dynamics of sustainable communities: economy, ecology, and ...

Figure 2.3 The Jiffy Pot DK2C pots (https://www.c2ccertified.org/products/sc...

Chapter 3a

Figure 3.1.1 Place of the bioenergy system in the Zero Waste Hierarchy

Figure 3.1.2 Waste generation by economic activities and households in EU‐27...

Figure 3.1.3 Holistic biorefinery approach

Figure 3.1.4 Potential WtE technologies for valorization of biodegradable wa...

Figure 3.1.5 WtE technologies for sewage sludge valorization [42].

Figure 3.1.6 Types of biofuels [48].

Figure 3.1.7 Primary energy production by fuel, EU‐27, in selected years, 19...

Figure 3.1.8 Gross inland energy consumption by fuel, EU‐27, 1990–2018 (mill...

Figure 3.1.9 Electricity generation from all renewable sources in 2019 (EU‐2...

Chapter 3b

Figure 3.2.1 Conversion pathways for valorization of bio‐waste to matter.

Chapter 3c

Figure 3.3.1 Pathways for valorization of food waste to food.

Figure 3.3.2 Conversion pathways for food waste as a resource to produce cer...

Figure 3.3.3 Conversion pathways for food waste as a resource to produce mea...

Figure 3.3.4 Recycling of food waste into resources as input to food product...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Composition of biodegradable waste modified [5].

Figure 4.2 The comparison of the theoretical potential for the production of...

Figure 4.3 Bio‐waste in municipal waste and how it is collected, EU‐28, 2017...

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Technological possibilities of livestock manure processing for fe...

Figure 5.2 Three‐step system of nutrient recovery from dairy manure, followi...

Figure 5.3 Possibilities of processing using the system of cascading technol...

Figure 5.4 Technological processes and products in the framework of the GBR ...

Figure 5.5 CCB Biorefinery and modified GBR refinery for sugar beet [56].

Figure 5.6 SSF technologies – production of value‐added products [64].

Figure 5.7 Direct utilization of forestry waste in construction and agricult...

Figure 5.8 Forest waste as a raw material for technology and utilization of ...

Figure 5.9 FW production in individual FSC sequences [117].

Figure 5.10 Left: Food recovery hierarchy (US EPA). Right: Food recovery hie...

Figure 5.11 Simplified flow diagram – the genesis of food waste and its poss...

Figure 5.12 Possibilities of fruit peel waste (FPW) processing in relation t...

Figure 5.13 Diagram of the zero‐waste biorefinery for citrus peel waste (CPW...

Figure 5.14 Valorization pathways for vegetable processing wastes [157].

Figure 5.15 Possibilities of waste treatment using waste from cereal process...

Figure 5.16 Valorization flows for wastes from fish processing with marking ...

Figure 5.17 Valorization pathways for meat processing wastes. The colors of ...

Figure 5.18 Traditional approaches to meat processing wastes [211].

Figure 5.19 Possible valorization for egg waste [157].

Figure 5.20 Processing, utilization, and disposal of waste in EU28+ [232].

Figure 5.21 Sludge utilization in selected EU countries in 2017. (*) Data de...

Figure 5.22 Possibilities of sludge treatment for obtaining P from WWTPs wit...

Figure 5.23 Thermal processes of the sludge utilization and disposal.

Figure 5.24 Classification of plastics [321].

Figure 5.25 Overview of bioplastics. Starch‐based polymers, polyhydroxyalkan...

Figure 5.26 Chemical processes used for enhancement of properties of natural...

Figure 5.27 PHA biosynthesis process scheme. Pre‐treatment (physical and aci...

Figure 5.28 Degradation of bioplastics – assessment of bioplastic degradabil...

Chapter 6a

Figure 6.1.1 Division of solid waste, taking into account the directions of ...

Figure 6.1.2 Direction for biosolids/biodegradable waste management [21–23]....

Figure 6.1.3 Distribution of biodegradable wastes considering the advantages...

Figure 6.1.4 Effect of biosolids/biodegradable waste on degraded soils [63, ...

Chapter 6b

Figure 6.2.1 Impact of adding biosolids to degraded soil [20].

Figure 6.2.2 Human/animal exposure pathways and index of biodegradable waste...

