Biogeochemical Cycles E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Serie: Geophysical Monograph Series
- Sprache: Englisch
Elements move through Earth's critical zone along interconnected pathways that are strongly influenced by fluctuations in water and energy. The biogeochemical cycling of elements is inextricably linked to changes in climate and ecological disturbances, both natural and man-made. Biogeochemical Cycles: Ecological Drivers and Environmental Impact examines the influences and effects of biogeochemical elemental cycles in different ecosystems in the critical zone. Volume highlights include: * Impact of global change on the biogeochemical functioning of diverse ecosystems * Biological drivers of soil, rock, and mineral weathering * Natural elemental sources for improving sustainability of ecosystems * Links between natural ecosystems and managed agricultural systems * Non-carbon elemental cycles affected by climate change * Subsystems particularly vulnerable to global change The American Geophysical Union promotes discovery in Earth and space science for the benefit of humanity. Its publications disseminate scientific knowledge and provide resources for researchers, students, and professionals. Find out more about this book from this Q&A with the Author. Book Review: http://www.elementsmagazine.org/archives/e16_6/e16_6_dep_bookreview.pdf
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Table of Contents
Cover
CONTRIBUTORS
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Part I: Biological Weathering
1 Biological Weathering in the Terrestrial System: An Evolutionary Perspective
1.1. INTRODUCTION
1.2. WEATHERING
1.3. THE EARLY ANOXIC EARTH
1.4. THE GREAT OXIDATION EVENT
1.5. MODERN‐DAY OXIDATIVE WEATHERING
1.6. LIFE AND MATTER INTERACTIONS ACROSS SCALES
1.7. FUTURE DIRECTIONS
REFERENCES
2 Plants as Drivers of Rock Weathering
2.1. INTRODUCTION
2.2. MECHANISMS OF WEATHERING BY PLANTS
2.3. EXPERIMENTAL AND FIELD EVIDENCE OF BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING BY PLANTS AND SYMBIOTIC FUNGI
2.4. CLIMATE CHANGE AND OTHER ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON PLANT WEATHERING AND CARBON FLUXES
2.5. SUMMARY AND FUTURE OUTLOOK/KNOWLEDGE GAPS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
3 Microbial Weathering of Minerals and Rocks in Natural Environments
3.1. INTRODUCTION
3.2. CONCEPTS IN MICROBIAL WEATHERING STUDIES
3.3. MECHANISMS OF MINERAL AND ROCK WEATHERING
3.4. TECHNIQUES AND METHODOLOGY IN MICROBIAL WEATHERING STUDIES
3.5. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY OF WEATHERING ENVIRONMENTS
3.6. BIOSIGNATURES OF MICROBIAL MINERAL AND ROCK WEATHERING
3.7. SHAPING LANDSCAPES—MICROBIAL BIOGEOMORPHOLOGY
3.8. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
4 Micro‐ and Nanoscale Techniques to Explore Bacteria and Fungi Interactions with Silicate Minerals
4.1. INTRODUCTION
4.2. ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
4.3. HELIUM ION MICROSCOPY
4.4. ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY
4.5. X‐RAY‐BASED SPECTROSCOPY ANALYSIS
4.6. SUMMARY AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
5 Modeling Microbial Dynamics and Heterotrophic Soil Respiration: Effect of Climate Change
5.1. INTRODUCTION
5.2. FROM FIRST‐ORDER KINETICS TO FOUR‐POOL
CDMZ
SOIL MICROBIAL MODELS
5.3. INCORPORATING CLIMATE PARAMETERS
5.4. WHAT DO WE LEARN FROM
CDMZ
MODELS?
5.5. CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES
5.6. SUMMARY
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
Part II: Elemental Cycles
6 Critical Zone Biogeochemistry: Linking Structure and Function
6.1. INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS CRITICAL ZONE BIOGEOCHEMISTRY?
6.2. BIOLOGICAL AND GEOCHEMICAL PROCESS COUPLING ACROSS THE CRITICAL ZONE
6.3. RESOLVING CRITICAL ZONE STRUCTURE
6.4. PORE‐SCALE PROCESSES
6.5. CHALLENGES IN UPSCALING FROM PORE TO CATCHMENT
6.6. FUTURE DIRECTIONS
REFERENCES
7 Tracking the Fate of Plagioclase Weathering Products: Pedogenic and Human Influences
7.1. INTRODUCTION
7.2. METHODS
7.3. RESULTS
7.4. DISCUSSION
7.5. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
8 Small Catchment Scale Molybdenum Isotope Balance and its Implications for Global Molybdenum Isotope Cycling
8.1. INTRODUCTION
8.2. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION AT THE PLOT SCALE
8.3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION AT THE CATCHMENT SCALE
8.4. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
9 Trace Metal Legacy in Mountain Environments: A View from the Pyrenees Mountains
9.1. METAL LEGACY IN MOUNTAIN ENVIRONMENTS
9.2. LEGACY OF PB IN EUROPEAN MOUNTAINS
9.3. ANCIENT METAL POLLUTION IN CENTRAL PYRENEES: THE BASSIÈS CASE STUDY
9.4. FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN PHTE GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE MOUNTAIN CRITICAL ZONE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
10 Poised to Hindcast and Earthcast the Effect of Climate on the Critical Zone: Shale Hills as a Model
10.1. HINDCASTING AND EARTHCASTING
10.2. ADVANCES IN HINDCASTING AND EARTHCASTING
10.3. USING ASPECT TO INFORM FUTURE EARTHCASTS SOLUTE FLUXES FROM SHALE: SSHCZO
10.4. OPPORTUNITIES, CHALLENGES, AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
10.5. CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
Part III: Frontier and Managed Ecosystems
11 Importance of the Collection of Abundant Ground‐Truth Data for Accurate Detection of Spatial and Temporal Variability of Vegetation by Satellite Remote Sensing
11.1. INTRODUCTION
11.2. PLANT PHENOLOGY
11.3. LAND‐USE AND LAND‐COVER CHANGES
11.4. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
12 Biogeochemical Cycling of Redox‐Sensitive Elements in Permafrost‐Affected Ecosystems
