Biodiversity Conservation and Poverty Alleviation E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Conservation Science and Practice
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 608

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

Biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation are both important societal goals demanding increasing international attention. While they may seem to be unrelated, the international policy frameworks that guide action to address them make an explicit assumption that conserving biodiversity  will help to tackle global poverty. Part of the Conservation Science and Practice Series published with the Zoological Society of London, this book explores the validity of that assumption. The book addresses a number of critical questions: 

• Which aspects of biodiversity are of value to the poor?
• Does the relationship between biodiversity and poverty differ according to particular ecological conditions?
• How do different conservation interventions vary in their poverty impacts?
• How do distributional and institutional issues affect the poverty impacts of interventions?
• How do broader issues such as climate change and the global economic system affect the biodiversity – poverty relationship at different scales?

This volume will be of interest to policy-makers, practitioners and researchers concerned with understanding the potential - and limitations - of integrated approaches to biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Conservation Science and Practice Series

Title Page

Copyright

Contributors

Preface and Acknowledgements

Introduction

Chapter 1: Linking Biodiversity Conservation and Poverty Alleviation: What, Why and Where?

Biodiversity Conservation and Poverty Alleviation: Separate or Linked Challenges?

Where is The Evidence for Biodiversity–Poverty Linkages? The Objectives and Structure of This Book

A Note on Terminology

Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services and Poverty—The Potential for Synergies

Biodiversity and Poverty Relationships in Different Ecological Settings

Poverty Impacts of Different Conservation Interventions

Distributional and Institutional Issues

Biodiversity and Poverty Relationships in the Context of Global Challenges

References

Part I: Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services and Poverty—The Potential for Synergies

Chapter 2: The Potential, Realised and Essential Ecosystem Service Benefits of Biodiversity Conservation

Introduction

Approach and Methods

Potential Ecosystem Service Value: Economic Values Irrespective of Use

Realised Services: Valuing Ecosystem Services by Considering Their Use

Essential Services: Valuing the Ecosystem Services the Poor Rely Upon

Estimating All Benefits to the Poor: Essential Services and Payments for Environmental Services

Conclusions: Linking Ecosystem Service Flows, People and Biodiversity

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 3: Poverty Reduction and Biodiversity Conservation: Using the Concept of Ecosystem Services to Understand the Linkages

Introduction

Ecosystem Services: Essential to Human Well-Being and a Lifeline for the Poor

Getting Aggregate Indicators Right—‘GDP of the Poor’

Assessing Ecosystem Services Reveals Poverty Implications

Identifying Property Rights to Nature

Working with Rights to Nature: Considering Property Rights and Regimes in Policy Design

How to Structure a Combined Assessment of Ecosystem Services and Related Property Rights

Conclusions

References

Chapter 4: Dependence of the Poor on Biodiversity: Which Poor, What Biodiversity?

Introduction

Definitional Issues

Approach and Methods

Dependence on Biodiversity: Direct Livelihood Linkages

Evidence on Dependence

Relative Dependence on Biodiversity Resources: Are the Poor Disproportionately Dependent?

Impacts on Inequality: Does The Inclusion of Biodiversity-Based Resources Improve Distributional Outcomes?

Dependence on Biodiversity: Insurance and Risk Coping

Agro-Biodiversity for Food Security Insurance

Wild Food Products, Biodiversity and Food Security

Biodiversity and Natural Hazards

Biodiversity and Health Risks

Biodiversity and Resilience

Conclusions

References

Part II: Biodiversity and Poverty Relationships in Different Ecological Settings

Chapter 5: Forests, Poverty and Conservation: An Overview of the Issues

Introduction

The Nature of ‘Forest Dependency’

Forests, Poverty and Remoteness

Influence of Forest Dwellers on Biodiversity

Influence of Conservation Activities on Poverty

Combining Biodiversity Conservation and Poverty Alleviation in Forest Communities

References

Chapter 6: Biodiversity and Poverty in Coastal Environments

Introduction: The Nature and Scale of Coastal Diversity

Linking Coastal Biodiversity and Poverty

Ecosystem Services Available to the Poor

Benefit Flows to the Poor

Threats to Poverty–Biodiversity Linkages

Conservation and Its Impact on the Poor

The Factors Influencing Livelihood Responses

Future Directions

References

Chapter 7: Linking Biodiversity and Poverty Alleviation in the Drylands—The Concept of ‘Useful’ Biodiversity

Introduction

Biodiversity in the Sahelian Context

Agro-Diversity and ‘Wild’ Biodiversity

Biodiversity and Rangeland Degradation

Trees, Shrubs and ‘Deforestation’

Faunal Diversity—Livestock

Biodiversity Conservation with Poverty Reduction?

