Biofuels E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Wiley Series in Renewable Resources
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 468

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Biofuels

Biofuels

The use of biofuels is rapidly gaining momentum all over the world, and can be expected to have an ever increasing impact on the energy and agricultural sector in particular.

Biofuels covers the use and conversion technologies of biomass as a renewable resource to produce bioenergy in a sustainable way, mainly in the form of liquid and gaseous biofuels. It gives a broad overview of biofuel developments from both a technical and an economical angle. The different production technologies for biofuels that exist or are under development are extensively covered in depth, dealing with both first generation as well as second generation technologies. Market developments in the sector, including trends on prices, markets and growth are also discussed. The link between the technical and economical developments are indicated throughout the text. The interactions between the technical, economical and ecological aspects are clearly expressed in this volume and are actually covered here for the first time in a single comprehensive volume.

This comprehensive text will prove useful for chemists, biologists and engineers working in the emerging biofuels industry, for researchers and academics interested in the field, as well as for those active in conventional fuel companies. The book is also relevant to people active in policy or financing, either within the government, industry or academia. This volume offers an excellent source of useful information and allows reflection about the bio-based economy in general.

Topics covered include:

• Process Technologies forBio-ethanol Production
• Process Technologies for Biodiesel Production
• Bio-based Fischer-Tropsch Diesel Production
• Biomass Digestion to Methane
• Biological Hydrogen Production
• Feedstocks for Biorefineries
• Sustainability of Biofuels

Leseprobe

Contents

Series Preface

Preface

List of Contributors

1: Biofuels in Perspective

1.1 Fossil versus Renewable Energy Resources

1.2 Economic Impact

1.3 Comparison of Bio-energy Sources

1.4 Conclusion

References

2: Sustainable Production of Cellulosic Feedstock for Biorefineries in the USA

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Availability of Cellulosic Feedstocks

2.3 Feedstock Options

2.4 Sustainable Removal

2.5 Erosion Control

2.6 Tilling Practice

2.7 Transitioning to No-till

2.8 Realizing Removal

2.9 Removal Economics

2.10 Climate Change Mitigation

2.11 Pretreatment

2.12 Farmer in Value Chain

2.13 The Start: Preprocessing Pentose Sugars and Lignin

2.14 Continuing Downstream: Fungible Fermentation Sugars

2.15 Looking Upstream

2.16 Logistics

2.17 Conclusions

2.18 Policy Recommendations

References

3: Bio-Ethanol Development in the USA

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Federal Policy

3.3 The US Ethanol Market

3.4 Corn Ethanol Technology

3.5 Cellulosic Ethanol

3.6 The Future

References

4: Bio-Ethanol Development(s) in Brazil

4.1 Overview

4.2 Introduction

4.3 The Brazilian Experience with Ethanol

4.4 Policy and Regulatory Instruments Applied to Deploy Large-Scale Ethanol Production

4.5 Cost Reductions

4.6 Technological Development

4.7 Is the Ethanol Production in Brazil Sustainable?

4.8 Is the Brazilian Experience Replicable?

4.9 Conclusions

References

5: Process Technologies for Biodiesel Production

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Biodiesel Production Worldwide

5.3 Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production

5.4 Chemical Principles of Biodiesel Production 5

5.5 Catalysts for Transesterification and Esterification Reactions

5.6 Transesterification in Supercritical Alcohols

5.7 Alternative Approaches

5.8 Overview of Process Technologies

References

6: Bio-based Fischer-Tropsch Diesel Production Technologies

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Theoretical Background Catalytic FT-Diesel Synthesis Process

6.3 Biomass Gasification-Based FT-Diesel Production Concepts

6.4 Economics of Biomass-Based FT-Diesel Production Concepts

6.5 Conclusions

References

7: Plant Oil Biofuel: Rationale, roduction and Application

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Plant Oil Biofuels: the Underlying Idea

7.3 Perspectives of the Plant Oil Fuel Market

7.4 System Requirements

7.5 Plant Oil Conversion Technology

7.6 The User Perspective

References

8: Enzymatic Production of Biodiesel

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Enzymatic Transesterification by Lipase

8.3 Use of Extracellular Lipases

8.4 Use of Intracellular Lipase as Whole-Cell Biocatalyst

8.5 Use of Cell-Surface Displaying Cells as Whole-Cell Biocatalyst

8.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects

References

9: Production of Biodiesel from Waste Lipids

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Alternative Resources for Biodiesel Production

