Biodiesel Technology and Applications E-Book

Inamuddin

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 818

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021

Beschreibung

BIODIESEL This outstanding new volume provides a comprehensive overview on biodiesel technologies, covering a broad range of topics and practical applications, edited by one of the most well-respected and prolific engineers in the world and his team. Energy technologies have attracted great attention due to the fast development of sustainable energy. Biodiesel technologies have been identified as the sustainable route through which overdependence on fossil fuels can be reduced. Biodiesel has played a key role in handling the growing challenge of a global climate change policy. Biodiesel is defined as the monoalkyl esters of vegetable oils or animal fats. Biodiesel is a cost-effective, renewable, and sustainable fuel that can be made from vegetable oils and animal fats. Compared to petroleum-based diesel, biodiesel would offer a non-toxicity, biodegradability, improved air quality and positive impact on the environment, energy security, safe-to-handle, store and transport and so on. Biodiesels have been used as a replacement of petroleum diesel in transport vehicles, heavy-duty trucks, locomotives, heat oils, hydrogen production, electricity generators, agriculture, mining, construction, and forestry equipment. This book describes a comprehensive overview, covering a broad range of topics on biodiesel technologies and allied applications. Chapters cover history, properties, resources, fabrication methods, parameters, formulations, reactors, catalysis, transformations, analysis, in situ spectroscopies, key issues and applications of biodiesel technology. It also includes biodiesel methods, extraction strategies, biowaste utilization, oleochemical resources, non-edible feedstocks, heterogeneous catalysts, patents, and case-studies. Progress, challenges, future directions, and state-of-the-art biodiesel commercial technologies are discussed in detail. This book is an invaluable resource guide for professionals, faculty, students, chemical engineers, biotechnologists, and environmentalists in these research and development areas. This outstanding new volume: * Summarizes the recent developments in this rapidly-developing, multi-disciplinary field * Provides the reader with a practical understanding of biodiesel technology toward the real-world applications * Formulates concepts, case-studies, patents, and applications helpful in decision making and problem-solving, in a single resource * Delivers state-of-the-art information on biodiesel technology Audience: Chemical and process engineers and other professionals, faculty, students, scientists, biotechnologists, and environmental engineers

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright

Preface

1 Biocatalytic Processes for Biodiesel Production

1.1 Introduction and Background

1.2 Importance of Biodiesel Over Conventional Diesel Fuel

1.3 Substrates for Biodiesel Production

1.4 Methods in Biodiesel Production

1.5 Types of Catalysts Involved in Biodiesel Production

1.6 Factors Affecting Enzymatic Transesterification Reaction

1.7 Lipases as Biocatalysts for Biodiesel Production

1.8 Comparative Analysis of Intracellular and Extracellular Lipases for Biodiesel Production

1.9 Recombinant Lipases for Cost-Effective Biodiesel Production

1.10 Immobilization of Lipases for Better Biodiesel Production

1.11 Recent Strategies to Improve Biodiesel Production

1.12 Lipase Catalyzed Reaction Modeling and Statistical Approaches for Reaction Optimization

1.13 Conclusion and Summary

References

2 Application of Low-Frequency Ultrasound for Intensified Biodiesel Production Process

2.1 Current Fossil Fuel Scenario

2.2 Biodiesel

2.3 Transesterification

2.4 Challenges for Improved Biodiesel Production

2.5 Homogeneous Catalyst for Biodiesel Production

2.6 Heterogeneous Catalyst for Biodiesel Production

2.7 Immiscibility of the Reactants

2.8 Ultrasound-Assisted Biodiesel Production Process

2.9 Conclusions

Acknowledgement

References

3 Application of Catalysts in Biodiesel Production

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Homogeneous Catalysis for the Biodiesel Production

3.3 Heterogeneous Catalyst

3.4 Biocatalysts

3.5 Conclusion

References

4 Hydrogenolysis as a Means of Valorization of Biodiesel-Derived Glycerol: A Review

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Ways of Valorization of Biodiesel-Derived Glycerol

4.3 Hydrogenolysis of Glycerol

4.4 Conclusion

References

5 Current Status, Synthesis, and Characterization of Biodiesel

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Status of Biodiesel in India