Conclusion

References

Chapter 8: Biodiversity Isn't Just Wildlife—Conserving Agricultural Biodiversity as a Vital Contribution to Poverty Reduction

Introduction

Agro-Biodiversity and Poverty

Rural Poverty on the Increase

Focussing Attention on Sustainable Agriculture

Enhancing Genetic Diversity

Greater Species Diversity Increases Productivity and Reduces Farmers' Risks

Looking at The Ecosystem Level

Do Markets Work for Biodiversity and Poverty?

Towards an Integrated Approach: Next Steps in Enhancing the Contribution of Agricultural Biodiversity to Poverty Reduction

References

Part III: Poverty Impacts of Different Conservation Interventions

Chapter 9: Does Conserving Biodiversity Work to Reduce Poverty? A State of Knowledge Review

Introduction

Approach

Conservation Interventions

Challenges and Knowledge Gaps

Conclusions

References

Chapter 10: Protected Areas—What People Say about Well-Being

Introduction

Who Knows What about the Social Impacts of Protected Areas?

What are the Social Impacts of Protected Areas, and How Widespread Are They?

What Affects Who Experiences the Impacts of Protected Areas, and Why?

Conclusion

References

Chapter 11: Species Conservation and Poverty Alleviation—The Case of Great Apes in Africa

Introduction

The Relationship Between Species Conservation and Poverty

African Ape Conservation and Poverty Alleviation

Conclusions and Recommendations

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 12: Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) and Reducing Poverty in Namibia

Introduction

Community-Based Natural Resource Management in Namibia

Benefits from Conservancies

Limitations on Conservancy Benefits—Elite Capture

The Costs of Living with Wildlife

Conclusions

References

Chapter 13: Conservation Enterprise: What Works, Where and for Whom?

Why Conservation Enterprise?

The African Wildlife Foundation's Conservation Enterprise Programme

Measuring Conservation and Poverty Impacts

What are the Impacts of Conservation Enterprises?

Impact on Biodiversity

What Types of Conservation Enterprises Work Best?

Key Challenges for Successful Enterprise Development

Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

Part IV: Distributional and Institutional Issues

Chapter 14: Payments for Environmental Services: Conservation with Pro-Poor Benefits

Introduction

Do Poor People Sell Environmental Services?

Do Poor People Gain from Selling Environmental Services?

Do Poor Environmental Service Users Benefit from PES?

How do Poor Non-Participants Fare?

Conclusions

References

Chapter 15: Pastoralism and Conservation—Who Benefits?

Introduction

Approach and Methods

Livestock, Farming, Off-Farm Work and Livelihoods in Maasailand

Income from Wildlife—What Role in Livelihoods?

Why does Wildlife Fail to Generate Local Benefits?

Moving Forward

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 16: Local Organisations—An Entry Point for Conservation and Poverty Reduction

Introduction

What are Local Organisations?

The Importance of Local Organisations

Local Organisations: A Route to Participation and Good Governance

Scaling Up and Enabling Factors

Support to Local Organisations–Policy and Programmes

Issues and Challenges

Emerging Issues and Opportunities for Local Organisations

Conclusion

References

Chapter 17: Poverty Reduction Isn't Just about Money: Community Perceptions of Conservation Benefits

Introduction

Study Background and The Nature of Community Benefits

Exploring Benefits in 10 Equator Initiative Cases

Focussing on Local Objectives and Priorities

Discussion and Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

Part V: Biodiversity and Poverty Relationships in the Context of Global Challenges