Figure 6.2.3 Classification of toxicity analysis methods [25].

Figure 6.2.4 Types of ecotoxicological tests [25].

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Waste collection system diagram [9].

Figure 7.2 Sample colors of waste containers [15].

Figure 7.3 Ventilation in the bio‐waste container [16]. Source: ESE World B....

Figure 7.4 The side ventilation in the bio‐waste container [16]. Source: ESE...

Figure 7.5 Bio‐grid in the bio‐waste container [16]. Source: ESE World B.V....

Figure 7.6 The share of biodegradable waste in the municipal waste stream [1...

Figure 7.7 Sample markings for compostable materials [41].

Figure 7.8 Total MSW generation in the United States by type of waste in 201...

Figure 7.9 KompogasSLO renewable energy and recycling plant in California [5...

Figure 7.10 Volume of municipal solid waste (MSW) collected in China in 2012...

Figure 7.11 Percentage of MSW incinerated for energy recovery in selected co...

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Municipal waste generated per capita in EU and selected regions i...

Figure 8.2 Anaerobic degradation of organic compounds based on references [3...

Figure 8.3 Classification of anaerobic digestion system [22, 66–68].

Figure 8.4 Total installed capacity of biogas installations in different reg...

Figure 8.5 Different types of pre‐treatment methods based on references [83,...

Figure 8.6 Commercial technologies for the pre‐treatment of sewage sludge [8...

Figure 8.7 Commercial technologies for the thermal pre‐treatment of sewage s...

Chapter 9a

Figure 9.1.1 The major composting processes.

Figure 9.1.2 STR process.

Figure 9.1.3 Schematic illustration of sandwich or sheet composting. Paper o...

Figure 9.1.4 A six‐compartment modern composting technology design.

Chapter 9b

Figure 9.2.1 Evolution of scientific interest in vermicomposting and vermico...

Figure 9.2.2 Comparison of the popularity of selected earthworm species in t...

Figure 9.2.3 Earthworm requirements and actions during the vermicomposting p...

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Comparison of a petroleum refinery and a biorefinery [2, 3].

Figure 10.2 Visualization of a waste biorefinery with main conversion proces...

Figure 10.3 Examples for possible biorefinery classification [2, 10–15] * as...

Figure 10.4 Conception of a multiplatform anaerobic biorefinery producing bi...

Figure 10.5 Conception of a zero waste biorefinery producing biofuels and bi...

Figure 10.6 Feedstock used in Europe 2009 and 2017 in (a) existing or planed...

Figure 10.7 Biorefineries in the world (blue mark – operational plants; yell...

Figure 10.8 Biorefineries in Europe [27].

Figure 10.9 R&D and innovation needs of the waste biorefinery [40].

Figure 10.10 Important aspects that need to be considered during the design ...

Chapter 12a

Figure 12.1.1 Risks with pathogens in the circular economy view of organic w...

Figure 12.1.2 Illustration of the use of the pyrolysis technique in the circ...

Figure 12.1.3 Pyrogenic carbon addition was found to attenuate potato scraps...

Figure 12.1.4 Pyrogenic carbon (PC) addition at 2% of dry weight increases t...

Figure 12.1.5 Bio‐oxidation by conversion of hydrophobic functional groups s...

Figure 12.1.6 Pyrogenic carbon with inoculants (left), pyrogenic carbon (mid...

Figure 12.1.7 Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) analysis of 16S...

Figure 12.1.8 A phosphorus‐enriched pyrogenic carbon stimulates canola growt...

Figure 12.1.9 Pyrogenic carbon inoculated of UW4 with functions of excreting...

Figure 12.1.10 A schematic illustration of selected processes that CMCs medi...

Chapter 13a

Figure 13.1.1 Assisted phytoremediation of heavy metal contaminated sites (l...

Figure 13.1.2 Total plant biomass (including seed and root biomass) at the e...

Chapter 13b

Figure 13.2.1 Examples of grass biomass grown on heavy metal contaminated so...

Figure 13.2.2 Grass biomass yield in heavy metal contaminated soil treated w...

Chapter 13d

Figure 13.4.1 Area of expertise in ecotoxicology.