5.3 Biodiesel Production in India

5.4 Properties of Biodiesel

5.5 Analytical Methods

5.6 Conclusion

References

6 Commercial Technologies for Biodiesel Production

Abbreviation

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Biodiesel Production

6.3 Technologies Used for Biodiesel Production

6.4 Other Technologies in Use for Biodiesel Production

6.5 Feedstock Requirement

6.6 Some Problems Facing Commercialization of Biodiesel in Africa

6.7 Case Studies/Current Status and Future Potential

6.8 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

7 A Global Scenario of Sustainable Technologies and Progress in a Biodiesel Production

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Current Status of Feedstock for Biodiesel Production Technology

7.3 Scenario of Biodiesel in Combustion Engine

7.4 Biodiesel Production Technologies

7.5 Microwave-Mediated Transesterification

7.6 Ultrasound-Mediated Transesterification

7.7 Catalysis in Biodiesel Production

7.8 The Concept of Biorefinery

7.9 Summary and Outlook

7.10 Conclusion

References

8 Biodiesel Production Technologies

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Biodiesel Feedstocks

8.3 Biodiesel Production Technologies

8.4 Intensification Techniques for Biodiesel Production

8.5 Other Techniques of Biodiesel Production

References

9 Methods for Biodiesel Production

9.1 Selection of Feedstock for Biodiesel

9.2 Methods for Biodiesel Production

References

10 Non-Edible Feedstock for Biodiesel Production

List of Abbreviations

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Reports Relevant to Global Warming and Renewable Energy

10.3 Biofuels as an Alternative Energy Source

10.4 Benefits of Using Biodiesel

10.5 Technologies of Biodiesel Production From Non-Edible Feedstock

10.6 Biodiesel Production by Transesterification

10.7 Non-Edible Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production

10.8 Fuel Properties of Biodiesel Obtained From Non-Edible Feedstock

10.9 Advantages of Non-Edible Feedstocks

10.10 Economic Importance of Biodiesel Production

10.11 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

11 Oleochemical Resources for Biodiesel Production

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Definition of Oleochemicals

11.3 Oleochemical Types

11.4 Production of Biodiesel

11.5 Types of Feedstocks

11.6 Uses of Oleochemicals

11.7 Methyl Ester or Biodiesel Production

11.8 Parameters Affecting the Yield of Biodiesel

11.9 Optimization of Reactions Conditions for High Yield and Quality of Biodiesel

11.10 Oil Recovery

11.11 Quality Improvement of Biodiesel

11.12 Conclusion

Abbreviations

References

12 Overview on Different Reactors for Biodiesel Production

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Biodiesel Production Reactors

12.3 Future Prospects

12.4 Conclusion

References

13 Patents on Biodiesel

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Generation of Biodiesel

13.3 Development of Catalyst

13.4 Method Producing Biodiesel

13.5 Reactor’s Technology for Biodiesel Production

13.6 Conclusion

References

14 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids With an Alcohol Over Acid Materials

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Zeolites

14.3 SO

3

H as Catalyst

14.4 Metal Oxides

14.5 Heteropolyacids

14.6 Other Materials

14.7 Conclusions

References

15 Biodiesel Production From Non-Edible and Waste Lipid Sources

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Non-Edible Plant-Based Oils

15.3 Waste Animal Fats

15.4 Expired and Waste Cooking Oils

15.5 Algae/Microalgae

15.6 Insects as Biodiesel Feedstock

15.7 Deacidification

15.8 Other Technologies

15.9 Conclusion

References

16 Microalgae for Biodiesel Production

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Physicochemical Properties of Biodiesel From Microalgae

16.3 Genetic Engineering/Techniques Enhancing Biodiesel Production

16.4 Nanotechnology in Microalgae Biodiesel Production

16.5 Specific Examples of Biodiesel Production From Microalgae

16.6 Methodology Involved in the Extraction of Algae

16.7 Conclusion and Future Recommendation to Knowledge

References

17 Biodiesel Production Methods and Feedstocks

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Biofuel Classification in Terms of Origin and Technological Conversion of Raw Materials

17.3 Techniques Capable of Producing Biodiesel on Commercial Scales

17.4 Influential Parameters on Biodiesel Production

17.5 Biodiesel Markets and Economic Considerations

17.6 Challenges Confronting Biodiesel Uptake

17.7 Corrosion and Quality Monitoring Issues for Biodiesel

17.8 Conclusions

References

18 Application of Nanoparticles for the Enhanced Production of Biodiesel

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Solid Nanoparticles

18.3 Nanobioparticles/Nanobiocatalyst

18.4 Magnetic Nanoparticles

18.5 How Nanoparticles Enhanced Biodiesel Production?

18.6 Conclusion

References

Index

Also of Interest

Check out these other forthcoming and published titles from Scrivener Publishing

Books by the same editor from Wiley-Scrivener

Other books on this subject from Wiley-Scrivener

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Transesterification of triglycerides for the production of biodiesel.