Chapter 18: Biodiversity, Poverty and Climate Change: New Challenges and Opportunities

Introduction

Maintaining Water Supplies

Food Security

Health

Reducing Vulnerability to Natural Disasters

Looking Forward—Opportunities for Enhancing the Synergies Between Biodiversity, Climate Change and Poverty Alleviation

Conclusion

References

Chapter 19: Conservation in the Anthropocene: Biodiversity, Poverty and Sustainability

Conservation, Community and Poverty

Away from the Last Frontier

Development, iPads and Ivory

Conservation's Development Paradox

The Challenge of Sustainability

Conservation's Challenge

References

Chapter 20: Tackling Global Poverty: What Contribution Can Biodiversity and Its Conservation Really Make?

Introduction

Do Biodiversity and Its Conservation Contribute to Poverty Alleviation?

So should Development Pay More Attention to Biodiversity?

The Need for Improved Evidence of Causal Linkages and The Results of Actions

Implications: Improving Policy and Practice

References

Index

Conservation Science and Practice Series

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Previously published

Applied Population and Community Ecology: The Case of Feral Pigs in Australia

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Tropical Forest Conservation and Industry Partnership: An Experience from the Congo Basin

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Reintroduction Biology: Integrating Science and Management

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Trade-offs in Conservation: Deciding What to Save

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Urban Biodiversity and Design

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ISBN: 978-1-4443-3266-7 Hardcover; April 2010

Wild Rangelands: Conserving Wildlife While Maintaining Livestock in Semi-Arid Ecosystems

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Reintroduction of Top-Order Predators

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Participatory Research in Conservation and Rural Livelihoods: Doing Science Together

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Bushmeat and Livelihoods: Wildlife Management and Poverty Reduction

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ISBN: 978-1-4051-6779-6 Paperback; December 2007

Managing and Designing Landscapes for Conservation: Moving from Perspectives to Principles

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation : exploring the evidence for a link / edited by

Dilys Roe ... [et al.].

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-470-67479-6 (cloth)—ISBN 978-0-470-67478-9 (pbk.) 1. Biodiversity conservation—Economic aspects. 2. Poverty—Prevention—Environmental aspects. I. Roe, Dilys.

QH75.B53225 2013

333.95′16—dc23

2012017200

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.

Front Cover Image: A Malawian girl carries beans back to her village of Murela in the Phalombe District which is east of Blantyre, Malawi, July 3, 2002. After the droughts and flooding in the last year, half of the students stopped going to school because of the ongoing food shortage in the region. The World Food Program estimates that 3.2 million people in Malawi alone will be affected before March 2003. © Ami Vitale. www.amivitale.com

Cover Design By: Edge Creative

www.edgecreativestudio.com

Contributors

William M. (Bill) Adams Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, Downing Place, Cambridge CB2 3EN, UK; [email protected]

Brian Belcher Centre for Livelihoods and Ecology, Royal Roads University, 2005 Sooke Rd., Victoria, BC V9B 5Y2, Canada; [email protected] Centre for International Forestry Research, Bogor, Indonesia

Augustin Berghöfer Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Permoserstraße 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany; [email protected]

Fikret Berkes Natural Resources Institute, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada; [email protected]

Jill Blockhus The Nature Conservancy, PO Box 303, Monson, ME 04464, USA; [email protected]

Jan Börner Center for Development Research, University of Bonn, Walter-Flex-Str .3, 53113 Bonn, Germany; [email protected]

Katrina Brandon Independent Consultant, Beijing, China; [email protected]

Dan Brockington School of Environment and Development, University of Manchester, Arthur Lewis Building, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK; [email protected]

Thomas Brooks NatureServe, 4600 N. Fairfax Dr., 7th Floor, Arlington, VA 22203, USA; [email protected] World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), University of the Philippines, Los Baños, the Philippines School of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Tasmania, Tasmania, Australia

Jock Campbell Integrated Marine Management Ltd, The Innovation Centre, University of Exeter Campus, Exeter EX4 4RN, UK; [email protected]

Pippa Chenevix Trench Independent Consultant, Washington D.C., USA; [email protected]