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Drivers, processes, impacts, and strategies for restoring soil d...

Figure 14.2 Interactions and feedbacks between soil degradation, the process...

Figure 14.3 Severe gully erosion in Baringo, Kenya.

Figure 14.4 Multiple pathways to restoring, conserving, and enhancing C in d...

Figure 14.5 Cowpea established under maize stalk residues (left) and maize i...

Figure 14.6 Farmers applying inorganic fertilizer (left) and farmyard manure...

Figure 14.7 A field under total soil cover with

Mucuna pruriens

in western K...

Figure 14.8 A retention ditch with a fodder embankment for catching and reta...

Figure 14.9 Location of the project implementation sites in western Kenya.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Illustration of future demands for phosphorus [17].

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 Logistical chain of biomethane generation and use.

Figure 16.2 Current production and expected trend in biomethane production (...

Figure 16.3 Overview of basic uses of biogas.

Figure 16.4 Basic principle of biogas refining [6].

Figure 16.5 Refining biogas to biomethane pressure washing machine [6].

Figure 16.6 Refining biogas to biomethane membrane [6].

Figure 16.7 Refining biogas to biomethane: (a) ammine wash, (b) chemical oxi...

Figure 16.8 Refining biogas to biomethane biologically [6].

Figure 16.9 Example – Diagram of energy flows to the different parts of biog...

Figure 16.10 Example of biomethane price structure [1].

Figure 16.11 Scheme of the annual economic assessment.

Figure 16.12 Biogas/biomethane use scheme now and in the future.

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1 The possible pathways of biodegradable waste collection and trea...

Figure 17.2 Composting and other food waste management in the USA in the yea...

Figure 17.3 Market for compost from bio‐waste in selected countries/regions ...

Chapter 18a

Figure 18.1.1 Estimated environmental impacts for different fuels in a life ...

Chapter 18b

Figure 18.2.1 Physicochemical mechanisms in biosorption.

Figure 18.2.2 Four reported mechanisms of bioelectrochemically assisted meta...

Chapter 18c

Figure 18.3.1 Percentage of research papers according to Web of Science cate...

Figure 18.3.2 Overall biochar production technology scheme.

Figure 18.3.3 Top 10 emitters (CO

2

equivalent from crop residues) in 2017, a...

Figure 18.3.4 Worldwide emissions from the decomposition of crop residues on...

Chapter 18d

Figure 18.4.1 Three polymorphs, types α, β, and γ, of chitin.

Figure 18.4.2 Formation process of the Fe

3

O

4

@1C NPs.

Chapter 18e

Figure 18.5.1 Biofuel production and usage (a) and steps of production (b)....

Guide

Cover Page

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Preface

Begin Reading

Index

End User License Agreement

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Biodegradable Waste Management in the Circular Economy

Challenges and Opportunities

Edited byMalgorzata KacprzakWarsaw University of TechnologyFaculty of Civil Engineering, Mechanics and PetrochemistryInstitute of Civil Engineering, Płock, PolandCzestochowa University of Technology, Department of Environmental Engineeringand Biotechnology, Częstochowa, Poland

Eleonore Attard

University of Pau, Pau, France

Kari-Anne Lyng

Kråkerøy, Norway

Helena Raclavska

VSB Technical University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czech Republic

BalRam Singh

Norwegian University of Life Sciences, As, Norway

Eyob Tesfamariam

University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Franck Vandenbulcke

Université de Lille, Lille, France

This edition first published 2022

© 2022 John Wiley and Sons Ltd

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The right of Malgorzata Kacprzak, Eleonore Attard, Kari‐Anne Lyng, Helena Raclavska, BalRam Singh, Eyob Tesfamariam, and Franck Vandenbulcke to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Kacprzak, Malgorzata, editor.

Title: Biodegradable waste management in the circular economy : challenges

 and opportunities / edited by Malgorzata Kacprzak Czestochowa University

 of Technology, Cze&c.cedil;stochowa, Poland, Eleonore Attard, University of Pau,

 Pau, France, Kari‐Anne Lyng, Kråkerøy, Norway, Helena Raclavska, VSB

 Technical University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czech Republic, BalRam Singh,

 Norwegian University of Life Sciences, As, Norway, Eyob Tesfamariam,

 University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, Franck Vandenbulcke,

 Université de Lille, Lille, France.

Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2022.

 | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2021050904 (print) | LCCN 2021050905 (ebook) | ISBN

 9781119679844 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119679813 (adobe pdf) | ISBN

 9781119679851 (epub)

Subjects: LCSH: Organic wastes–Recycling. | Waste management. | Compost.

Classification: LCC TD804 .B54 2022 (print) | LCC TD804 (ebook) | DDC

 363.72/88–dc23/eng/20211202

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021050904

LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021050905

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Image: © New Africa/Shutterstock

Preface

According to the definition of the European Union, the bioeconomy encompasses the production of renewable biological resources and the conversion of these resources and waste streams into value‐added products, such as food, feed, bio‐based products, and bioenergy. Biodegradable waste contains a wide group of waste: not only a part of municipal solid waste (sometimes called BMW, biodegradable municipal waste) or green waste, food waste, paper, cardboard, and biodegradable plastics, but also human waste, manure, sewage sludge, and slaughterhouse waste. Strictly, bio‐waste means biodegradable garden and park waste, food and kitchen waste from households, restaurants, caterers, and retail premises, and comparable waste from food processing plants and agricultural waste. Trends in biodegradable waste generation show that in most countries volumes of such waste produced increase and it is clear that the trend will continue. This should be followed by correct management of this fraction in terms of quality and quantity of the collected flow and selection of sutainable management models. It requires a new approach to management and disposal, including not only the identification of streams or new technologies but also environmental safety or LCA analysis.

Many research groups from different countries are focused on activities aimed at assessing different technologies/strategies for more effective recovery of matter and recourses and/or energy from biodegaradable waste. Ecotoxicologists and environmentalists pay attention to the risks associated with the presence of pollution in such waste. The question arises about the possibility of renewable recycling organic matter and many others compounds. Answering this broad topic requires a holistic approach and cooperation between academia and R&D. Only this approach will allow a holistic view of secure biodegradable waste management, and provide data to fill gaps. Scientific and technological modifications will lead to: development of new technologies processing, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, limiting the use of the most sensitive resources, and reducing the consumption of fossil fuels. All these activities fit very well into the idea of sustainable development. Activities aimed at creating the foundations of new biodegradable waste economy policies will cease to perceive such substances as waste, because they will become a valuable product with a definitely positive added value. This approach implies the development of new strategies for processing biodegradable waste and makes the issues related to their management become one of the biggest challenges in the next decade. However, all biodegradable waste processing technologies generate new waste and this problem should be taken into consideration in the context of a clear circular economy, because every, even new, technology causes waste production. Collaboration between highly interdisciplinary and international experts provides excellent scientific and complementary skills, a unique idea that will be presented in this book.

The book covers the very important and actual point of a circular economy – the management of biodegradable waste. The reader will find a complete book that reflects the latest trends in the rapidly changing management of biodegradable waste. The monography shows the different approaches used depending on the country and region, as the authors are experts from different countries and even continents.

The book was designed within EnviSafeBioc project, financed by the Polish National Agency for Academic Exchange.

1Circular Bioeconomy and Sustainability

Işıl Aksan Kurnaz1,2, Elif Damla Arisan1,2 and M. Levent Kurnaz2,3

1Gebze Technical University, Institute of Biotechnology, Gebze, Kocaeli, Turkey

2Original BioEconomy Resources Center of Excellence (OBEK), GTEAV, Gebze, Kocaeli, Turkey

3Center for Climate Change and Policies & Department of Physics, Bogazici University, Bebek, Istanbul, Turkey

1.1 Introduction

The UN projections indicate that by the end of the century world population will total 11.2 billion people, and considering some calculations indicate that the Earth's carrying capacity is around 7 billion people, it becomes clear that the resources are becoming increasingly scarce while demand constantly increases. In order to feed, fuel, and heal the world, a different approach is required to maximize the efficiency of resource use and to minimize the waste thereof. The circular economy was formulated as such an approach, whereby production and consumption of materials are optimized. The European Parliament defines circular economy as “a model of production and consumption, which involves sharing, leasing, reusing, repairing, refurbishing and recycling existing materials and products” [1].