Figure 2.2 Approximate frequency ranges of sound with rough guide of some source...

Figure 2.3 Different options of ultrasound application for biodiesel production.

Figure 2.4 Principle of ultrasound-induced acoustic cavitation bubbles.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 The different catalytic methods for the biodiesel production.

Scheme 3.1 Soap formation in the presence of free fatty acids with the base cata...

Scheme 3.2 General esterification reaction mechanism in the presence of an acid ...

Scheme 3.3 Acid-catalyzed transesterification of TG (i) Protonation of carbonyl ...

Scheme 3.4 Alkali catalyzed transesterification of TG (i) formation alkoxide ion...

Figure 3.2 The block diagram for base-catalyzed biodiesel production.

Scheme 3.5 Soap formation in the presence of water and base catalyst.

Figure 3.3 The flow diagram of synthesis of SZ from zirconium oxychloride octahy...

Figure 3.4 Synthesis of (a) ZrO

2

-TiO

2

nanorods, (b) ZrO

2

– TiO

2

@SO

4

2–

nanorods, ...

Figure 3.5 Synthesis of sulfonated acid catalyst from the biomass (DOWC) using c...

Scheme 3.6 Alkaline earth metal oxides catalyzed transesterification of TG.

Figure 3.6 Calcination and rehydration of Mg-Al hydrotalcite for the biodiesel p...

Figure 3.7 Functionalization of MCM-41 surface with guanidine derivative (1,5,7-...

Figure 3.8 Different methods for immobilization of enzymes. (Adapted from Ref. [...

Figure 3.9 Encapsulation of ultrasound treated lipase within metal-organic frame...

Figure 3.10 Lipase from

Candida rugosa

immobilization onto micro-porous biosilic...

Figure 3.11 L62 lipase immobilization using adsorption/entrapment and adsorption...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Biodiesel production through transesterification process [4].

Figure 4.2 Catalytic processes for the conversion of glycerol into useful value-...

Figure 4.3 Successive stages in the hydrogenolysis of glycerol [49].

Figure 4.4 Effect of temperature on glycerol conversion and selectivity of 1,2-P...

Figure 4.5 Effect of varying temperature on conversion, yield, and selectivity o...

Figure 4.6 The scheme for glycerol hydrogenolysis reaction mechanism [78].

Figure 4.7 Conversion of glycerol to 1,2-PDO, reaction mechanism [57].

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Methods of transesterification [18–21].

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Four level flow chat for the production of fuel energy from biomass.

Figure 6.2 Primary energy regional consumption by fuel 2018 in Percentage. BP St...

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Online two-way catalytic pyrolysis reaction process for conversion of...

Figure 7.2 W/O/W and O/W/O emulsion P. A. Winsor I-II and IV type emulsion [37].

Figure 7.3 Biodiesel production methods.

Figure 7.4 Continuous microwave reactor [38].

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Cost breakup for biodiesel production [7, 21–23].

Figure 8.2 Various types of feedstock for biodiesel production.

Figure 8.3 General transesterification reaction.

Figure 8.4 General mechanism of the transesterification reaction.

Figure 8.5 Mechanism of the esterification reaction.

Figure 8.6 Microwave reactor.

Figure 8.7 Probe type ultra sonicator.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Pyrolysis of vegetable oils into alkanes, alkenes, and aromatics [4].

Figure 9.2 Comparison between conventional and

in situ

transesterification.

Figure 9.3 Conventional transesterification process experimental setup.

Figure 9.4 Classification of transesterification process.

Figure 9.5 Supercritical transesterification process.

Figure 9.6 Supercritical transesterification experimental setup.

Figure 9.7 (a) Microwave assisted transesterification. (b) Ultrasonic assisted t...

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Biofuels production sources adapted from [13].

Figure 10.2 Transesterification reaction for biodiesel production [24].

