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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
BIODEGRADABLE MATERIALS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS Biodegradable materials have ascended in importance in recent years and this book comprehensively discusses all facets and applications in 29 chapters making it a one-stop shop. Biodegradable materials have today become more compulsory because of increased environmental concerns and the growing demand for polymeric and plastic materials. Despite our sincere efforts to recycle used plastic materials, they ultimately tend to enter the oceans, which has led to grave pollution. It is necessary, therefore, to ensure that these wastes do not produce any hazards in the future. This has made an urgency to replace the synthetic material with green material in almost all possible areas of application. Biodegradable Materials and Their Applications covers a wide range of subjects and approaches, starting with an introduction to biodegradable material applications. Chapters focus on the development of various types of biodegradable materials with their applications in electronics, medicine, packaging, thermoelectric generations, protective equipment, films/coatings, 3D printing, disposable bioplastics, agriculture, and other commercial sectors. In biomedical applications, their use in the advancement of therapeutic devices like temporary implants, tissue engineering, and drug delivery vehicles are summarized. Audience Materials scientists, environmental and sustainability engineers, and any other researchers and graduate students associated with biodegradable materials.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
1 Biodegradable Materials in Electronics
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Biodegradable Materials in Electronics
1.3 Silk
1.4 Polymers
1.5 Cellulose
1.6 Paper
1.7 Others
1.8 Biodegradable Electronic Components
1.9 Semiconductors
1.10 Substrate
1.11 Biodegradable Dielectrics
1.12 Insulators and Conductors
1.13 Conclusion
Declaration About Copyright
References
2 Biodegradable Thermoelectric Materials
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Biopolymer-Based Renewable Composites: An Alternative to Synthetic Materials
2.3 Working Principle of Thermoelectric Materials
2.4 Biopolymer Composite for Thermoelectric Application
2.5 Heparin-Based Biocomposites as Future Thermoelectric Materials
2.6 Conclusions
References
3 Biodegradable Electronics: A Newly Emerging Environmental Technology
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Properties of Biodegradable Materials in Electronics
3.3 Transformational Applications of Biodegradable Materials in Electronics
3.4 Biodegradation Mechanisms
3.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
4 Biodegradable and Bioactive Films or Coatings From Fish Waste Materials
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Fishery Chain Industry
4.3 Films or Coatings Based on Proteins From Fish Waste Materials
4.4 Conclusion
References
5 Biodegradable Superabsorbent Materials
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Biohydrogels: Superabsorbent Materials
5.3 Polysaccharides: Biopolymers from Renewable Sources
5.4 Applications of Superabsorbent Biohydrogels (SBHs) Based on Polysaccharides
5.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
6 Bioplastics in Personal Protective Equipment
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Conventional Personal Protective Equipment
6.3 Biodegradable and Biobased PPE
6.4 Environmental Impacts Caused by Personal Protective Equipment Made of Bioplastics
6.5 International Standards Applied to Biodegradable Plastics and Bioplastics
6.6 Conclusions
References
7 Biodegradable Protective Films
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Biodegradable Protective Films
References
8 No Plastic, No Pollution: Replacement of Plastics in the Equipments of Personal Protection
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Bioplastics
8.3 Biodegradation of Bioplastics
8.4 Production of Bioplastics from Plant Sources
8.5 Production of Bioplastics from Microbial Resources
8.6 What Are PPEs Made Off?
8.7 Biodegradable Materials for PPE
8.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
9 Biodegradable Materials in Dentistry
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Biodegradable Materials
9.3 Biodegradable Materials in Suturing
9.4 Biodegradable Materials in Imaging and Diagnostics
9.5 Biodegradable Materials in Oral Maxillofacial and Craniofacial Surgery
9.6 Biodegradable Materials in Resorbable Plate and Screw System
9.7 Biodegradable Materials in Alveolar Ridge Preservation
9.8 Biodegradable Materials of Nanotopography in Cancer Therapy
9.9 Biodegradable Materials in Endodontics
9.10 Biodegradable Materials in Orthodontics
9.11 Biodegradable Materials in Periodontics
9.12 Conclusion
References
10 Biodegradable and Biocompatible Polymeric Materials for Dentistry Applications
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Polysaccharides
10.3 Proteins
10.4 Biopolyesters
10.5 Conclusion
References
11 Biodegradable Biomaterials in Bone Tissue Engineering
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Essential Characteristics and Considerations in Bone Scaffold Design
11.3 Fabrication Technologies
11.4 Incorporation of Bioactive Molecules During Scaffold Fabrication
11.5 Biocompatibility and Interface Between Biodegradation and New Tissue Formation
11.6 Biodegradation of Calcium Phosphate Biomaterials
11.7 Biodegradation of Polymeric Biomaterials
11.8 Importance of Bone Remodeling
11.9 Conclusion
References
12 Biodegradable Elastomer
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Biodegradation Testing
12.3 Biodegradable Elastomers: An Overview
12.4 Application of Biodegradable Elastomers
12.5 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
13 Biodegradable Implant Materials
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Medical Implants
13.3 Biomaterials
13.4 Biodegradable Implant Materials
13.5 Conclusion
References
14 Current Strategies in Pulp and Periodontal Regeneration Using Biodegradable Biomaterials
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Biodegradable Materials in Dental Pulp Regeneration
14.3 Biodegradable Biomaterials and Strategies for Tissue Engineering of Periodontium
14.4 Coapplication of Auxiliary Agents With Biodegradable Biomaterials for Periodontal Tissue Engineering
14.5 Regeneration of Periodontal Tissues Complex Using Biodegradable Biomaterials
14.6 Recent Advances in Periodontal Regeneration Using Supportive Techniques During Application of Biodegradable Biomaterials
14.7 Conclusion and Future Remarks
References
15 A Review on Health Care Applications of Biopolymers
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Biodegradable Polymers
15.3 Metals and Alloys for Biomedical Applications