The bioeconomy, on the other hand, is defined by the European Commission (EC) as “the production of renewable biological resources and conversion of these resources and waste streams into value added products, such as food, feed, bio‐based products and bioenergy” [2]. The societal challenges that drive this need are food security and sustainability of natural resources, and hence the need for reducing our reliance on non‐renewable resources but instead increasing use of renewable resources, and of finally the climate change issue that we are all facing.

In order to achieve that, the EC has set a Bioeconomy Strategy and outlined three major action plans:

To develop new technologies and processes for the bioeconomy,

To develop markets and competitiveness in the bioeconomy, and

To push policymakers and stakeholders to cooperate.

The bioeconomy relies on biological resources (such as animals, plants, microorganisms, or organic waste) and involves all production and economic sectors that use biological resources (such as forestry, agriculture, aquaculture, etc., including those in food, feed, bio‐based products, and bioenergy). Interestingly, although medical and aromatic plants are heavily used in the pharmaceutical sector, it is not explicitly stated within some definitions of bioeconomy, which is sometimes interpreted as the biopharmaceutical sector not being included in the bioeconomy. However, all sectors involving biological resources in one way or another, and those creating organic waste, has to be considered as an inherent component, and all bioeconomies need to have sustainability and circularity in their focus, not only to make efficient use of resources but also to make sure we protect and enhance biodiversity.

1.2 Overlaps and Differences – Bioeconomy, Circular Economy, Circular Bioeconomy

Linear economies rely on renewable or non‐renewable raw materials that enter the production line, where a product is generated and marketed for user consumption, at the end of which there is waste that is thrown away. More recently, a recycle‐based system has been established whereby the linear economy has an additional feedback loop, where some aspects of the product that the consumer uses, such as plastic or paper packaging, is recycled back to the production line, thereby to a certain extent reducing the waste that is deposited to the environment or used as landfill (Figure 1.1a and b). However, as neither system regenerates the input material, the challenge of finite and diminishing natural resources remains unresolved.

The circular economy essentially describes an economic system [3] where the business models divert from an “end‐of‐life” model for production toward a “re‐use, refurbish, repurpose, re‐cycle and recover” model to achieve sustainable production, reducing negative environmental effects while maximizing economic prosperity and social equalities (Figure 1.1c).

Although there is no worldwide agreed‐upon definition, bioeconomy focuses on the sectors that are involved with renewable biological resources, including agricultural and forestry products, fish, animals, and microorganisms, for the food, feed, materials, and energy sectors, and essentially can be linear or circular, and includes only bio‐based products and services, usually with the use of biotechnology [3].

The circular bioeconomy is a relatively recent concept and is at the intersection of the circular economy and the bioeconomy, aiming to improve resource efficiency, reducing the demand for fossil fuels, valorization of waste material and such; however, the bioeconomy has unique aspects that are beyond the circular economy, including reutilization of by‐products and bio‐waste, new production processes that minimize toxicity to humans and environment, protection of biodiversity, healthy bio‐based products, etc., which are incorporated into circular bioeconomy [4].

Waste is a central concept in the circular bioeconomy since it provides “sustainable biomass” from which new bio‐based products can be generated, in addition to being available for compost production (Figure 1.1d). Another important tenant of the circular bioeconomy is the biorefinery concept, which can be used to generate a single bio‐based product or in more recent versions integrated biorefineries can handle multiple co‐products from the same biomass through efficient design and innovative conversion technologies. Waste biorefining is different from classical waste management and the recycling concept, in the sense that “waste” of one process may be used as a “resource material” for another process, generating a completely different bio‐based product in circular bioeconomies, whereas waste recycling in the classical schemes simply reuse or recycle the waste in some aspect of the same production line [5]. The most common waste materials used in bio‐based production include lignocellulosic wastes, mostly from rice or wheat straw or corn stover, followed by municipal solid waste and food wastes. Among these, whey – cheese waste – is a by‐product of cheese manufacturing and the worldwide production is estimated at around 200 million tons year−1, which could be valorized through biotechnology and redirected to the generation of a number of different value‐added bio‐based products including lactic acid, polylactic acid used in bioplastics, and bio‐based fertilizers. This would not only prevent pollution and relieve negative environmental pressure but also create new circular value chains and innovative manufacturing ecosystems [5].