12.1. CLIMATE‐INDUCED PERTURBATIONS TO PERMAFROST ECOSYSTEMS
12.2. BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING OF REDOX‐SENSITIVE ELEMENTS
12.3. CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
13 Anthropogenic Interactions with Rock Varnish
13.1. INTRODUCTION
13.2. LANDSCAPE GEOCHEMISTRY OF ROCK VARNISH
13.3. PREHISTORIC ANTHROPOGENIC INTERACTIONS
13.4. HISTORIC BIOGEOCHEMICAL INTERACTIONS WITH ROCK VARNISH
13.5. SUMMARY
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
14 Cycling of Natural Sources of Phosphorus and Potassium for Environmental Sustainability
14.1. INTRODUCTION
14.2. ORGANIC PRODUCTION SYSTEM
14.3. CERTIFICATION AND REGULATIONS
14.4. PHOSPHORUS AND POTASSIUM CYCLE IN ORGANIC SYSTEMS
14.5. ORGANIC AND NATURAL SOURCES
14.6. RECYCLING THROUGH BIOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONS
14.7. BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
14.8. ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
14.9. CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
15 Ecological Drivers and Environmental Impacts of Biogeochemical Cycles: Challenges and Opportunities
15.1. INTRODUCTION
15.2. BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING
15.3. ELEMENTAL CYCLES
15.4. FRONTIER AND MANAGED ECOSYSTEMS
15.5. CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES
REFERENCES
INDEX
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 A summary of the main applications and limitations of each techniqu...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Structural and operational characteristics of six recent microbial ...
Table 5.2 Large‐scale data sets available to parameterize and initialize glob...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Mineralogic contributions to Ca, Na, Al, and Si content (percent) o...
Table 7.2 Catchment annual fluxes and pools. Fluxes are the range for the six...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Mo and Sr isotope data and other parameters of the water samples
Table 8.2 (a)
Beech experimental plot: Mo isotope data and other parameters of
...
Table 8.3 Mo isotope data of plant parts and litter from the experimental plo...
Table 8.4 Open field precipitation of selected periods
Table 8.5 Mo concentration and isotopic compositions of rocks
Table 8.6 Average Mo concentrations in magmatic and weathering phases of rock...
Table 8.7 Parameters of first order mass balance calculation of the Mo budget
Table 8.8 Parameters of mixing models based on Mo and Sr isotope data
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Satellite sensors for monitoring land use and land cover changes, ...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Definitions
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Examples of elemental variation exhibited in bulk chemical analyse...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Phosphorus and potassium content in different farm waste
Table 14.2 Average P and K contents of plant and animal based products
Table 14.3 Summary of phosphorus and potassium content in animal manures and ...
Table 14.4 Average P and K content in natural mineral deposits
Table 14.5 Nature and function of microbes plays important role in P and K mo...
Table 14.6 Phosphorus mobilization by microbial intervention from insoluble m...
Table 14.7 Potassium solubilization from silicate minerals through microbial ...
Table 14.8 Mobilization of P and K from insoluble minerals through composting...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 The principle of entropy in a theoretical, closed system, and how...
Figure 1.2 Simplified schematic of carbon and energy flows during the Archea...
Figure 1.3 Timeline of major events in the geosphere–atmosphere–biosphere in...
Figure 1.4 Carbon and energy flows on the modern, biosphere‐dominated Earth ...
Figure 1.5 Incipient weathering as driven by abiotic and biotic agents. Inte...
Figure 1.6 Microbes–rock interactions during weathering: (a) fungal hyphae p...
Figure 1.7 Mycorrhiza symbiosis: (a) root of buffalo grass (
Bouteloa dactylo
...
Figure 1.8 Mineral dissolution enhancements during 25‐year experiments at si...
Figure 1.9 Climate change effect on weathering. (a) A generally upward trend...
Figure 1.10 Weathering across scales. Interaction among Earth’s solid, liqui...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 (a) A tree growing on the rock in the Grand Canyon National Park ...
Figure 2.2 Schematic summary of the main mechanisms whereby plants drive wea...
Figure 2.3 A 48 h
13
CO
2
pulse‐labeling experiment on 1‐year‐old red pine (
Pi
...
Figure 2.4 (a) In the axenic microcosm,
P. sylvestris
roots are in symbiosis...
Figure 2.5 Two examples of the herringbone texture associated with some of t...
Figure 2.6 Design of the (a) controlled environment modules containing (b) m...
Figure 2.7 Mass balance analysis of the column experiment demonstrated that ...
Figure 2.8 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images showing evidence of roo...
Figure 2.9 Similar patterns of (a) fungal attachment and (b) etching on biot...
Figure 2.10 Mass loss due to weathering of rock grains buried in root‐exclud...
Figure 2.11 Total uptake of K per mesocosm for three different plants grown ...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 A summary of important microbial weathering mechanisms and their ...
Figure 3.2 Agar‐plate‐based phenotypic assays for rock weathering capabiliti...
Figure 3.3 Biosignatures of microbial weathering processes. Left: pyrite tha...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Examples of scanning electron micrographs (SEM) are shown. (a) Fu...
Figure 4.2 A series of images illustrating site‐specific chemical and physic...