15.4 Ceramics
15.5 Biomaterials Used in Medical 3D Printing
15.6 Conclusion
References
16 Biodegradable Materials for Bone Defect Repair
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Natural Materials in Bone Tissue Engineering
16.3 Other Materials
16.4 Biodegradable Synthetic Polymers on Bone Tissue Engineering
16.5 Biodegradable Ceramics
16.6 Conclusion
References
17 Biosurfactant: A Biodegradable Antimicrobial Substance
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Biosurfactants
17.3 Biodegradation Method Tests for Surfactants Molecules
17.4 Antimicrobial Activity of Biosurfactants
17.5 Progress in Industrial Production of Sustainable Surfactants
17.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
18 Disposable Bioplastics
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Classes of Disposable Bioplastics
18.3 Pros and Cons
18.4 Substrates for the Production of Bioplastics
18.5 Microbial Sources of Bioplastic Production
18.6 Upstream Processing
18.7 Metabolic Pathways
18.8 Microbial Cell Factories for PHAs Production
18.9 Synthesis
18.10 Factors Affecting PHA Production
18.11 Downstream Processing of Disposable Biopolymers
18.12 PHA Extraction and Purification Methods
18.13 Applications of Bioplastics/Disposable Bioplastics
18.14 Characterization of PHA
18.15 Biodegradation
18.16 Plastics Versus Bioplastics
18.17 Challenges and Prospects for Production of Bioplastics
References
19 Plastic Biodegrading Microbes in the Environment and Their Applications
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Occurrence and Diversity of Plastic-Degrading Microbes in Natural Environments
19.3 Application of Plastic-Degrading Microbes
19.4 Factors Influencing Plastic Degradation by Microbes
19.5 Biotechnological Advances in Microbial-Mediated Plastic Degradation
19.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
20 Paradigm Shift in Environmental Remediation Toward Sustainable Development: Biodegradable Materials and ICT Applications
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Methodology
20.3 Application of Biodegradable Materials in Environmental Remediation and Sustainable Development
20.4 Discussion and Analysis
20.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
21 Biodegradable Composite for Smart Packaging Applications
21.1 Introduction to Packing Applications
21.2 Biodegradable Materials
21.3 Preparation of Composite
21.4 Indicators of Performance
21.5 Mechanical Properties
21.6 Biodegradable Test
21.7 Smart Packing Applications
21.8 Testing of Packaging Using Different Standard
21.9 Conclusions
References
22 Impact of Biodegradable Packaging Materials on Food Quality: A Sustainable Approach
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Food Packaging
22.3 Food Packaging Material
22.4 Biodegradable Food Packaging Materials
22.5 Different Biodegradable Materials for Food Packaging
22.6 Applications of Biodegradable Material in Edible Film Coating
22.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
23 Biodegradable Pots—For Sustainable Environment
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Biodegradable Pots
23.3 Materials for the Fabrication of Biodegradable Pots
23.4 Synthesis of Biodegradable Pots
23.5 Effect of Biopots on Plant Growth and Quality
23.6 Quality Testing of Biodegradable Pots
23.7 Consumer Preferences of Biodegradable Pots
23.8 Future Perspectives
23.9 Conclusion
References
24 Applications of Biodegradable Polymers and Plastics
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Biopolymers/Bioplastics
24.3 Applications of Biodegradable Polymers/Plastics
24.4 Conclusion
References
25 Biopolymeric Nanofibrous Materials for Environmental Remediation
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Fabrication of Nanofibers
25.3 Nanofibrous Materials in Environmental Remediation
25.4 Conclusions
References
26 Bioplastic Materials from Oils
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Natural Oils
26.3 Waste Oils
26.4 Types of Oily Wastes
26.5 Bioplastic Production from Oily Waste
26.6 Improvement in Bioplastic Production from Waste Oil by Genetic Approaches
26.7 Impact of Bioplastic Produced from Waste Cooking Oil
26.8 Assessment Techniques for Bioplastic Synthesis Using Waste Oil
26.9 Conclusion
References
27 Protein Recovery Using Biodegradable Polymer
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Biodegradability and Biodegradable Polymer
27.3 Recovery of Protein by Coagulation/ Flocculation Processes
27.4 Recovery of Proteins by Aqueous Two-Phase System
27.5 Types of Aqueous Two-Phase System and Phase Components
27.6 Recovery Process and Factors Influencing the Aqueous Two-Phase System
27.7 Partition Coefficient and the Protein Recovery
27.8 Some of the Examples of Recovery of Protein by Biodegradable Polymers
27.9 Advantages of ATPS
27.10 Limitations
27.11 Challenges and Future Perspective
27.12 Recovery of Proteins by Membrane Technology
27.13 Limitations to Biodegradable Polymers
27.14 Conclusions and Future Remarks
References
28 Biodegradable Polymers in Electronic Devices
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Role of Biodegradable Polymers
28.3 Various Biodegradable Polymers for Electronic Devices
28.4 Conclusion
References
29 Importance and Applications of Biodegradable Materials and Bioplastics From Renewable Resources
29.1 Biodegradable Materials
29.2 Bioplastics
29.3 Biodegradable Polymers
29.4 Applications of Bioplastics and Biodegradable Materials in Agriculture
29.5 Applications of Microbial-Based Bioplastics in Medicine
29.6 Applications of Microbial-Based Bioplastics in Industries
29.7 Applications of Bioplastics and Biodegradable Materials in Food Industry
29.8 Application of Bioplastic Biomass for the Environmental Protection
29.9 Conclusions and Future Prospects
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Application of biodegradable material on fabrication of electronic dev...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Selected biopolymer blend materials for thermoelectric applications.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Notable biodegradable materials applied in green electronics.
Table 3.2 Prominent enzymes in hydrolytic degradation of bio based electronic ma...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Biofilms or coatings based on proteins from fish waste materials and a...
Table 4.2 Biofilms or coatings based on proteins from fish waste materials incor...
Table 4.3 Biofilms or coatings based on proteins from fish waste materials incor...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Superabsorbent biohydrogels (SBHs) based on polysaccharides applied in...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 International standards for evaluating the biodegradability of biodegr...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Characteristics of common biodegradable polymeric materials [60–65].