Figure 10.3 Flow chart of biodiesel production process through transesterificati...

Figure 10.4 Biodiesel production from edible and non-edible feedstocks.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Process flow of methyl ester production from animal fat.

Figure 11.2 Production of biodiesel by transesterification reaction. Step1. Pre-...

Figure 11.3 Process of extraction of vegetable oil (e.g., sunflower seed oil ext...

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Schematic diagram of batch reactor apparatus [16].

Figure 12.2 Schematic diagram of continuous stiired tank reactor.

Figure 12.3 Schematic diagram of fixed bed reactor [16].

Figure 12.4 Schematic view of bubble column reactor for biodiesel production [36...

Figure 12.5 The general configuration of reactive distillation [45].

Figure 12.6 A schematic diagram of hybrid catalytic plasma reactor system in the...

Figure 12.7 Schematic diagram of a microchannel microreactor [55].

Figure 12.8 Schematic diagram of a membrane reactor for biodiesel production [9]...

Figure 12.9 Schematic diagram of microtubemicroreactor [55].

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 General reaction for esterification.

Figure 13.2 General reaction for transesterification.

Figure 13.3 General reaction for pyrolysis.

Figure 13.4 Schematic diagram of a single reactor CTRS. Reproduced with permissi...

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Scheme of reaction between a carboxylic acid and an alcohol.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Transesterification reaction showing reaction of methanol and trigly...

Figure 15.2 Chemical structure of riconelic acid, major component of castor oil ...

Figure 15.3 Microalgal biodiesel refinery producing multiple products from algal...

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1 Primary feedstocks used to produce biodiesel [37]. Other oils includ...

Figure 17.2 (a) Impact of catalyst type on esters yield for four different alkal...

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1 Characteristics and type of nanoparticles catalysts.

Figure 18.2 General reaction for possible mechanism of esterification and transe...

Figure 18.3 Schematic image of diffusion of reactants in pores in SO

3

H-Fe/Fe

2

O

3-

...

Figure 18.4 Preparation of sulfonic acid functionalized MNPs and sulfamic acid f...

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Some of the commonly used bacterial lipases for biodiesel production.

Table 1.2 Some of the commonly used fungal lipases for biodiesel production.

Table 1.3 Some examples commercial lipases commonly used for biodiesel productio...

Table 1.4 Comparison between intracellular and extracellular lipase.

Table 1.5 Some research investigations using recombinant whole-cell biocatalyst ...

Table 1.6 Some other experiments using recombinant whole catalyst without immobi...

Table 1.7 Investigation of immobilized whole-cell biocatalysts to produce biodie...

Table 1.8 Some examples to produce biodiesel using combination of lipases.

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Performance of ultrasound-assisted homogeneous biodiesel production sy...

Table 2.2 Ultrasound-assisted biodiesel production processes catalyzed by hetero...

Table 2.3 Performance of ultrasound-assisted heterogeneous base-catalyzed proces...

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Different biodiesel feedstock used by the respective country in the wo...

Table 3.2 List of some selective homogeneous catalyst used for biodiesel product...

Table 3.3 Different biomass derived solid acid catalyst used for the biodiesel p...

Table 3.4 Recent examples of different sources of calcium oxide used for the bio...

Table 3.5 Some selected reports on different immobilization methods for biodiese...

Table 3.6 Advantages and disadvantages of different immobilized methods. (Adapte...

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Glycerol oxidation using different catalysts preparation methods at 50...

Table 4.2 Heterogeneously catalyzed reactions without the use of solvents.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Consumption of crude oil in India (MT) [1, 4].

Table 5.2 Fuel properties of oils [18, 21–36].

Table 5.3 Different parameters in biodiesel production from non-edible oils [18–...

Table 5.4 Advantages and disadvantages of different processes [42, 43, 65–67].

Table 5.5 Biodiesel properties and measuring apparatus [63, 97, 99–109].

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Biodiesel production from various feedstocks [13, 14].

Table 7.2 Difference between conventional, microwave, and ultrasonic heating [40...

Table 7.3 Comparison between homogeneous, heterogeneous catalysis, supercritical...

Table 7.4 Comparison of various transesterification processes [41].

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Various types of oil and their sources for the production of biodiesel...

Table 8.2 Fatty acid profile of fats and oils [34].

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Comparison between heterogeneous and homogeneous catalytic transesteri...