Figure 4.3 Helium ion micrographs (HeIM) of biological material attached to ...
Figure 4.4 Atomic force microscopy (AFM) height image (a) shows a fungal hyp...
Figure 4.5 AFM topographic images of a freshly cleaved biotite surface, wher...
Figure 4.6 (a) An example of a silicate surface covered with bacteria embedd...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Structure of microbial decomposition models compared in this revi...
Figure 5.2 (a) Structure of Allison’s (2012) trait‐based model DEMENT and (b...
Figure 5.3
CDMZ
model extended to account for variation in soil moisture. SO...
Figure 5.4 Structure of Sulman et al.’s (2014) model. Soil carbon is divided...
Figure 5.5 Response of microbial dynamics and soil respiration to 5°C warmin...
Figure 5.6 Data assimilation and model selection for the effect of rainfall ...
Figure 5.7 Predictions of cumulative change of soil carbon stocks by structu...
Figure 5.8 Spatio‐temporal dynamics of microbial decomposition emerging from...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Critical zone science aims to link dynamics (measured in real tim...
Figure 6.2 Conceptual model linking climate, biogeochemical processes, and g...
Figure 6.3 The critical zone biological C cycle. The C pathways are illustra...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Locus map of Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest.
Figure 7.2 Annual net Na flux calculated as stream export minus precipitatio...
Figure 7.3 Net Ca/Na flux ratio calculated as the net Ca flux divided by the...
Figure 7.4 Net Si/Na flux ratio calculated as Si output in streamwater divid...
Figure 7.5 Net Al/Na flux ratio calculated as Al output in streamwater divid...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Location and geological overview of the Strengbach catchment. Tri...
Figure 8.2 Locations of sampled waters as well as δ
98/95
Mo and Mo concentrat...
Figure 8.3 Locations of rock samples as well as whole‐rock δ
98/95
Mo and Mo ...
Figure 8.4 δ
98/95
Mo variations in two soil profiles investigated: (a) δ
98/95
Figure 8.5 Diagrams showing δ
98/95
Mο versus soil parameters. Symbols as in F...
Figure 8.6 (a,b) Soil profiles illustrating Fe and Mn concentrations versus ...
Figure 8.7 Diagram showing Mo isotope cycle in vegetation and soils of the S...
Figure 8.8 Soil profile illustrating Mo concentrations, pH, and organic matt...
Figure 8.9 δ
98/95
Mo versus
87
Sr/
86
Sr diagram showing waters from the Strengb...
Figure 8.10 δ
98/95
Mo versus Cl
−
diagram showing waters of the Strengba...
Figure 8.11 δ
98/95
Mo versus SO
4
2−
diagram showing waters of the Streng...
Figure 8.12 Mo concentration of waters of the Strengbach catchment relative ...
Figure 8.13 δ
98/95
Mo versus
87
Sr/
86
Sr diagram showing the results of model 1...
Figure 8.14 δ
98/95
Mo versus
87
Sr/
86
Sr diagram showing the results of model 2...
Figure 8.15 δ
98/95
Mo versus
87
Sr/
86
Sr diagram showing the results of model 3...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Main environmental features of the mountain critical zone. Clocks...
Figure 9.2 Total Pb inventories, industrial and preindustrial inventories an...
Figure 9.3 Location of Bassies Valley in the Central Pyrenees, together with...
Figure 9.4 (a) Graphical representation of Pb accumulation chronology in pea...
Figure 9.5 Potential harmful trace element (PHTE) concentration (Pb, Ti, Sb,...
Figure 9.6 Boxplots of enrichment factors (
EF
) in moss samples in Bassiès Va...
Figure 9.7 Pb isotopes ratios (
206
Pb/
207
Pb vs.
208
Pb/
206
Pb) in
Sphagnum
moss...
Figure 9.8 Circular flow chart of the integrative projects necessary to inve...
Figure 9.9 Main environmental shifts and knowledge gaps that have and will i...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 A hindcast (red arrow) for Earth’s surface is a simulation (ligh...
Figure 10.2 Simulated solute concentrations in pore waters in soil profiles ...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Maps of Phenological Eyes Network (PEN) sites in (a) the world a...
Figure 11.2 Relationship between plant phenology and seasonal change of vege...
Figure 11.3 Spatial distribution of the timing of (a) start (SGS) and (b) en...
Figure 11.4 Spatial distribution of the timing of (a) start (SGS) and (b) en...
Figure 11.5 Spatial distribution of the timing of (a) start (SGS) and (b) en...
Figure 11.6 Relationship between year‐to‐year variability of the satellite‐o...
Figure 11.7 Relationship between satellite‐based timing of EGS (MODIS) and t...
Figure 11.8 (a) Relationship between the timing of leaf‐flush detected by da...
Figure 11.9 High‐resolution land use and land cover (HRLULC) map of Japan di...
Figure 11.10 Screenshot of the data search engine window on the SACLAJ web s...
Figure 11.11 Screenshot of the data upload window of the SACRAJ web system (...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Latitudinal transect showing the transition from continuous perm...
Figure 12.2 Each box displays one of four potential scenarios for changing w...
Figure 12.3 Summary of biogeochemical P transformations expected across redo...
Figure 12.4 Summary of biogeochemical N transformations expected across redo...
Figure 12.5 Summary of biogeochemical S transformations expected across redo...
Figure 12.6 (a) Summary of biogeochemical Fe transformations expected across...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Rock varnish viewed at different scales. (a) Alluvial fans debou...
Figure 13.2 Rock varnish accretion requires a series of different types of b...
Figure 13.3 High‐resolution perspective on fixation of Mn and Fe. (a) Electr...
Figure 13.4 Biofilms grow on rock surfaces where sufficient moisture exists ...