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Classification of bioplastics [14].
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Summary of biodegradable materials and their applications in the field...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Diverse applications of chitosan in dentistry were collected from 49 ...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Biochemical properties of natural bone tissue [19].
Table 11.2 Biophysical properties of natural bone [104].
Table 11.3 Examples of biodegradable biomaterials for bone tissue regeneration [...
Table 11.4 Examples of available commercial biodegradable bone grafting biomater...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Chemical composition of 316L stainless steel [6].
Table 13.2 Chemical composition of medical grade nitinol [6].
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Biodegradable materials in regenerative endodontic therapy.
Table 14.2 Examples of applied biodegradable biomaterials for periodontal regene...
Table 14.3 Bioactive molecules applied for periodontal regeneration using biodeg...
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Important biopolymers and their common biomedical applications [2].
Table 15.2 Important metals/alloys and their common biomedical applications [2].
Table 15.3 Common ceramic biomaterials and their biomedical applications [2].
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Essential variables between natural biodegradable materials and synth...
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Overview of biosurfactants.
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Microbial strains used for biopolymer production.
Table 18.2 Summary of extraction and purification methods of PHA.
Table 18.3 Synthetic plastics versus disposable bioplastics.
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Plastic degrading microbes from natural environment.
Table 19.2 Occurrence and diversity of plastic degrading bacteria in the natural...
Table 19.3 Occurrence and diversity of plastic degrading fungi in the environmen...
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Biodegradable Sensor and their different applications.
Table 20.2 Application of biosorbents in pollutant removal from wastewater.
Chapter 21
Table 21.1 Natural fillers as biocomposites with properties.
Chapter 22
Table 22.1 Pros and cons of different types of conventional food packaging mater...
Chapter 23
Table 23.1 Examples of bio composites for farming applications.
Table 23.2 Marketable biodegradable pots and trays based on manufacturing and fa...
Table 23.3 Molding techniques and additives used in the processing of biodegrada...
Chapter 24
Table 24.1 Classification of bio-based polymers.
Chapter 25
Table 25.1 Complete experimental ideas on the usage of nanofibrous materials for...
Chapter 26
Table 26.1 List of bioplastics produced at global scale with their applications.
Table 26.2 List of natural oils containing double bonds.
Table 26.3 Bioplastic productions from oily waste and discharged lipid by the us...
Chapter 27
Table 27.1 Some of the examples for recovery of proteins by biodegradable polyme...
Chapter 28
Table 28.1 List of synthetic polymers that are biodegradable and nonbiodegradabl...
Table 28.2 List of biodegradable insulating polymers and their applications in e...
Table 28.3 List of biodegradable semiconducting polymer and their application in...
Table 28.4 List of biodegradable polymers categorized as ionic or electronic con...
Chapter 29
Table 29.1 Applications of various plastics in the agriculture.
Table 29.2 Applications of biodegradable materials and bioplastics in the medici...
Table 29.3 Applications of biodegradable materials and bioplastics in industry.
Table 29.4 Application of bioplastic and biodegradable in food packaging/food in...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Sources of E-waste generation.
Figure 1.2 Application of biodegradable material in the field of electronics.
Figure 1.3 Biodegradable materials used in electronic materials.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Structural display of thermoelectric module.
Figure 2.2 Variation of conductivity in terms of conductivity scale of various i...
Figure 2.3 Variation of electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity of the ...
Figure 2.4 (a) Variation of conductivity with DTAB content, (b) variation of con...
Figure 2.5 Scanning electron micrographs of thermoelectric paper with (a) and (d...
Figure 2.6 POM images of (a) pure agarose, (b) agarose/KI in DMF, (c) agarose/KI...
Figure 2.7 (a) Surface morphology of pristine y-CNTs, (b) Surface morphology of ...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Cross-linkers inducing special properties (a) Cellulose converted to ...
Figure 3.2 Decomposing flexible device immersed in deionized water [19].
Figure 3.3 Degradation reaction showing the end product of (a) cellulose and (b)...
Figure 3.4 Original morphologies of prepared zinc membranes. (a) Macroscopic ima...
Figure 3.5 Comparison of the composite with the constituents using (a) XRD (b) F...
Figure 3.6 Images of (a) printed flexible resistive switching device (b) and (c)...
Figure 3.7 Representation of enzyme mediated acid catalysed ester hydrolysis.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Tilapia processing and the generated waste materials. Source: Authors...
Figure 4.2 Desired characteristics in food packages. Source: Authors.
Figure 4.3 Extraction of collagen (a) and gelatin (b) from fish waste materials....
Figure 4.4 Extraction of myofibrillar proteins from fish waste materials. Source...
Figure 4.5 Fabrication of films or coatings based on collagen/gelatin extracted ...
Figure 4.6 Fabrication of films or coatings based on myofibrillar proteins extra...
Figure 4.7 Fabrication of protein-based films or coatings incorporated with addi...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Digital photographs of a dry and swollen hydrogel (consisting of algi...
Figure 5.2 Polyelectrolyte models (source: authors).
Figure 5.3 Schematic representation of a polyelectrolytic complex (PEC) (source:...
Figure 5.4 Schematic representation of intramolecular and intermolecular hydroge...
Figure 5.5 Chemical structure of CMC in the form of sodium salt (source: authors...
Figure 5.6 Cellulose modification reaction to obtain carboxymethylcellulose (sou...
Figure 5.7 Chemical structure of partially deacetylated (a) and fully deacetylat...
Figure 5.8 Protonated form of chitosan (source: authors).
Figure 5.9 Chemical structure of alginate (a) and negatively charged alginate (b...
Figure 5.10 Chemical structure of carrageenans (source: authors).
Figure 5.11 Schematic representation of carrageenan in the gelling process: (a) ...
Figure 5.12 Schematic illustration of different applications of SBHs (source: au...