Figure 1.1 The linear economy with and without recycling feedback, circular economy vs circular bioeconomy. (a) The linear economy starts with raw materials that enter the production chain, which is then marketed and consumed, eventually ending in waste materials. (b) The recycle economy with feedback loops is essentially a linear economy where raw material enters the production chain and is marketed; but, after consumption some products will be recycled and entered to the production chain, such as plastic or paper packaging, but eventually ending in waste materials. (c) The circular economy relies on raw materials entering the production circle, but the principle is the sustainable recycling of waste material back to the production chain, which eliminates (as much as possible) waste materials and minimizes raw material requirements. (d) The circular bioeconomy relies on sustainable biomass (including residues and waste) as raw material, which enters the integrated production circle that maximizes multiple bio‐based production (e.g. biofuel, biodiesel, biomaterials, food, feed, biopharmaceuticals, etc.) through biorefineries, encourages prolonged and shared use of products so as to minimize over‐consumption, and instead of generating recyclable waste material, relies on energy recovery from waste as well as use of waste in composting, thereby renewing and supporting long‐term sustainability of biological resources.

Similar to the Circular Economy Action Plan adopted in 2015, which aims to turn Europe's economy into a more sustainable economy, a number of policies and strategy papers indicate that it is possible to boost global competitiveness of countries or regions via promoting sustainable economic growth. Circularity of waste management provides minimal generation of waste and maximizes the recycling and reuse.

Biomass cascading is a relatively recent concept in waste management of the circular economy or bioeconomy, where biomass is exploited for high value‐added product generation in succession, where residual biomass left after each production step is utilized for generation of another product (and/or co‐product), until all value‐added products possible have been exploited and the remaining residue is ultimately used as an energy source (Figure 1.2 shows the cascading concept within the context of the circular bioeconomy).

Figure 1.2 Product cascading. Use of biomass can be cascaded to include parallel or serial bioprocess conversion steps so as to generate multiple products and co‐products that can be utilized in different industry sectors.

Bottlenecks in such processes include the high cost of biomass resources, enzymes, and chemicals for the conversion process, as well as lack of optimization for bioprocesses, as experienced in early bioethanol and biodiesel research and development (R&D). In fact, contrary to common belief bio‐based production is not necessarily more environment‐friendly than fossil‐based production schemes: when inherent inefficiencies of bioprocesses in terms of titer, yield, and productivity are considered, these inefficiencies may in fact result in higher consumption of other natural resources so that the overall environmental effects or resource efficiency may not be greatly improved over classical manufacturing technologies. Hence, high‐technology R&D is required for the design of more efficient and more productive bioprocesses.

Plastic waste is also an issue in bioeconomies, and hence many EU and other funds have been diverted to bio‐based plastics that are biodegradable and recyclable. In fact, bioplastics are considered a new chain value for the development of a sustainable plastics economy and promotion of biodegradable bioplastics for packaging industries are greatly encouraged.

Agriculture and forestry are one of the first sectors to incorporate circular bioeconomy in their workflows, since they are unique in their reliance on natural sources and cycles as their primary inputs [6]. The circular bioeconomy emphasizes intrinsic natural recycling and feedback loops and cycles and requires high technical know‐how. Agriculture and forestry are particularly important in that not only do these sectors ensure food and nutrition security but they also present an opportunity for carbon sequestration and storage, thereby compensating for emission‐related climate effects. It should be noted that agriculture is the largest consumer of the world's freshwater supplies and almost a quarter of the global energy usage goes to food production.

Our growing population needs a robust and sustainable food system. Presently this system has many flaws, as has been described by the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 2, no hunger. It is clear that our food system is not satisfactory to meet humanity's long‐term needs. Food production has helped the population growth in the past 100 years, partly with the help of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, high‐yielding crop varieties, and advanced farm equipment. However, we are all aware of the linear nature of this system, which also has many negative consequences. Presently we have a huge amount of food waste and, in parallel, the global population is suffering from malnutrition, micronutrient deficiency, and obesity [7].