Figure 13.5 Newspaper Rock at Petrified Forest National Park exemplifies how...
Figure 13.6 An engraving consisting of a pattern of dots (image a), at Buffa...
Figure 13.7 The Conejo Mine petroglyph site in the Coso Range, eastern Calif...
Figure 13.8 Rock cairn from the Panamint Valley, eastern California. The bou...
Figure 13.9 Rock varnish as the dominant natural rock coating in metropolita...
Figure 13.10 Epiglacial till of the Greenland glacier contaminated by lead. ...
Figure 13.11 Comparison of rock varnish collected near the Pacific Ocean in ...
Figure 13.12 Silica glaze is the cement for dust fall on a glacial boulder n...
Figure 13.13 Back‐scattered electron image of petroglyph that was chalked b...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Proposed phosphorus cycling in organically managed system.
Figure 14.2 Proposed potassium cycling in organically managed system.
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CONTRIBUTORS
Elsa AbsEcology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA; and Institute of Biology of Ecole Normale Superieure (IBENS), National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS), INSERM, PSL University, Paris, France
Deonie AllenLaboratory of Functional Ecology and Environment, University of Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
Tomoko Kawaguchi AkitsuFaculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
Lucas AschwandenInstitute of Geological Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
Scott W. BaileyUS Forest Service, Northern Research Station, North Woodstock, New Hampshire, USA
Zsuzsanna Balogh‐BrunstadDepartment of Geology and Environmental Sciences, Hartwick College, Oneonta, New York, USA
Biraj B. BasakICAR‐Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research (DMAPR), Anand, India
Stéphane BinetLaboratory of Functional Ecology and Environment, University of Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France; and Institute of Earth Sciences, ISTO, University of Orléans, BRGM, Orléans, France
Dipak R. BiswasDivision of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, India
Susan L. BrantleyEarth and Environmental Systems Institute and Department of Geosciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
Casey BryceGeomicrobiology Group, Centre for Applied Geoscience, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
Carmen I. BurgheleaBiosphere 2, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
Lluis CamareroCenter for Advanced Studies of Blanes, CSIC, Blanes, Girona, Spain
Jon ChoroverDepartment of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
Adrien ClaustresLaboratory of Functional Ecology and Environment, University of Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
Charles CockellUK Centre for Astrobiology, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
Luca Da RosLaboratory of Functional Ecology and Environment, University of Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
François De VleeschouwerLaboratory of Functional Ecology and Environment, University of Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France; and Franco‐Argentine Institute for the Study of Climate and its Impacts, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina
Alice DohnalkovaEnvironmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington, USA
Katerina DontsovaDepartment of Environmental Science, and Biosphere 2, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
Ronald I. DornSchool of Geographical Sciences and Urban Planning, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
Pilar DurantezLaboratory of Functional Ecology and Environment, University of Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
Régis FerrièreEcology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA; and Institute of Biology of Ecole Normale Superieure (IBENS), National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS), INSERM, PSL University, Paris, France; and International Center for Interdisciplinary and Global Environmental Studies (iGLOBES), CNRS, ENS, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
Didier GalopGEODE, Geography of the Environment, University of Jean‐Jaurès Toulouse, France, and LabEx DRIIHM (ANR‐11‐LABX‐0010), INEE‐CNRS,Paris, France
Laure GandoisLaboratory of Functional Ecology and Environment, University of Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
Yves GoddérisEnvironmental Geosciences Toulouse, CNRS—Midi‐Pyrénées Observatory, Toulouse, France
Sarah GodseyDepartment of Geosciences, Idaho State University, Pocatello, Idaho, USA
Sophia V. HanssonLaboratory of Functional Ecology and Environment, University of Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France; and Department of Bioscience – Arctic Research Centre, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
Marilen HaverLaboratory of Functional Ecology and Environment, University of Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
Elizabeth HerndonDepartment of Geology, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, USA
Séverine JeanLaboratory of Functional Ecology and Environment, University of Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
Lauren Kinsman‐CostelloDepartment of Biological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, USA
Pascal LaffailleLaboratory of Functional Ecology and Environment, University of Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
Hanna LandenmarkUK Centre for Astrobiology, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
Gaël Le RouxLaboratory of Functional Ecology and Environment, University of Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
Li LiDepartment of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
Stephen LoftsCentre for Ecology and Hydrology, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
Claire Marie‐LoudonUK Centre for Astrobiology, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
Rebecca LybrandOregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
Ashis MaityICAR‐National Research Center for Pomegranate, Solapur, India
Laurent MarquerLaboratory of Functional Ecology and Environment, University of Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France; and GEODE, Geography of the Environment, CNRS, University of Jean‐Jaurès Toulouse, France
Florence MazierGEODE, Geography of the Environment, University of Jean‐Jaurès Toulouse, France
Bryan MoravecDepartment of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
Hiroyuki MuraokaRiver Basin Research Center, Gifu University, Yanagido, Gifu, Japan
Shin NagaiResearch Institute for Global Change, Japan Agency for Marine‐Earth Science and Technology, Showamachi, Kanazawa‐ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan; and Institute of Arctic Climate and Environment Research, Japan Agency for Marine‐Earth Science and Technology, Showamachi, Kanazawa‐ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
Thomas NäglerInstitute of Geological Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
Kenlo Nishida NasaharaFaculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