Figure 5.13 Bibliography search (review articles, research articles, and book ch...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Surgical masks (picture taken by the authors).
Figure 6.2 N95 mask or respirator (picture taken by the authors).
Figure 6.3 KN95 mask (picture taken by the authors).
Figure 6.4 Cloth face mask (picture taken by the authors).
Figure 6.5 Two-layered face mask (picture taken by the authors).
Figure 6.6 Latex gloves (picture taken by the authors).
Figure 6.7 Nitrile gloves (picture taken by the authors).
Figure 6.8 Vinyl gloves (picture taken by the authors).
Figure 6.9 Polyethylene gloves (picture taken by the authors).
Figure 6.10 Chemical structure of poly-lactic acid (self drawn).
Figure 6.11 Chemical structure of polybutylene succinate (self drawn).
Figure 6.12 Chemical structure of polyvinyl alcohol (self drawn).
Figure 6.13 Chemical structure of 1,3 Butadiene monomer (self drawn).
Figure 6.14 Chemical structure of Isoprene monomer (self drawn).
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Peel-off protective films in its application.
Figure 7.2 Plastics waste generation by the industrial sector in 2015 [5].
Figure 7.3 List of Biodegradable polymers used as films.
Figure 7.4 Process flow diagram for the preparation of polymer blends by melt bl...
Figure 7.5 Flowchart of solution casting method for biodegradable polymer film.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Global production capacity of bio-plastics 2020 (by material type) (E...
Figure 8.2 Schematics of plastic biodegradation.
Figure 8.3 Metabolic pathway to produce PHA (adopted from [46]).
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Schematic representation of biomaterials role in dental related probl...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Classification of biodegradable polymers.
Figure 10.2 Fields of dentistry where diverse applications of biodegradable and ...
Figure 10.3 Steps involved in the processing of chitosan.
Figure 10.4 Structural units of chitin and chitosan (A) N-acetyl glucosamine uni...
Figure 10.5 Structure of cellulose [64].
Figure 10.6 Extraction of cellulose from mentha biomass [67].
Figure 10.7 Structure of subunits of starch- (a) amylose and (b) amylopectin [64...
Figure 10.8 Extraction of starch from different sources [1].
Figure 10.9 Chemical structure of sodium alginate [73].
Figure 10.10 Image of the fabricated intraoral multilayered membrane [74].
Figure 10.11 Structure of hyaluronic acid [75].
Figure 10.12 Extraction of collagen.
Figure 10.13 Periodontal part in normal and disease, Molar tooth with a periodon...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Matrix compartments of physiologic bone illustrating different types...
Figure 11.2 (Left) The biodegradation mechanisms after implantation of CaP bioma...
Figure 11.3 Different phases involved during bone remodeling. Reproduced from op...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Diagrammatic representation of stages of biodegradation: depolymeriz...
Figure 12.2 Diagrammatic representation of applications of biodegradable elastom...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Temperature-induced phase transformations of a shape memory alloy.
Figure 13.2 Stress-strain curves at various temperatures for a typical NiTi allo...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Schematic representation of the periodontium in healthy and diseased...
Figure 14.2 Two different approaches in periodontal regeneration; (a)
in vitro
c...
Figure 14.3 Schematic representation of an example of a multi-layered nanocompos...
Figure 14.4 Schematic representation of mobilization of stem cells toward the si...
Figure 14.5 Current status and future trends in the regeneration of periodontium...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Customized silicone heart valves. (Reprinted from [75], Copyright 20...
Figure 15.2 A hip implant made from titanium alloy (Reprinted from Wellcome Libr...
Figure 15.3 Zirconia (ZrO2) crown for dental application (Reprinted from [129], ...
Figure 15.4 Three-dimensional interweaving of biology and electronics via additi...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Schematic representation of biomaterials in bone tissue engineering.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Representation of the orientation of the surfactant molecule in diff...
Figure 17.2 Number of published papers in Scopus with “biosurfactant” as a keywo...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Production of PHA from waste oil.
Figure 18.2 Fermentation approaches for improved PHA production.
Figure 18.3 Schematic representation of metabolic pathways for PHA synthesis.
Figure 18.4 Medical applications of PHAs.
Figure 18.5 Industrial applications of PHAs.
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Percentage of plastic degrading microorganisms isolated from natural...
Figure 19.2 Putative plastic degrading microbes (a) Bacterial phyla (b) Fungal p...
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Proposed conceptual framework for sustainable development.
Figure 20.2 Relevance of sustainable development goals (SDGs) with this work.
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 Biodegradable composites and their usual features.
Figure 21.2 Flowchart for working methodology for selection of biodegradable com...
Figure 21.3 Schematic preparation of biodegradable composites using fiber strand...
Figure 21.4 Flowchart for preparing biodegradable composite film.
Figure 21.5 Biodegradable composites and their essential properties.
Figure 21.6 Smart packaging and its dependency on several factors.
Figure 21.7 Ideal biodegradable composites smart package.
Figure 21.8 Biodegradable composites smart packaging and multi layer protection.
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 Food packaging properties.
Figure 22.2 Different types of food packaging materials.
Figure 22.3 Estimated Global production of biodegradable plastic from 2018.
Figure 22.4 Different sources of biodegradable polymer and its application in fo...
Figure 22.5 Structure of PHB.
Figure 22.6 Structure of (a) P4HB, (b) PHBV, and (c) PHO.
Chapter 23
Figure 23.1 Mechanism of biodegradable polymer.
Figure 23.2 Classification and main characteristics of biodegradable pots.
Chapter 25
Figure 25.1 Basic electrospinning setup [22].
Figure 25.2 Schematic representation of water-purification process assisted by e...
Figure 25.3 Structure of chitosan originated from chitin [38].
Figure 25.4 Mechanism of chemical modification of cellulose acetate nanofibers [...
Figure 25.5 SEM images of fabricated cellulose acetate nanofibrous system (a) pr...
Figure 25.6 Diagrammatic illustration of air-filtration mechanism [9].