9.3 Conversion of Waste Frying and Cooking Oils into Biodiesel

9.4 Conclusion

References

10: Biomass Digestion to Methane in Agriculture: A Successful Pathway for the Energy Production and Waste Treatment Worldwide

10.1 Overview

10.2 Introduction

10.3 Biogas Production Potential

10.4 Biogas Production Configurations

10.5 Outlook

10.6 Conclusions

References

11: Biological Hydrogen Production by Anaerobic Microorganisms

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Hydrogen Formation in Natural Ecosystems

11.3 Thermodynamics of Hydrogen Formation

11.4 Enzymology

11.5 Enterobacteria

11.6 The Genus Clostridium

11.7 The Genus Caldicellulosiruptor

11.8 The Genus Thermoanaerobacter

11.9 The Genus Thermotoga

11.10 The Genus Pyrococcus/Thermococcus

11.11 Approaches for Improving Hydrogen Production

11.12 Concluding Remarks

12: Improving Sustainability of the Corn-Ethanol Industry

References

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Energy Balance

12.3 Crop Production and Greenhouse Gas Emissions

12.4 CO2 Adjustment in a Changing Ethanol Industry

12.5 Conclusions

References

Index

This edition first published 2009

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Soetaert, Wim.

Biofuels/Wim Soetaert, Erick J. Vandamme.

p. cm. - (Wiley series in renewable resource)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978–0-470-02674-8 (cloth)

1. Biomass energy-Technological innovations. 2. Biomass energy-Economic aspects.

3. Renewable natural resources. I. Vandamme, Erick J., 1943- II. Title.

TP339.S64 2008

333.95′ 39-dc22

2008027967

Series Preface

Renewable resources, their use and modification are involved in a multitude of important processes with a major influence on our everyday lives. Applications can be found in the energy sector, chemistry, pharmacy, the textile industry, paints and coatings, to name but a few.

The area interconnects several scientific disciplines (agriculture, biochemistry, chemistry, technology, environmental sciences, forestry,…), which makes it very difficult to have an expert view on the complicated interaction. Therefore, the idea to create a series of scientific books, focussing on specific topics concerning renewable resources, has been very opportune and can help to clarify some of the underlying connections in this area.

In a very fast changing world, trends are not only characteristic for fashion and political standpoints, also science is not free from hypes and buzzwords. The use of renewable resources is again more important nowadays; however, it is not part of a hype or a fashion. As the lively discussions among scientists continue about how many years we will still be able to use fossil fuels, with opinions ranging from 50 years to 500 years, they do agree that the reserve is limited and that it is essential not only to search for new energy carriers but also for new material sources.

In this respect, renewable resources are a crucial area in the search for alternatives for fossil-based raw materials and energy. In the field of energy supply, biomass and renewablebased resources will be part of the solution alongside other alternatives such as solar energy, wind energy, hydraulic power, hydrogen technology and nuclear energy.

In the field of material sciences, the impact of renewable resources will probably be even bigger. Integral utilization of crops and the use of waste streams in certain industries will grow in importance, leading to a more sustainable way of producing materials.

Although our society was much more (almost exclusively) based on renewable resources centuries ago, this disappeared in the Western world in the nineteenth century. Now it is time to focus again on this field of research. However, it should not mean a retour à la nature, but it should be a multidisciplinary effort on a highly technological level to perform research towards new opportunities, to develop new crops and products from renewable resources. This will be essential to guarantee a level of comfort for a growing number of people living on our planet. It is ‘the’ challenge for the coming generations of scientists to develop more sustainable ways to create prosperity and to fight poverty and hunger in the world. A global approach is certainly favoured.

This challenge can only be dealt with if scientists are attracted to this area and are recognized for their efforts in this interdisciplinary field. It is therefore also essential that consumers recognize the fate of renewable resources in a number of products.

Furthermore, scientists do need to communicate and discuss the relevance of their work. The use and modification of renewable resources may not follow the path of the genetic engineering concept in view of consumer acceptance in Europe. Related to this aspect, the series will certainly help to increase the visibility of the importance of renewable resources.

Being convinced of the value of the renewables approach for the industrial world, as well as for developing countries, I was myself delighted to collaborate on this series of books focussing on different aspects of renewable resources. I hope that readers become aware of the complexity, the interaction and interconnections, and the challenges of this field and that they will help to communicate on the importance of renewable resources.

I certainly want to thank the people of Wiley from the Chichester office, especially David Hughes, Jenny Cossham and Lyn Roberts, in seeing the need for such a series of books on renewable resources, for initiating and supporting it and for helping to carry the project to the end.