The health costs of malnutrition, micronutrient deficiency, and obesity reach nearly 5.7 trillion USD annually. About the same amount has also been caused by the negative social costs of producing food in a linear nature using modern food production systems. By this, we mean that the present food production system:

Is wasteful

. While about 821 million people go to bed hungry every night, about one‐third of all the food produced goes to waste. In addition to this, only 2% of all the valuable nutrients in the uneaten food and human waste generated in cities is returned to the food cycle to generate a circular production pattern.

Uses finite natural resources

. Valuable mineral resources like phosphorus and potassium are used in synthetic fertilizers. These elements are finite and, especially for phosphorus, humanity might have passed the production peak. Most of the activities in our food production system are powered by fossil fuels.

Degrades natural capital

. Soil is our most important natural capital. In many parts of the globe, we have been performing agriculture for many millennia. Because of this, the soil is now tired. We are trying to compensate for this by using excess synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and water. These practices further degrade about 39 million hectares of arable soil each year.

Pollutes the environment

. Pesticides and synthetic fertilizers used in agriculture and the mismanagement of manure can contaminate soils, cause air pollution, and let chemicals into the surface and underground water supplies.

Degraded soil is our most important problem in terms of a sustainable bioeconomy. Our present way of producing food damages the soil, causes health problems both for the workers and consumers, and creates large amounts of harmful greenhouse gases. A regenerative approach to farming promises humanity a healthy and sustainable food supply.

Regenerative farming systems depend on healthy and biologically active farm ecosystems. We should not take soil as a given property for agriculture but should start by producing the soil as well. Industrial‐scale composting is important for soil fertility and long‐term sustainability of the finite resources of the Earth. Our tired soils benefit enormously from the addition of compost and biodigester as organic additives. There are quite a few techniques considered as regenerative, like rotational grazing, natural system restoration, agroecology, agroforestry, and conservation agriculture. When we keep in mind that in Nature there is no waste, we can farm the land sustainably, which decreases the use of synthetic inputs, especially pesticides, fertilizers, and growth hormones.

In a circular farming system, the main focus is on healthy soils that have improved soil organic material, water‐holding capacity, and a microbial population. Permaculture farming techniques significantly help by improving the diversity of crops, animal species on the farm, and the general biodiversity of the local environment.

Unfortunately, synthetic additives have been used for farming for nearly a century and because of economies of scale, they offer many financial advantages. However, to achieve the sustainability of our food supply in the near future, a circular approach together with the addition of end products like compost and biodigestates should be made affordable.

Besides producing calories and micronutrients, the by‐products of the food industry can easily be used to create new and exotic food products, supplementary inputs for agriculture, and new materials for the industry in general. When we allow organic materials to rot without intervention, methane is produced. Methane is a greenhouse gas, which is about 25 times more potent than carbon dioxide. Therefore, in our production circle, the most important point is not letting this methane seep through into the atmosphere. Fortunately, as there is already a production system in place, biogas is readily produced from organic waste. However, this step should be considered as a last resort in the circular farming practices as biogas is also organic material and we should not take away this organic additive in the circular production to support another industry.

One additional factor in agriculture is the tilling of the fields. This is the traditional method in farming but tilling is one of the major factors of carbon dioxide emissions in agriculture. In a regenerative agricultural system, the soil is not tilled and so the organic carbon content of the soil is constantly increased. The circular nature of regenerative farming suggests that we should not take more than we give to the soil. Synthetic fertilizers are not materials within the cycle of production and hence they should be used only sparingly. To be able to attain a sustainable food supply, we should take care of all of our environmental systems. Therefore, none of our production practices should be harmful to the environment in general.

1.3 Sustainability Strategies, Climate Action, and the Bioeconomy

In the 1970s, the increasing growth of the world population where natural resources were finite in a finite Earth has brought to our attention the fact that “business as usual” is not a sustainable practice, as quite bluntly stated in “The Limits to Growth” [3, 8]. Not surprisingly, 12 of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) can be considered to be involved in the sustainability of natural resources and manufacturing/production capacities, of which almost half include biotechnology and bioeconomy‐related issues (SDGs 2 Zero Hunger, 3 Good Health and Well‐Being, 6 Clean Water and Sanitation, 7 Affordable and Clean Energy, 9 Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, 12 Responsible Consumption and Production, 13 Climate Action, 14 Life Below Water, and 15 Life on Land [9]).