Figure 25.7 Chemical structures of (a) PLA, (b) cyclodextrin and (c) representat...
Figure 25.8 SEM images of (a) PLA, (b) PLA/CyD and (c) PLA + CyD systems [67].
Figure 25.9 Fiber diameter distribution of the developed nanofibrous material [6...
Figure 25.10 Nanofiber assisted applications (a & b) Plants covered by nanofibro...
Figure 25.11 General coaxial electrospinning setup [71].
Chapter 26
Figure 26.1 Classification of bioplastics.
Figure 26.2 Different factors responsible for bioplastic production.
Figure 26.3 Process of PHA production from WCO [23].
Chapter 27
Figure 27.1 (a) Global production capacity (2019) of biodegradable and bio-based...
Figure 27.2 The structure of the Chitin and Chitosan.
Figure 27.3 The structure of Lignosulfonate.
Figure 27.4 The structure of cellulose and carboxymethyl cellulose.
Figure 27.5 The schematic representation of the recovery of target product based...
Chapter 28
Figure 28.1 The chemical structure of (a) β-carotenes and (b) Indigo.
Figure 28.2 (a) Chemical structure of melanin pigment (left), (b) chitosan (righ...
Figure 28.3 Structure of (a) Polypyrrole, (b) Polyaniline (c) Polythiophene (d) ...
Chapter 29
Figure 29.1 Comparison between a hydrolytically cleavable and C-C bond for their...
Figure 29.2 Different techniques used for polymer degradation depending upon its...
Figure 29.3 Classification of plastics according to biodegradable, nonbiodegrada...
Figure 29.4 Flowchart of biodegradable polymers classification.
Figure 29.5 Chemical composition of the gelatin.
Figure 29.6 Chemical composition of the chitosan.
Figure 29.7 Microbial degradation of biodegradable plastics and other materials.
Figure 29.8 Chemical structure of the polyhydroxyalkanoate.
Figure 29.9 Sources of biodegradable polymers and their biodegradability.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Introduction
1 Biodegradable Materials in Electronics
Index
End User License Agreement
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Scrivener Publishing
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Martin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Biodegradable Materials and Their Applications
Edited by
Inamuddin
and
Tariq Altalhi
This edition first published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2022 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Preface
Biodegradable materials have today become more compulsory due to an alarming environmental concern and growing demand for polymeric and plastic materials. Despite our sincere efforts to recycle used plastic materials, they ultimately tend to enter into the oceans. It is necessary, therefore, to ensure that these wastes do not produce any hazards in the future. This has made it urgent to replace the synthetic material with green material in almost all possible areas of application. In the field of medicine, biodegradable polymers are finding an immediate replacement to synthetic polymers as these materials are closest to humans. Poor management of large quantities of e-waste also attracts the application of biodegradable materials. The sudden growth of demand for online food delivery services created the need for packaging with green materials. Sooner or later, it is inedvitable these materials will find their way into almost every sphere of material application.
Biodegradable Materials and Their Applications covers a wide range of subjects and approaches starting with a general introduction of biodegradable material applications. Chapters focus on the development of various types of biodegradable materials with their applications in electronics, medicine, packaging, thermoelectric generations, protective equipment, films/coatings, 3D printing, disposable bioplastics, agriculture, and other commercial sectors. In biomedical applications, their use in the advancement of therapeutic devices, like temporary implants, tissue engineering, and drug delivery vehicles are summarized. This work is an indepth examination of the subject and it will be useful for environmentalists, engineers, faculty, students, researchers, and laboratory workers that are associated with biodegradable materials. The summaries of the work reported in the following 29 chapters are as follows:
Chapter 1 explains the necessity of the development of biodegradable materials in the electronics field. It reviews the list of suitable materials and their properties to replace the conventional components. The improvement in the performance and the reduction in the origin of e-waste are also incorporated.
Chapter 2 focused on the synthesis and properties of various low-cost bio-composites/bio-nano composites which showed improved electrical/ ionic conductivity along with the thermoelectric behaviors and can be referred to as the active component in the thermoelectric generator.
Chapter 3 outlines the advances in biodegradable materials as a strategy to manage escalating volumes of e-waste from the electronics industry. The properties and novel applications of various biodegradable materials with the greatest potential are discussed with an emphasis on revealing the composition and working mechanism reported in the literature.
Chapter 4 presents a literature review on methods of obtaining proteins from fish waste materials and on the development of biodegradable and bioactive fish protein-based films or coatings. The incorporation of organic and inorganic additives and plasticizers can improve the functional and structural properties of materials.
Chapter 5 addresses biodegradable biohydrogels, a superabsorbent material based on polysaccharides. Properties of carboxymethylcellulose, chitosan, alginate, and carrageenan are detailed. Works on applications of superabsorbent biohydrogels are described. A panoramic overview of literature based on a bibliographic search in the ScienceDirect database from 2010 to 2021 is also presented.
Chapter 6 describes the use of biodegradable and bioplastic in personal protective equipment (PPE), the characteristics, and properties of the materials used to make them, the regulations applicable to this type of materials, as well as their protective efficiency against harmful external agents.
Chapter 7 focuses on the various applications and materials used for biodegradable protective films. Processing and fabrication of biodegradable-based protective films are also discussed in detail for industrial-level production. Moreover, the limitations in the use of biodegradable protective films in daily life applications are also explained in this chapter.
Chapter 8 discusses the plastic materials currently in use to make personal protective equipment. Sources of bioplastic and biodegradable plastics developed recently from plants and microbes are also discussed. Suggestions are made on how eco-friendly plastics can replace conventional plastics in the PPE.
Chapter 9 focuses on the cutting-edge technology of novel bioactive and biodegradable materials as essential components in modern dentistry. A review on the development of biodegradable materials and speculations on future research directions have been made.
Chapter 10 illustrates the information about widely applicable biodegradable and biocompatible polymeric materials in dentistry. It also contains studies related to the model polymeric materials incorporated with some bioactive agents such as bio-glass that aids in several dental conditions. The structure, properties, and dental applications of various biobased compounds have been explained based on the traced literature.