Anna Davis Independent Consultant, Windhoek, Namibia; [email protected]

Lara Diez Nyae Nyae Development Foundation of Namibia (NNDFN), 9 Delius Street, Windhoek, Namibia; [email protected]

Richard Diggle World Wildlife Fund, Namibia, PO Box 9681, 19 Lossen Street, Windhoek, Namibia; [email protected]

Willy Douma Hivos, Raamweg 16, 2596 HL The Hague, The Netherlands; [email protected]

Joanna Elliott, African Wildlife Foundation, Oxford, UK; [email protected]

Claude Gascon National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, 1133 Fifteenth St. NW Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20005, USA; [email protected]

Holly Gibbs Nelson Institute for Environmental Studies, Department of Geography, Rm 373 & Center for Sustainability and the Global Environment (SAGE),Rm207B, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; [email protected]

George Holmes School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Woodhouse Lane, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; [email protected]

Katherine Homewood Department of Anthropology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK; [email protected]

Brian Jones Environment and Development Consultant, Windhoek, Namibia; [email protected]

Andreas Kontoleon University of Cambridge, Department of Land Economy, 19 Silver Street, Cambridge CB3 9EP, UK; [email protected]

S. Neil Larsen The Nature Conservancy, Seattle, United States; [email protected]

Keith Lawrence Conservation International, 2011 Crystal Drive, Suite 500, Arlington, VA 22202, USA; [email protected]

Craig Leisher The Nature Conservancy, PO Box 303, Monson, ME 04464, USA; [email protected]

Kathy MacKinnon Independent Consultant, Cambridgeshire, UK; [email protected]

Russell Mittermeier Conservation International, 2011 Crystal Drive, Suite 500, Arlington, VA 22202, USA; [email protected]

Michael Mortimore Independent Consultant, Somerset, UK; [email protected]

Dilys Roe International Institute for Environment and Development, 80–86 Gray's Inn Road, London WC1× 8 NH, UK; [email protected]

Chris Sandbrook United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 219 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 0DL, UK; [email protected]

M. Sanjayan The Nature Conservancy, PO Box 303, Monson, ME 04464, USA; [email protected]

Elizabeth R. Selig Conservation International, 2011 Crystal Drive, Suite 500, Arlington, VA 22202, USA; [email protected].

Pavan Sukhdev Green Indian States Pvt Ltd, G-175, Palam Vihar, Gurgaon, Haryana 122017, India; [email protected]

Daudi Sumba African Wildlife Foundation, Ngong Road, Karen, P.O. Box 310, 00502, Nairobi, Kenya; [email protected]

David H.L. Thomas BirdLife International, Wellbrook Court, Girton Road, Cambridge CB3 0NA, UK; [email protected]

Philip Townsley Integrated Marine Management Ltd, The Innovation Centre, University of Exeter, Rennes Drive, Exeter EX4 4RN, UK; [email protected]

Will Turner Conservation International, 2011 Crystal Drive Suite 500, Arlington, VA 22150, USA; [email protected]

Bhaskar Vira Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, Downing Place, Cambridge CB2 3EN, UK; [email protected]

Matt Walpole United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 219 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 0DL, UK; [email protected]

Heidi Wittmer Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Permoserstr, 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany; [email protected]

Sven Wunder Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Rua do Russel, 450/sala 601, Bairro: Gloria, CEP: 22.210-010, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; [email protected]

Preface and Acknowledgements

The links between environment and development have long been discussed, but only recently has this discussion focussed specifically on the possible links between biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation. In 2002, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) adopted a target “to achieve by 2010 a significant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity loss at the global, regional and national level as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to the benefit of all life on earth”. The “2010 Target” was not met and it is clear that biodiversity loss is continuing apace–but even if conservation efforts were successful, would this really contribute to poverty alleviation? There is a diversity of opinion as to the nature and scale of biodiversity conservation, poverty alleviation links and the most appropriate mechanisms that can help to maximise them. Also, many generalisations and assumptions are made about these links. To explore the current state of knowledge and to challenge some of the prevailing myths and assumptions, a 2-day symposium titled ‘Linking biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation: what, why and how?’ was organised at the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) in April 2010 by the editors of this book. This book is based on the presentations made during that symposium.