Table 9.2 Comparison between biodiesel production methods [7].

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 The common free fatty acids in biodiesel production [32].

Table 10.2 Current research on non-edible vegetable oils as low-cost feedstocks ...

Table 10.3 Recent studies on waste cooking oils as feedstocks for the production...

Table 10.4 Recent studies on algal oils as feedstocks for biodiesel production v...

Table 10.5 Recent studies on waste animal fat/oil as feedstocks for production o...

Table 10.6 Summary of the physicochemical features of biodiesel produced from no...

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 Fatty acid contents of vegetable oils and animal fats.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Comparison between the pyrolysis method by operating parameters and p...

Chapter 15

Table 15.1 Biodiesel specifications and their limits.

Table 15.2 Different catalysts, reaction conditions, and yield during synthesis ...

Table 15.3 Comparison of FFA composition of selected non-edible oils.

Table 15.4 Some selected algae strains and their production data.

Table 15.5 Some properties of biodiesel synthesizes from microalgae.

Table 15.6 Fatty oil composition of diesel derived from insect larva.

Table 15.7 Fuel properties of biodiesels synthesized from insect larva.

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Title page

Copyright

Preface

Begin Reading

Index

Also of Interest

End User License Agreement

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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106

Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Biodiesel Technology and Applications

Edited by

Inamuddin,

Mohd Imran Ahamed,

Rajender Boddula

and

Mashallah Rezakazemi

This edition first published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2021 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 9781119724643

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Set in size of 11pt and Minion Pro by Manila Typesetting Company, Makati, Philippines

Printed in the USA

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Preface

Energy technologies have attracted great attention due to the fast development of sustainable energy. Biodiesel technologies have been identified as the sustainable route through which overdependence on fossil fuels can be reduced. Biodiesel has played a key role in handling the growing challenge of a global climate change policy. Biodiesel is defined as the monoalkyl esters of vegetable oils or animal fats. Biodiesel is a cost-effective, renewable, and sustainable fuel that can be made from vegetable oils and animal fats. Compared to petroleum-based diesel, biodiesel would offer a non-toxicity, biodegradability, improved air quality and positive impact on the environment, energy security, safe-to-handle, store and transport, and so on. Biodiesels have been used as a replacement of petroleum diesel in transport vehicles, heavy-duty trucks, locomotives, heat oils, hydrogen production, electricity generators, agriculture, mining, construction, and forestry equipment.

This book describes a comprehensive overview, covering a broad range of topics on biodiesel technologies and allied applications. Chapters cover history, properties, resources, fabrication methods, parameters, formulations, reactors, catalysis, transformations, analysis, in situ spectroscopies, key issues and applications of biodiesel technology. It also includes bio-diesel methods, extraction strategies, biowaste utilization, oleochemical resources, non-edible feedstocks, heterogeneous catalysts, patents, and case-studies. Progress, challenges, future directions, and state-of-the-art biodiesel commercial technologies are discussed in detail. This book is an invaluable resource guide for professionals, faculty, students, chemical engineers, biotechnologists, and environmentalists in these research and development areas. This book includes the eighteen chapters and the summaries are given as follows.

Chapter 1 details the biocatalytic production of biodiesel. Microbial enzymes such as lipases act as biocatalysts in the transesterification process of biodiesel production. Suitable and cost-effective feedstocks or substrates for biodiesel production including their percentage yields are discussed. Factors that affect the enzymatic transesterification reaction are also explained.

Chapter 2 addresses ultrasonic energy which can increase the interface area while creating a thermal effect in heterogeneous biodiesel production process to result in higher biodiesel yield. Fundamental understanding of the improved reactant-catalyst interaction, the nature of the thermal effect, favorable process behaviors, reaction kinetic, as well as the effect on bio-diesel quality is particularly addressed.

Chapter 3 is about the study of different types of catalysts used for biodiesel production. The classification of catalysts, advantages, and limitations, along with their mechanism, is explained. The heterogeneous catalysts’ synthetic methods and immobilization of biocatalyst are also discussed in detail.

Chapter 4 discusses various methods used to produce value-added chemicals from biodiesel-derived glycerol. The main focus being is given to hydrogenolysis as a transformative process to selectively produce 1,2-propanediol and the advancements in biodiesel technologies. Furthermore, knowledge gaps are highlighted based on extensive literature research on the subject.