Chapter 11 highlights the current fabrication technologies and essential considerations in the production of scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. The biodegradation mechanism and interface biology are also discussed in detail. A comprehensive summary of the available biodegradable bone substitutes is provided, detailing the composition and indication of each product.
Chapter 12 discusses the biodegradation testing of elastomers along with the preparation strategies of biodegradable elastomers. A brief overview details their biocompatibility in the degradation profile. The focus is given to the potential of these biodegradable elastomers in medical field tests along with their significance in the medical field of tissue engineering and drug delivery.
Chapter 13 gives comprehensive information about biodegradable implant materials. The biodegradability concept is explained, and detailed information about biodegradable metals and biodegradable polymers is shared. Properties and degradation mechanisms of these materials are given and also examples of the usage of these materials in biomedical applications are presented in the chapter.
Chapter 14 details the recent advancements in the regeneration of pulp and periodontal complex using biodegradable biomaterials. The application of 3D printing, nanotechnology, and stem cell/gene therapy in the functional regeneration of periodontium is discussed. Furthermore, the challenges and barriers in the clinical translation of research studies are addressed.
Chapter 15 explores the recent developments in biomaterial research mainly for medical applications. Different types of biocompatible materials like polymers, metals, and ceramics used in various healthcare applications are discussed in detail. This chapter also emphasizes the comprehensive report of the biomaterials used in medical 3D printing technology.
Chapter 16 emphasizes the recent development and advancement of new generation biodegradable materials that enhance cell proliferation and differentiation for the treatment of hard and soft tissue defects, especially in bone defects.
Chapter 17 discusses aspects related to the biodegradability of biosurfactants, ways of cleavage of surfactant molecules, how to make them more biodegradable, and the main biodegradation method used to confirm this characteristic, studies on antimicrobial aspects and related bioactivity, as well as the search for new sustainable surfactants.
Chapter 18 details the disposable bioplastic, classes, and most commonly used bioplastic nowadays. Their production methods, substrates, microbial sources, upstream and downstream processing are discussed in detail. The major focus is given to address the applications, properties, biodegradation, comparison of plastic and bioplastic, challenges, and prospects to commercialize the disposable bioplastic.
Chapter 19 discusses microbes that are capable of plastic degradation. The various microbial species, from different environmental conditions, and their role in the plastic biodegradation process are presented. In addition, factors affecting microbial degradation, recent biotechnological tools, and future opportunities to enhance biodegradation by these microbes are also addressed.
Chapter 20 discusses the paradigm shift in environmental remediation using biodegradable materials. The chapter focuses on biosensors, biochar, biosorbent, and bioplastics. As a future vision for environmental pollution remediation, the role of information and communication technology (ICT) is discussed. Finally, sustainability aspects are described and links with sustainable development goals are established.
Chapter 21 illustrates the importance of biodegradable composites as an eco-friendly alternative medium for the packaging industry. A framework for the packaging industry is an essential criterion in meeting the requirements while selecting the most low-cost and compatible biocomposites which are easily biodegraded in nature.
Chapter 22 highlights the benefits of biodegradable plastics that have the possibilities to replace conventional plastics. The main focus is on the exposure of the various biological materials that are used for its production.
Chapter 23 discusses the environmental benefits of using alternative containers which are nature friendly. This chapter covers a variety of subjects, including materials for creating biodegradable pots, synthesis of biodegradable pots, the impact of biodegradable pots on plant development, and the quality and testing of biodegradable pots.
Chapter 24 focuses on the growth of various types of biodegradable polymers/plastics and their applications in medicine, packaging, electronics, 3D printing, agriculture, and other commercial sectors. The uses of biopolymers in the advancement of therapeutic devices like temporary implants, tissue engineering, and drug delivery vehicles are discussed in detail.
Chapter 25 discusses aspects regarding the use of bio-polymeric nanofibrous materials for environmental restoration. It describes the methodologies and parameters that are employed in the fabrication of nanofibers. The structure, properties, and applications of the different bio-polymeric nanofibrous materials that are reported have been traced. It also includes the latest advancements employed in the tailoring of nanofibrous materials.
Chapter 26 discusses the various sources of natural and waste oils for the production of bioplastics. The most common oil discussed in the chapter is waste cooking oil. Some genetic approaches are also discussed for the improvement in bioplastic production from waste cooking oil with its impact and assessment techniques.
Chapter 27 endows an inclusive introduction to the biodegradable polymers for the protein recovery process. A concise summary of the techniques using biodegradable polymers such as coagulation/flocculation, aqueous two-phase system, and membrane technology are discussed. Lastly, it highlighted the challenges and the future perspective of using biodegradable polymers for protein recovery.
Chapter 28 discusses the types of polymers based on their production and the nature of biodegradability. Additionally, the classification of biodegradable polymers as insulators, semiconductors, and conductors is discussed. The major focus is given to communicate the role and applications of biodegradable polymers in various electronic devices.
Chapter 29 discusses the importance of biodegradable materials, environmental threats from non-biodegradable materials, and their replacement by biodegradable materials is discussed. Moreover, the classification, properties, applications, and prospects of biodegradable materials, as well as bioplastics in different sectors such as agriculture, medicines, food, and industries, are covered.
The EditorsJuly 2022
1Biodegradable Materials in Electronics
S. Vishali1*, M. Susila2 and S. Kiruthika1
1Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering and Technology, SRM Institute of Technology, Kattankulathur, Tamil Nadu, India
2Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, College of Engineering and Technology, SRM Institute of Technology, Kattankulathur, Tamil Nadu, India
Abstract
The generation of E-waste is escalating both in developed and developing countries. The impact on the environment and human health is huge due to the toxic chemical components. E-waste management needs more sophisticated technologies, where it could be carried out only by developed countries and due to the various associated challenges, developing countries could not. The usage of biodegradable material could act as a better replacement to address this issue. The possibilities of using the biodegradable material in the field of electronic industry and the advantages, challenges, limitations associated with it are discussed in this chapter.