First and foremost, the editors would like to thank all the presenters at the meeting and the authors of the chapters contained in this book, for the care, rigour and patience with which they carried out their work. We are grateful to ZSL for hosting this meeting, and for the support offered throughout the organisation of the meeting and the development of this book. Joy Hayward and Linda Da Volls deserve a special mention for their dedication and the countless hours they worked to ensure the successful delivery of this event. We would like to thank Jon Hutton (UNEP-WCMC), Nigel Leader-Williams (University of Cambridge) and Matthew Hatchwell (Wildlife Conservation Society) for expertly chairing sessions during the symposium. A thank you also goes to Bill Adams (University of Cambridge), Willy Douma (Hivos), Katrina Brandon (Conservation International), Steve Bass (International Institute for Environment and Development [IIED]) and Jayant Sarnaik (Applied Environmental Research Foundation) who were engaging panellists in the closing session of the symposium. Finally, a mention goes to award winners from the Equator Initiative and everyone else who prepared and presented a poster during the symposium. Even though the posters have not been included in the present book, the poster sessions were a valuable and highly appreciated feature of the symposium.

Funding for the symposium and the outputs associated with it was provided through the generous support of a range of donors that support IIED including the Danish International Development Agency, the Department for International Development (United Kingdom), the Directorate-General for International Cooperation (the Netherlands), Irish Aid, the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation, the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency and the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation; and through the African Wildlife Foundation and United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). The symposium was organised under the umbrella of the Poverty and Conservation Learning Group (www.povertyandconservation.info) which is supported by the Arcus Foundation.

We are very grateful to Ward Cooper, Carys Williams and Kelvin Matthews at Wiley-Blackwell for their assistance during the production of this book and to our institutions–the International Institute for Environment and Development, African Wildlife Foundation and United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre—for providing the time and space for our editorial contributions. Before submitting this book to Wiley-Blackwell, a considerable effort was put into carefully reviewing each chapter to ensure accuracy and consistency of style. For this, we would like to thank Jessica Smith at UNEP-WCMC and also Abisha Mapendembe, who diligently checked every reference and numbered every box! Last, but not least, we would like to thank Alessandra Giuliani from IIED without whom production of this book would not have been possible. Alessandra coordinated the entire editorial process, acted as a focal point for communications with the authors and gently kept us all on track to completion.

Dilys Roe, Joanna Elliott, Chris Sandbrook and Matt Walpole February 2012

Introduction

Chapter 1

Linking Biodiversity Conservation and Poverty Alleviation: What, Why and Where?

Dilys Roe1, Joanna Elliott2, Chris Sandbrook3and Matt Walpole3

1International Institute for Environment and Development, London, UK

2African Wildlife Foundation, Oxford, UK

3United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK

Biodiversity Conservation and Poverty Alleviation: Separate or Linked Challenges?

Biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation are both important societal goals demanding increasing international attention. At first glance they may appear to be separate policy realms with little connection. The former is largely the concern of ministries of environment, conservation organisations and ecologists; the latter falls within the remit of ministries of finance and planning, development organisations and economists. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), agreed in 1992, was drafted in response to escalating biodiversity loss and provides an international policy framework for biodiversity conservation activities worldwide. Similarly, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) International Development Targets of 1996—reiterated as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in 2000—focus international development efforts on global poverty alleviation.

On closer inspection, although ostensibly aimed at very different communities of interest, both of these policy frameworks recognise links between their objectives:

The preamble of the CBD acknowledges that “economic and social development and poverty eradication are the first and overriding priorities of developing countries”. In 2002 the Conference of Parties (CoP) to the CBD agreed a Strategic Plan which included a target to “achieve by 2010 a significant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity loss … as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to the benefit of all life on Earth” (CBD, 2002). The new has a mission to halt the loss of biodiversity thereby contributing to human well-being and poverty eradication (CBD, 2010). The 2010 CoP also adopted a decision on the “integration of biodiversity into poverty eradication and development” (Decision X/VI).