Natasha NicholsonUK Centre for Astrobiology, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
Jose Miguel Sánchez‐PérezLaboratory of Functional Ecology and Environment, University of Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
Thomas PettkeInstitute of Geological Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
Marie‐Claire PierretLaboratory of Hydrology and Geochemistry of Strasbourg, EOST, Strasbourg University, CNRS, Strasbourg, France
Anne ProbstLaboratory of Functional Ecology and Environment, University of Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
Christopher T. ReinhardSchool of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
Thomas RossetLaboratory of Functional Ecology and Environment, University of Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
Loredana SacconeDepartment of Architecture and Civil Engineering, University of Bath, Bath, UK
Taku M. SaitohRiver Basin Research Center, Gifu University, Yanagido, Gifu, Japan
Toby SamuelsUK Centre for Astrobiology, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK; and Institute of Evolutionary Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
Sabine SauvageLaboratory of Functional Ecology and Environment, University of Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
Dirk S. SchmellerLaboratory of Functional Ecology and Environment, University of Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
Anaelle SimonneauInstitute of Earth Sciences, ISTO, University of Orléans, BRGM, Orléans, France
Kyle SmartDepartment of Geology and Environmental Sciences, Hartwick College, Oneonta, New York, USA
Mark M. SmitsApplied Biology, HAS University of Applied Sciences, Hertogenbosch, the Netherlands
Adam H. StevensUK Centre for Astrobiology, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
Pamela L. SullivanCollege of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
Roman TeisserencLaboratory of Functional Ecology and Environment, University of Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
Igor VillaInstitute of Geological Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland; and University Center for Dating and Archaeometry, University of Milan Bicocca, Milano, Italy
Andrea VoegelinInstitute of Geological Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
Dragos G. ZaharescuSchool of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
PREFACE
Biogeochemical cycles describe the flow of various elements through Earth’s critical zone. These cycles are interconnected and strongly influenced by water and energy fluxes, including chemical energy preserved in organic compounds, which influence and are influenced by ecological processes and climate shifts. This book provides an overview of the current state of knowledge regarding many aspects of biogeochemical cycles in the context of global change. The book also highlights areas of need for forming collaborations and method development to gain a better understanding of the cause and effect relationships between biogeochemical cycling of elements, climate shifts, human impacts and disturbances, and ecological responses. In addition, it is important to place an emphasis on further investigations of the interconnections between traditionally studied natural ecosystems, frontier ecosystems, and managed (agricultural) systems, because they are all part of global cycles and subjected to global changes that affect the biogeochemical cycling of elements.
Most of the current publications in the area of biogeochemical cycles focus exclusively on carbon and how it is influenced by climate change, as well as feedbacks between climate change and biogeochemical processes linked to the fate of carbon. However, other element cycles are equally affected by climate change and other human activities, even if they do not provide direct feedback to the atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases and therefore climate change. In the past decade, many research groups around the globe invested in further examination of Earth’s critical zone in order to evaluate the effect of the rapidly increasing population and industrialization of developing nations on ecosystems and geochemical cycles. The results showed that Earth undergoes rapid changes in response to human activities and some subsystems are extremely vulnerable to ongoing changes; for example, permafrost, mountain, and desert ecosystems. The warming and drying of these ecosystems causes an increase in carbon release into the atmosphere in the form of CO2 and methane, which provides positive feedback to global warming and triggers changes in other elemental cycles.
This book is organized into three sections, starting with a summary of all biological drivers of weathering and carbon sequestration (Chapter 1), detailed descriptions of plant‐induced rock weathering (Chapter 2) and microbial weathering (Chapter 3), available analytical techniques to study the impact of biological weathering on small‐scales (Chapter 4), and modeling approaches to examine changes in CO2 flux due to respiration as climate changes (Chapter 5). The second section focuses on relationships between structure and function of the critical zone with respect to biogeochemical processes (Chapter 6), on plagioclase weathering and soil formation in ecosystems historically affected by anthropogenic acid deposition (Chapter 7), on molybdenum (Chapter 8) and other trace metal cycling in mountain environments (Chapter 9), and prediction of future changes in the critical zone (Chapter 10). The third section provides some insights into how spatial and temporal variability of vegetation in a changing environment can be quantified (Chapter 11), how permafrost ecosystems respond to changes in climate (Chapter 12), how rock varnish responds to anthropogenic disturbances (Chapter 13), and how natural sources of phosphorus and potassium can improve the sustainability of managed systems (Chapter 14). Lastly, the book summarizes challenges and opportunities of studying the biogeochemical cycles under changing environments (Chapter 15).
This book grew out of the Goldschmidt conference session titled “Ecological Drivers of Biogeochemical Cycles under Changing Environment” held in Yokohama, Japan in 2016. Original research was presented during the conference. However, for the purpose of this book, the editors encouraged the contributors to provide a more inclusive overview and summarize the current state of knowledge in the areas of their expertise.
Katerina DontsovaUniversity of Arizona, USA
Zsuzsanna Balogh‐BrunstadHartwick College, USA
Gaël Le RouxUniversity of Toulouse, France
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The editors would like to acknowledge the following reviewers: Deonie Allen, Megan Andrews, Keith A. Brunstad, Dawn Cardace, Anthony Chappaz, Salvatore Gazze, David H. Griffing, Kate Heckman, Peter Hooda, Thomas Houet, Nina Koele, Yizhang Liu, Carmen Nezat, Oluyinka Oyewumi, Julia Perdrial, Julie Pett‐Ridge, Viktor Polyakov, Olivier Pourret, Frank Ramos, Jennifer Reeve, Toby Samuels, Marjorie Schulz, Debjani Sihi, Benjamin Sulman, Roman Teisserenc, and Kimberly Wickland.