Keywords: Electronics, E-waste, electronic devices, biodegradable material
1.1 Introduction
In today’s modern communication world, users demand high speed, high data rate communication, and reliable short-range communication. The latest smart electronic gadgets that communicate are catching up in medical, elderly assistance, fitness, and whatnot. These electronic gadgets have improved our day-to-day lifestyle and communication with anyone in any corner of the world. These electronic gadgets have taken control in almost all communication, medical, entertainment, environment monitoring, agriculture, and health care [1–4]. On the other hand, these electronic devices have created a massive amount of electronic waste, a big challenge as new devices are hitting the market almost every day. This fast-growing e-waste is dumped directly on land, as recycling is difficult in these devices. Most of the materials are toxic, which definitely will pollute land, air, and water [5].
With the world’s second huge population of 1.39 billion [6], India faces a hasty risk under the E-waste and other wastes. India is the world’s second-largest producer of mobile phones and one of the top 4 countries for potential E-waste output [7, 8]. Approximately 80% to 20% of discarded and partially obsolete electronics are illegally dumped in India from the United States and the European Union [9]. According to the Global E-Waste Monitor Report 2020, India’s e-waste generation has increased over 2.5 times to 3.23 million metric tonnes in the 6 years leading up to 2019. Around 70% comes from the government, private sector, and IT industry [10, 11], with 15% coming from the home household, which delivers a wide variety of white goods and other electrical devices [12]. In India, the top 3 states, which contribute more amount of E-waste, are Maharashtra (19.8%), Tamil Nadu (10.1%), and Uttar Pradesh (9.8%). Maharashtra generates the most E-waste, whereas Delhi has the most per-capita consumption. This reveals that Delhi faces a significant threat of 388 environmental pollutions, resulting in deteriorating air quality and bad health. In terms of electrical items, the mobile phone had the most significant share of 366% in 2017 and was followed by other components. Due to inadequate legislation, the country again obtains fractionally out of dated and trash electronics from western countries, just as television, personal electronic goods, monitors and accessories, projectors, laptops and mobile phones, among others [13–16]. It is also vital to create and implement safe and ecologically friendly technology, including initiatives, systematically. The sources of the e-wastes are given in Figure 1.1.
At present, initial steps were taken to select materials to use in the devices used for a short period to be biodegradable, nontoxic, and safe to use. Also, researches have been concentrated on packaging materials for these electronic devices, which takes years for decomposing. Because the residues are harmless byproducts, designing and developing electrical gadgets from renewable or biodegradable materials is of significant interest. This “green” electronic device must be mass-produced on a substantial industrial scale using low-energy and low-cost technologies involving nontoxic or low-toxic functional materials or solvents [17]. Biodegradable materials should be decomposed, disintegrated, dissolved by natural organisms or in aqueous solutions and not be adding to pollution [18]. This chapter highlights different biodegradable materials that are used in the fabrication of electronic equipment.
Figure 1.1 Sources of E-waste generation.
1.2 Biodegradable Materials in Electronics
Biodegradable materials in electronics have emerged as an ideal and reliable solution to address uncontrollable e-waste. The vital characteristics of biodegradable materials are that they can disintegrate, dissolve, are eco-friendly, and are human-friendly. Traditional electronic devices will provide stability, reliability, long-term performance, durability, and scalability; however, biodegradable electronics is mainly used for a shorter span. Once the operation is completed, it automatically dissolves and physically disappears in a controlled manner in the physiological environment [19]. As the critical characteristics of these materials are the ability to resorb, dissolve, and physically disappear, they are mainly used in the medical field for various applications like biosensors; biomedical implants, such as stunts, sutures, etc.; biomedical capsules assisting healing process and so on [20].
The primary classification of biodegradable materials is biodegradable organic materials and biodegradable inorganic materials [21]. The biodegradable organic materials are natural polymers or synthesized ones that act as passive components regarding their structure and mechanics. They are extensively used in biomedical implants [22]. On the other hand, biodegradable inorganic materials, like metals, semiconductors, and dielectrics, have good properties of degradation and electronics. When these two types of materials are combined, it enhances the performance of sensors and active devices [23–26]. Biodegradable polymers are one of the widely used excellent substrates. Poly lactic-glycolic acid, polyglycolic acid, polycaprolactone, silk fibroin, rice paper, cellulose nanofibril paper are some of the examples [27–31]. The devices or electronics developed on these polymers disintegrate and dissolve when it comes to aqueous solutions due to their swelling property. For instance, when the rice paper undergoes rapid water intake, it gets bulged and disintegrates itself [17]. On the other hand, polymers with slower swelling rates maintain the device’s performance for a specific lifetime, especially for a few days to a week [32]. The material used for encapsulation or covering the device should also be biodegradable. Encapsulation materials, together with substrate materials, define the lifespan of biodegradable electronics [30].
1.2.1 Advantages of Biodegradable Materials
᠅
Softness and flexibility:
Materials used in electronics are mainly used on the body. Hence, these electronics prefer softness and flexibility so that it allows devices to conform to different shapes.
᠅
Time Limits:
Biodegradable electronics should have controllable time limits because the electronics used should have the property to dissolve, reabsorb, and disappear after their lifespan at controlled rates. This capacity has made these valued temporary medical implants as they do not require any additional surgeries for removing them.
Biodegradable materials have extended their wings to various areas in the field of agriculture to medical applications. Figure 1.2 shows the applications of biodegradable materials in various manufacturing of electronic components.
Figure 1.2 Application of biodegradable material in the field of electronics.
1.3 Silk
The protein fiber that is natural in its form, obtained from silkworm larvae’s cocoons (Bombyx mori), is named silk. Fibrin and sericin are the two primary proteins in this polypeptide polymer. Fibroin is predominantly made up of repeating units of glycine, serine, and alanine that allow for inter-chain hydrogen bonding, which gives silk fibers their mechanical strength. Now, silicon-based electronics are fabricated onto silk material [30, 33]. The minimal tensile strength made the silk into a nonbiodegradable material and an external component is required for its degradation. United States Pharmacopeia also confirmed it. The enzymes crumble the fibroin into lower amino acids and accelerate the degradation rate, making the aspect of the enzyme as high. Silk is another natural-based material used both as substrate and conductors [34, 35].