Sustainability refers to the balanced existence of human civilization within the boundaries of a finite planet with diminishing resources, without compromising the needs of future generations. From a biological perspective, it can be defined as a homeostatic balance between world population and the Earth, protecting nature, climate, and humans. In the current status, on the one hand, our planet's resources are not sufficient to feed and sustain an ever‐growing human population, even at the expense of other ecosystem elements, creating food and water security problems, hunger and social inequality problems, and by 2050 the natural resources required to feed and sustain a human population estimated to be the equivalent of three planets; on the other hand, it is estimated that each year approximately one‐third of all food produced goes to waste [10].

In terms of sustainability strategies, waste management (of, for example, lignocellulosic wastes for bio‐based production), integrated biorefineries for the production of multiple bio‐based products from the same biological resource, and composting appear as pillars of circular bioeconomy [5]. However, global capacity for cellulosic biorefining is still limited, with one plant operational in Canada, one in Finland, one in Italy, one in China, two in Brazil, and four in the US as of 2018 [5].

In terms of biomass and bioenergy policies, resource efficiency strategies are on the front page. Indicators of best practices (using parameters such as input material, design, production, consumption, and end‐of‐life for products) show that some countries have efficiently established bioeconomy strategies to that effect: Denmark has been a pioneer in circular economy since 1972 and established a National Bioeconomy Panel in 2013 [5, 11]; Finland's National Bioeconomy Strategy was published in 2014; Italy established its Bioeconomy Strategy in 2016 [12] and updated it recently [13]; Spain set up a strategy emphasizing utilization of biological wastes and residues in 2016; [14]; while Scotland initiated a Biorefinery Roadmap in 2015 and developed an integrated approach for biorefineries such as utilization of whisky co‐products and waste [15]. Whisky waste is a good example for bioeconomies: the whisky industry in Scotland generates biological waste that has a high biological oxygen demand containing yeast and organic and inorganic compounds, and can be utilized for novel bio‐based production chains. Each country, therefore, could have its unique approaches to an effective integration of circular bioeconomy platforms in line with the national manufacturing capacities and priorities.

The US Department of Energy published a Strategic Plan for a Thriving and Sustainable Bioeconomy in 2016, which particularly focuses on renewable biofuels (such as cellulosic ethanol, for which 88 million gallons of commercial cellulosic ethanol capacity was built in 2015) [16]. Together with the Federal Activities Report on the Bioeconomy, published in 2016 by the Biomass Board of the US Department of Agriculture, the Bioeconomy Vision of the US was presented as expanding the sustainable use of biomass resources while maximizing economic, social, and environmental outcomes [17].

The strategic goals and take‐home messages of these strategies or roadmaps of countries are mostly similar:

(i) ensuring a competitive environment for bioeconomies to grow,

(ii) ensuring accessibility and sustainability of biomasses and biological resources,

(iii) preventing biodiversity loss,

(iv) creating new economic growth and new jobs in line with sustainable development.

Therefore, a number of reports published by different countries show regional awareness for bio‐based products and related bioeconomies. These are the initial steps of the implementation of knowledge arising from bio‐based industries into other disciplines to promote a sustainable future.

1.4 The Bio‐based Industry Clusters Increased the Impact of Innovative Bioeconomies for a Healthy Future

Public health demographics indicate unstable and sustainable health issues all over the world due to increased industrial progress and irregular urbanization patterns. Since the increasing world population is more evident, we face serious public health problems. As one of the remarkable events, the COVID19 pandemic has increased public attention on bio‐based industries. According to a recent report published in Forbes, the annual bio‐economy market share is estimated at about 4 trillion USD in the US economical records, with market estimates of the synthetic biology sector alone at 5 – 15 billion USD [18, 19]. Although the definition of the bio‐economy points out the validation and standardization of bio‐based products for a healthy future with a sustainable environment, the additional definition is given by the US White House Office of Science and Technology unit, which has adopted a broad definition: “The infrastructure, innovation, products, technology, and data derived from biologically related processes and science that drive economic growth, promote health, and increase public benefit.”