Part IBiological Weathering
1Biological Weathering in the Terrestrial System: An Evolutionary Perspective
Dragos G. Zaharescu1, Carmen I. Burghelea2, Katerina Dontsova2,3, Christopher T. Reinhard1, Jon Chorover3, and Rebecca Lybrand4
1 School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
2 Biosphere 2, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
3 Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
4 Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
ABSTRACT
Weathering is the process by which a solid breaks up into its building blocks when in thermodynamic disequilibrium with the surrounding environment. Weathering plays an important role in the formation of environments that can support life, including human life. It provides long‐term control on nutrient availability in natural and agricultural ecosystems through release of lithogenic elements and formation of secondary minerals that allow storage of nutrients in soils. Life itself, however, has a profound effect on weathering processes. Absence of oxidants characterized the weathering environment on early Earth (4.6–2.4 Ga), when CO2 released during volcanic activity was the principal driver of weathering processes. The advent of photosynthesis in the Archean and resulting biogenic flux of O2 to the atmosphere, ultimately shifted weathering towards oxidation, influencing the mineral landscape and the cycles of nutrients that supported an evolving biosphere. Land colonization by vascular plants in the early Phanerozoic and evolution of mycorrhizal symbiosis enhanced weathering by selectively mining minerals and redistributing nutrients across plant and fungi in the ecosystem. Development of complex human societies and the ever‐increasing influence people exert on the environment further impact weathering and nutrient cycling, both directly and indirectly.
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Modern‐day silicate weathering is strongly influenced by abundant organic and inorganic forms of carbon linked to biological activity. Dissolution of the rock releases nutrients and creates ecological niches for microorganisms and plants, while microorganisms and plant roots in symbiosis with mycorrhizal fungi create hot spots where intense gradients in carbon and water affect mineral dissolution and chemical denudation, influencing soil formation, soil fertility, landscape evolution, and long‐term productivity of terrestrial ecosystems. The fine balance between abiotic and biotic factors driving rock weathering is modulated by both planetary‐scale forces (solar radiation, gravity, plate tectonics) and molecular‐scale interactions, and is fundamental to the evolution of the terrestrial critical zone and its capacity for supporting life.
1.2. WEATHERING
Weathering is the process of physical and chemical breaking up of a solid, such as rock, into its elementary building blocks due to the thermodynamic disequilibrium with the surrounding environment (Figure 1.1). This simple but ubiquitous process in nature is a direct consequence of the universal Second Law of Thermodynamics, which connects energy and work (e.g., heat, chemical, mechanical) along the dimension of time. The law postulates that in an isolated physical system, entropy (a thermodynamic measure of unavailable energy) increases irreversibly over time (e.g., energy dissipates) when the system is out of equilibrium, or it remains constant when the system is at equilibrium (Bailyn, 1994). Open, out of equilibrium systems, such as natural environments, spontaneously evolve to reach a thermodynamic equilibrium with the outside environment, dissipating the available free energy to maintain existing gradients, unless electromagnetic radiation, kinetic/chemical, and gravitational sources of external energy are introduced. As a result, comets disintegrate over time, oceans mix, and exposed rock weathers irreversibly.
Figure 1.1 The principle of entropy in a theoretical, closed system, and how it applies to open‐system natural processes, such as weathering. Initial conditions are characterized by low entropy (e.g., ordered mineral structures, water crystals) and high potential energy. As electromagnetic energy is applied over time, a portion of the initial potential energy irreversibly changes the system to a new, higher entropic state, e.g., breaking of mineral structures and binding of elements with liquid water molecules. Removal of destabilizing energy causes the system to move to a new configuration state, different from the initial one.
Thermodynamics is a unifying principle in Earth sciences, and can predict energy and mass transfer processes among Earth’s various solid, fluid, and gaseous reservoirs, from weather, to crustal renewal and weathering. These processes can be quantified in terms of mass and energy balance between input and output components. For instance, in the present‐day terrestrial environment, rock weathering can be expressed as the sum of its products (equation 1.1) (Zaharescu et al., 2017):
1.3. THE EARLY ANOXIC EARTH
Earth is subject to one of the largest thermodynamic disequilibria in the inner solar system, with large fractions of matter and energy mixing in surface and subsurface portions of global cycles (Kleidon, 2010a). Despite a considerable decrease in the available energy from its formation, but with an evolving biosphere, Earth surface processes have maintained strong environmental gradients counteracting entropy. One important gradient is the surface redox state. The planetary surface has experienced a drastic change in its redox environment, from greatly reducing in the Hadean and Archean geological eons (4.6–2.4 Ga; Holland, 1984; Sverjensky & Lee, 2010), to one characterized by a sharp disequilibrium gradient between an oxygen‐rich atmosphere–hydrosphere system and a reduced crust (2.4 Ga to present). The capacity of life to independently produce chemical‐free energy (generally by using the energy transfer at the redox boundary), which counteracts entropy, further enhances this gradient and largely explains the cycles of matter we see today (Kleidon, 2010b).
During the first half of Earth’s history (4.6–2.4 Ga), a lack of free oxidants such as O2 at Earth’s surface, but abundant CO2 due to volcanic outgassing (Brimblecombe, 2013), governed mineral dissolution, the formation of secondary minerals (Hazen, 2013), and niche and habitat development on the vacant land (when first life emerged), ultimately shaping the distributions of protoecosystems in the landscape (Figure 1.2). It is still not entirely clear when life on Earth first emerged (4.2–3.8Ga; Bell et al., 2015; Battistuzzi et al., 2004). In a late Hadean to early Archean environment, however, with an abundance of carbon, both highly oxidized (CO2, carbonates, bicarbonates) and highly reduced (CH4 and various hydrocarbon complexes; Arndt, 2013; Zerkle et al., 2012), biota–mineral interactions would have been very modest (Hazen, 2013; Hazen et al., 2008). Such interactions were likely chemolithotrophic, limited to epilithic and endolithic surfaces under a highly erosive environment (Sleep, 2010). The carbon cycle, while perhaps not strongly mediated by life on earliest Earth, was a significant driver of silicate rock weathering through the acid‐generating capacity of rainwater‐dissolved CO2 (Ushikubo et al., 2008). Carbon release (crustal CO2 outgassing) and capture (aqueous carbonate formation during H2CO3 –mineral reactions) is temperature dependent; and this would have created a primordial planetary thermostat, stabilizing the early climate and pH of surface waters (Berner, 2004; Walker et al., 1981). Ocean‐floor volcanism and weathering provided complementary carbon feedbacks to terrestrial weathering, but their relative contributions are not entirely understood (Coogan & Dosso, 2015).