The degradation rate could be regulated from days to minutes and vice versa, also under the controlled environment. The advancement in the research conducted by the scientists found the way for that [36]. Traditionally silk has been used as a primary choice for textile and medical sutures due to its outstanding mechanical properties, chemical stability, comfort processing, and flexibility. Silk is a viable material for biodegradable and implanted electronic therapeutic devices due to its exceptional biocompatibility, nontoxic nature with adjustable shelf life, bioresorbability, and nontoxicity. These attributes may let silk be used as a substrate for various electrical devices, such as sensors and transistors [37, 38].
The application of electrodes on the silk substrate was found on therapeutic devices. It could be resorbed into the tissue ringed, in reach thus exclude the demand of betterment after use. Under the therapeutic region, silk has a huge demand for implantable and surgical devices [38]. For brief thermal therapy to inhibit postsurgery diseases, microheaters fabricated using silicon and silk are utilized. It has a decomposition span of 15 days. Silk is also utilized in medicine storage and distribution because it is completely biodegradable and can be customized to disintegrate under specific conditions [39].
The presence of water-soluble protein sericin is found as 25 to 30 wt.% in silk, which will be removed during the production stage. The silicon-based transistors made with silk fibroin films demonstrated excellent electrical conductivity and biocompatibility. The silk substrate is used in food as well as implantable devices. Silk has recently been employed as a substrate for passive radiofrequency identification RFID circuits, which can be used as sensors to assess the quality of items, such as eggs, fruits, and vegetables [40].
Biodegradable silk is combined with an inorganic semiconductor for high performance. Silk-based electronics are highly susceptible to water and solvents, even though they have excellent degradation capability, good performance and biocompatibility. Many Si-based electronics are constructed on biodegradable silk [41].
The bioresorbable properties of the silk were transferred in the formation of metal electrodes using polymethyl methacrylate as a temporary substrate. It was indicated that the electronics could also interact with living tissues with manipulated conditions in the utilization of biomedical. Researchers have utilized the characteristics of bio-based silk in the manufacturing of bio memory resistors, organic light-emitting transistors, metal-based insulators and capacitors. It exhibited which exhibited mobility around cm2/V.s with low voltage operation [42–44].
1.4 Polymers
Insulators and conjugated conducting polymers are the major divisions of the application of polymers in organic electronics. Insulators work as dielectrics or substrates in electrical devices, whereas conjugated polymers serve as conductors or semiconductors. The processing compatibility of the device is the basis for the selection of the polymer to act as a substrate. Depending on their Fermi level, conjugated polymers can be in the form of either semiconducting or conducting. Biodegradable polymers are made up of both flora and fauna components. The polysaccharides sourced from the plant (dextran, alginate, and cellulose) and animal (chitosan, collagen, silk) are the main variety of naturally made components. Because of their inbuilt enzymatic degradability, these naturally produced materials are used in various temporary applications. On the other hand, synthetic polymers are often physiologically inert, have more predictable physical properties, and maybe chemically molded degradation profiles [45].
However, the following models restrict the types of biodegradable, protective materials that can be used as substrates:
᠅ compliance with device fabrication processing stages
᠅ thermal stability factors
᠅ solvent compatibility considerations
᠅ mechanical robustness considerations
1.4.1 Natural Polymers
As a dielectric, researchers used pure albumen presented in the egg white of chicken as a protein-based polymer. The 2-nm RMS roughness of the surface, with excellent dielectric properties, indicating that albumen is adequate for OTFT applications, as assessed by atomic force microscopy (AFM) [46]. Similarly, C60-based organic field-effect transistors (OFET) were made with fresh egg white without any alteration. The residence of hydrophobicity, smoothness, electrical breakdown correlated well with the thermal treatment conditions [47]. Polymeric materials are used in stretchable and transient electronics. Polysaccharides, a type of polyimide derived from protein-based polymers, are ideal biocompatible substrate materials. Biodegradable plastics can be created from polymers derived from starches and polylactic acid [48]. Ecoflex, for example, is a foil made from potato and corn starch as well as polylactic acid. In 6 months, it degrades completely in compost with no residue [49, 50].
1.4.2 Synthetic Polymers
Polydimethyl siloxane (PDMS)
An inorganic-based transparent biocompatible polymer, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), has been broadly valued as an implant for plastic surgery and fake limb. The studied key tendencies are hemocompatibility, biocompatibility, and inflammatory resistance [51]. PDMS has been uncovered as a dais to create stretchable hardware, optoelectronics, and incorporated frameworks that incorporate both natural and inorganic gadgets [52–54]. The stretchability of PDMS, joined with its biocompatibility, has prompted electrical gadgets that can be embedded into living tissue to screen and deal with inner organs like the bladder [55].
PDMS is a clear, elastomeric polymer with great biocompatibility. Due to its ideal properties, PDMS is broadly utilized in adaptable and stretchable hardware, just as implantable organic applications. The flexibility and biocompatibility of PDMS are being used to construct an implanted monitoring device for living tissue. The device was able to detect and record two forms of bladder afferent activity. The devices were exceedingly durable, having withstood 3 months of immersion in warm saline [56].
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)
The ability of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) to quantify the electrical activity generated by the brain, heart, and skeletal muscles has been demonstrated. On top of its temporary substrate, PVA is also used to construct an integrated electronic system on thin PDMS foil. Like a short-lived exchange tattoo, this incorporated framework can be moved onto the human epidermis and appended similarly to the skin with reasonable grip through van der Waals collaborations. After the framework has been introduced on the skin, the water-solvent PVA substrate might be washed away, and the leftover aid can be handily pulled away with tweezers [57].