Chapter 5 discusses various techniques of synthesizing biodiesel and review of various existing analytical technologies for characterization of biodiesel. The chapter focuses on the current status of biodiesel in India, i.e., using non-edible sources and future feasibility of developing new methods of characterization to reduce the cost of biodiesel production.

Chapter 6 examines various established technologies available for the production of biodiesel, viz., chemical reaction, direct combustion, thermochemical conversion, and biomechanical conversion. Each technology is apportioned to a certain type of feedstock. Case studies, current status, and future potential of commercialization of biodiesel production in Africa are also discussed.

There is a huge demand for sustainable biofuel production in coming decades. The key challenges for biodiesel production are high FFA with the desired level of yield, stability, optimized and flexible production, commercialization of feedstock and environmentally friendly cycle. The collective effort and commitment of research survey regard feedstocks and commercialization of technology around the globe towards sustainable energy are expressed in terms of accelerating the biofuel economy in Chapter 7.

Chapter 8 provides an overview of the available feedstocks, production methods, and the benefits and constraints of using homogeneous, heterogeneous, and enzymatic catalysts for biodiesel. Some latest intensification techniques to manage mass transfer restrictions of oil and alcohol phases along with some production cost reduction measures are also highlighted.

Chapter 9 discusses different types of feedstocks used for synthesizing biodiesel and feedstock selection criteria. Moreover, all biodiesel production methods (i.e., dilution with hydrocarbons blending, micro-emulsion, pyrolysis, and transesterification) are also described in detail with their advantages and disadvantages. The major focus is given to the various transesterification methods. Production methods also include experimental setup layouts, all process parameters, reaction conditions, the latest advancement in reaction processes, and their effects on biodiesel yield.

Chapter 10 reviews the potential use of non-edible feedstocks in the production of biodiesel. Special attention is given to the types of feedstocks available and their production pathways to biodiesel. The state-of-the-art technology, the properties of the fuel produced, and the environmental concerns of biofuels are also discussed.

Chapter 11 discusses the various types of oleochemicals and their usage. Optimization and production of biodiesel derived from oleochemicals and their properties are also discussed. The primary focus is given for the advantage of oleochemicals to be used as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production from the available literature.

Chapter 12 provides details about the different configurations of reactors used in biodiesel production. There are two types, namely, batch and continuous reactors. Recently, other improved configurations like micro-reactors have emerged. This chapter also discusses the merits and demerits of these reactors.

Chapter 13 highlights and discusses the international patents on bio-diesel applications. This chapter reviews the recent patents on the generation of biodiesel which depends on the feedstock used, catalysts development, the latest method for biodiesel production, and reactor technology for the biodiesel production.

Chapter 14 overviews different reactions between a carboxylic acid (fatty acids) and alcohol (methanol and ethanol) over heterogeneous catalysts, an important step in biodiesel production. The nature of solid materials, like zeolites, heteropolyacids, materials with sulfonic groups, inorganic mixed oxides, and clays towards biodiesel production is discussed.

Chapter 15 sheds light on inedible feedstock that could be utilized for biodiesel production. Plant-based and non-plant feedstock are discussed. The waste lipid sources which are unfit for consumption are also highlighted. The chemical composition, economic viability, and sustainability of some of these feedstocks are equally explored.

Chapter 16 provides detailed information on the fabrication of biodiesel from microalgae. Specific information on the physical properties, amount of biodiesel production, and level of transesterification of biodiesel are discussed. The application of photobioreactors for the production of biodiesel with the special consideration of several factors such as flow rate, temperature, light intensity, CO2 concentration, and time is highlighted. Several techniques for the extraction of biodiesel such as supercritical CO2, physicochemical, direct transesterification, chemical solvents, and biochemical respectively are highlighted.

Chapter 17 discusses the biofuel classification in terms of origin and technological conversion of raw materials. Techniques capable of producing biodiesel on commercial scales are also presented. Furthermore, influential parameters and their roles in biodiesel production are elaborately covered. Finally, challenges and limitations confronting biodiesel uptake are presented.

Chapter 18 mainly explicates the application of nanoparticle catalysis for the high production of biodiesel. In particular, various types of catalyst nanoparticles with different synthesis strategy and their roles in enhancing the biodiesel production are discussed.

Inamuddin, Mohd Imran Ahamed, Rajender Boddulaand Mashallah Rezakazemi