Figure 1.2 Simplified schematic of carbon and energy flows during the Archean Eon (3.5 Ga). Volcanic degassing releases CO2 (together with other gases and aerosols) to the atmosphere, which reacts with water vapor to produce carbonic acid. In an anoxic atmosphere, silicate rocks exposed through tectonic forces or volcanism react with carbonic acid from precipitation and release chemical elements as dissolved ions. If supersaturating conditions prevail, carbonates of different reduced ions (e.g., Fe2+, Mn2+) form. Gravitational forces transport and deposit weathered products to lakes, rivers, or marine sediments, where they are solidified over geologic time through diagenesis. Sedimentary rocks resulting from diagenesis can thus record the initial conditions of the weathering environment
(e.g., redox variability in Proterozoic Banded Iron Formations).
Various planetary models have highlighted the critical importance of the early carbon cycle for silicate weathering budgets and the global climate. The most recent estimates suggest that the young anoxic Earth featured a temperate climate and a circumneutral ocean pH around 6.6 (compared to 8.2 in modern times) due to stabilizing feedbacks from both terrestrial and ocean floor weathering (Krissansen‐Totton et al., 2018). Methane should also be expected for an anoxic Archean atmosphere (3.8–2.4 Ga), derived from serpentinization—the anaerobic oxidation and hydrolysis of hot, low‐silica ferromagnesian minerals (Kasting, 2014; Preiner et al., 2018)—and methanogenesis, when it evolved in Archean microbes (Catling & Kasting, 2017).
Recent studies of modern biological soil crusts (with N2 fixation qualities linking to primordial element cycles) advance the idea that in the pre‐oxygenic world, early land‐colonizing diazotrophic microbes were the first to endow the biosphere with the capacity to capture free nitrogen gas (N2) from the atmosphere into usable forms (e.g., NH3; Thomazo et al., 2018). By developing the nitrogenase enzymatic system, an oxygen‐sensitive Fe–Mo protein, these communities would have been able to transform N2 into bioavailable forms, either using hydrogen to reduce it to ammonia, or using oxygen to oxidize it to nitrites and nitrate in soil and water (Thomazo et al., 2018). Most of the biosphere would have relied on incipient N2 fixation. The Archean signatures of such transformations have been recently dated to more than 3.2 Ga in South Africa fluvial deposits (Homann et al., 2018). By linking rock‐derived nutrients with nitrogen from the atmosphere, these microbes, together with sulfur reducers that appeared earlier (3.47 Ga; Shen & Buick, 2004), are thought to have established the first nutrient links among the biosphere, atmosphere, geosphere, and hydrosphere, or the earliest biogeochemical cycles. This also would have helped fertilize the early oceans and connect marine and continental biogeochemical cycles before the Great Oxidation Event (GOE; Thomazo et al., 2018).
The mineral diversity of the upper continental crust likely increased modestly during the emergence of a young biosphere, most likely in localized carbonate and sulfate hot spots (e.g., biogenic pyrite) with little effect on the depositionary (soil and sediment) environment (Hazen et al., 2008; Shen & Buick, 2004).
Remnants of early Earth biogeochemical cycles can be found in modern anoxic analogs such as the deep biosphere—several kilometers under terrestrial and marine floors (Ijiri et al., 2018; Lever et al., 2013), where endolithic cyanobacteria were recently discovered (Puente‐Sánchez et al., 2018)—some marine and lacustrine sediments (Bowles et al., 2014; Wallmann et al., 2008), and pelagic areas of anoxic lakes and seas, e.g. Lake Matano (SE Asia), Black Sea (eastern Europe), and Cariaco Basin (NE South America; Crowe, 2008; Reinhard et al., 2014; Wright et al., 2012).
1.4. THE GREAT OXIDATION EVENT
The revolutionary “invention” of photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation by Cyanobacteria at some point in the Archean (Olson, 2006; Schirrmeister et al., 2015; Shih, 2015) triggered a cascade of events in the weathering environment, the mineral landscape, and the cycles of nutrients that supported an evolving and more complex biosphere. Oxygen enrichment by photosynthetic biota slowly consumed the available pool of redox‐sensitive elements (e.g., Fe, Mn, Cu, Mo, Cr) from surface environments in the late Archean, followed by their depletion in the deep oceans at the end of Proterozoic (Scott et al., 2008). This shifted the redox balance of most of Earth’s surface towards an oxidative state, increasing the surface thermodynamic disequilibrium gradient, and providing a major biological conduit for nutrient flows between continental crust, atmosphere, and hydrosphere (Figure 1.3). Microbial methane production likely further increased Earth’s oxygen reservoir, and its role in surface chemistry, by facilitating hydrogen (from water) to escape from the atmosphere to space by methane photolysis (Catling et al., 2001; Fixen et al., 2016).