Last, but not least I want to thank my family, especially my wife Hilde and children Paulien and Pieter-Jan for their patience and for giving me the time to work on the series when other activities seemed to be more inviting.

Christian V. Stevens Faculty of Bioscience Engineering Ghent University, Belgium Series Editor ‘Renewable Resources’ June 2005

List of Contributors

Editors

Wim Soetaert Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology and Biocatalysis, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium

Erick J. Vandamme Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology and Biocatalysis, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium

Contributors

Matthew T. Carr Policy Director, Industrial and Environmental Section, Biotechnology Industry Organization, Washington, USA.

Pieternel A.M. Claassen Agrotechnology and Food Sciences group, Wageningen University and Research Center, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Brent Erickson Executive Vice President, Industrial & Environmental Section, Biotechnology Industry Organization, Washington, USA.

Hideki Fukuda Division of Molecular Science, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kobe University, Japan.

Paul Gallagher Department of Economics, Iowa State University, Iowa, USA.

Heleen P. Goorissen Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University and Research Center, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Adrianus Van Haandel, Federal University of Paraíba, Department of Civil Engineering, Campina Grande, Brazil.

James R. Hettenhaus President and CEO, Chief Executive Assistance, Inc. Charlotte. NC, USA.

Barnim Jeschke Co-founder and former Non-Executive Director, ELSBETT Technologies GmbH, Munich, Germany.

Servé W.M. Kengen Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University and Research Center, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Martin Mittelbach Department of Renewable Resources, Institute of Chemistry, KarlFranzens-University, Graz, Austria.

Ed W.J. van Niel Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, University of Lund, Sweden.

René van Ree Wageningen University and Research Centre, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Hosein Shapouri USDA, OCE, OE, Washington, DC, USA.

Alfons J.M. Stams Wageningen University and Research Centre, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Christian V. Stevens Faculty of Bioscience-engineering, Department of Organic Chemistry, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.

Marcel Verhaart Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University and Research Center, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Roland Verhé Faculty of Bioscience-engineering, Department of Organic Chemistry, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.

Willy Verstraete Faculty of Bioscience-engineering, Laboratory of Microbial Ecology and Technology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium

Arnaldo Walter Department of Energy and NIPE, State University of Campinas (Unicamp), Brazil.

Peter Weiland Bundesforschungsanstalt für Landwirtschaft, Institut für Technologie und Biosystemtechnik, Braunschweig, Germany.

Robin Zwart Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands Biomass, Coal and Environmental Research Petten, The Netherlands.

1

Biofuels in Perspective

W. Soetaert and Erick J. Vandamme

Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology and Biocatalysis, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium

1.1 Fossil versus Renewable Energy Resources

Serious geopolitical implications arise from the fact that our society is heavily dependent on only a few energy resources such as petroleum, mainly produced in politically unstable oil-producing countries and regions. Indeed, according to the World Energy Council, about 82% of the world’s energy needs are currently covered by fossil resources such as petroleum, natural gas and coal. Also ecological disadvantages have come into prominence as the use of fossil energy sources suffers a number of ill consequences for the environment, including the greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, acid rain, etc. (Wuebbles and Jain, 2001; Soetaert and Vandamme, 2006).

Moreover, the supply of these fossil resources is inherently finite. It is generally agreed that we will be running out of petroleum within 50 years, natural gas within 65 years and coal in about 200 years at the present pace of consumption. With regard to the depletion of petroleum supplies, we are faced with the paradoxical situation that the world is using petroleum faster than ever before, and nevertheless the ‘proven petroleum reserves’ have more or less remained at the same level for 40 years, mainly as a result of new oil findings (Campbell, 1998). This fact is often used as an argument against the ‘prophets of doom’, as there is seemingly still plenty of petroleum around for the time being. However, those ‘proven petroleum reserves’ are increasingly found in places that are poorly accessible, inevitably resulting in an increase of extraction costs and hence, oil prices. Campbell and Laherrère (1998), well-known petroleum experts, have predicted that the world production of petroleum will soon reach its maximum production level (expected around 2010). From then on, the world production rate of petroleum will inevitably start decreasing.

As the demand for petroleum is soaring, particularly to satisfy economically skyrocketing countries such as China (by now already the second largest user of petroleum after the USA) and India, petroleum prices are expected to increase further sharply. The effect can already be seen today, with petroleum prices soaring to over 90 $/barrel at the time of writing (September 2007). Whereas petroleum will certainly not become exhausted from one day to another, it is clear that its price will tend to increase. This fundamental long-term upward trend may of course be temporarily broken by the effects of market disturbances, politically unstable situations or crises on a world scale.