Oxidation of terrestrial landscapes was not a one‐time event (Figure 1.3). Episodic (few million years span) increases in continental oxidative weathering prior to the GOE have been indicated by Se spikes in rock formations of Western Australia, resulting from oxidation of sulfide minerals on land about 2.66 Ga (Koehler et al., 2018). Other traces of oxidative weathering “oases” (likely due to stromatolithic photosynthesis) have been dated using sulphur isotopes in Archean sedimentary pyrites as far back as 3 and 2.97 Ga in the Pangola Supergroup, South Africa (Crowe et al., 2013; Eickmann et al., 2018), and using radiogenic Os to 2.5 Ga (late Archean) in Mount McRae Shale, Western Australia (Kendall et al., 2015; Reinhard et al., 2009; Stüeken et al., 2012). Possible pathways for the first biological oxidative weathering and biological organic matter stabilization in soil/sediment by cyanobacteria–archaea–fungi consortia therefore may have occurred in soil and aquatic ecosystems on land during early Archean times (Lalonde & Konhauser, 2015), as well as in cryptoendolithic ecosystems in silicate rock crust as found in present day East Antarctica (Mergelov et al., 2018). Hints for the existence of such endolithic ecosystems, likely aquatic, have been preserved in both Archean and Proterozoic mineral deposits (Golubic & Seong‐Joo, 1999; McLoughlin et al., 2007).
The GOE, a planetary scale photosynthesis‐driven shift in the redox state of Earth’s surface occurring in the late Archean (Catling, 2013; Kump, 2008; Lyons et al., 2014), irreversibly set the reduced crust on an oxidative weathering path that has remained stable up to the present. Abundant “biological oxygen” amounted to major changes in the interaction of geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. One of the consequences was a diversification boost in the mineral world, with the incorporation of a large number of novel life‐promoted oxide species, particularly minerals of different (oxidized) species of As, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, S, U, and Zn, and other trace elements (Hazen, Sverjensky, et al., 2013; Sverjensky & Lee, 2010), phosphates, and new carbon‐based biominerals such as organic biominerals and biocarbonates (Hazen, Downs, et al., 2013). It is estimated that about 4000 of the total of about 5500 minerals found on Earth today emerged during this major environmental redox shift (Hazen & Ferry, 2010; Pasero, 2018). Biogenic atmospheric oxygenation also freed an unprecedented amount of potential energy at the redox boundary, which stimulated the emergence of oxygen‐breathing eukaryotic life. This, in turn, would have further stabilized the planetary surface to a new biogeochemical state (Lenton et al., 2018; Lovelock, 1995).
Figure 1.3 Timeline of major events in the geosphere–atmosphere–biosphere interactions and how they shaped Earth system evolution, including a fundamental shift in its surface thermodynamic disequilibrium attained during The Great Oxidation Event.
Land colonization by vascular plants in the early Phanerozoic (Middle to Late Ordovician, 0.45 Ga), and the almost concomitant evolution of glomeromycota symbiosis, to which arbuscular mycorrhiza belongs (Morris et al., 2018; Strullu‐Derrien et al., 2018), would have introduced the first network of plant roots and fungal mycelia we now recognize as the “Wood Wide Web” (Simard et al., 1997). They enhanced weathering by selectively mining minerals and redistributing nutrients and information across plant and fungi individuals and species in the ecosystem (Klein et al., 2016). This increased ecosystem resilience allowed the emergence of a more complex terrestrial biosphere, including diverse forests and grassland ecosystems, which further captured and fixed C and N from the atmosphere into biomass and stabilized the global cycles of rock‐derived nutrients. Biosphere diversification also shifted biomass distribution from predominantly a subsurface biosphere in a microbial world, to above‐ground ecosystems after photosynthetic plants colonized the land (McMahon & Parnell, 2018). It is estimated that as much as 80% of current planetary biomass is hosted in land plants (Bar‐On et al., 2018). The emergence of organic and clay‐rich soils following the rise of the terrestrial biosphere in the Phanerozoic also meant that plant roots, mycorrhizal fungi, and the rhizosphere microbiome became the main drivers of continental weathering and biogeochemical cycles (Hazen, Sverjensky, et al., 2013).
The following sections will provide a comprehensive update on the role of different ecosystem components in modern weathering and the carbon cycle, including the inevitable anthropogenic effect.
1.5. MODERN‐DAY OXIDATIVE WEATHERING
Vast nutrient and energy transfers between Earth’s solid, fluid, and gaseous reservoirs support the development of modern terrestrial ecosystems. Under the oxygen‐rich atmosphere, this planetary‐scale bioreaction continuously consumes exposed rock minerals, oxygen, and CO2 to drive the cycling of C, N and rock‐derived elements through oxidative weathering. Bedrock weathering prepares the terrestrial surface for developing ecosystems by physically and chemically altering rocks, releasing major and micronutrients to pore water, transporting them to rivers, lakes, and seas, integrating them into secondary minerals and organic–mineral aggregates, and delivering them in accessible forms to various biota. There is a very tight coupling between the exposed upper crust and the biosphere, which results in a slow but continuous physical fracturing and chemical alteration of bedrock to secondary minerals in a continuous flow or “river” of clay minerals which progresses upwards, then follows gravity gradients to constantly replenish the biosphere’s nutrient‐rich substrates (Holbrook et al., 2019; Richter, 2017). The intensity of these processes as well as the nutrient and mineral make‐up of bedrock dictates the functioning of the overlaying ecosystems, and their feedbacks to the wider hydrosphere and atmosphere (Kaspari & Powers, 2016; Zaharescu, Hooda, Burghelea, & Palanca‐Soler, 2016).
The transfer of chemical elements between rock and living systems during weathering unfolds over a wide range of scales, from molecules to the entire biosphere, and these transfers have been the focus of a plethora of studies. Particularly noteworthy is the comprehensive effort to understand matter and energy fluxes in the shallow and porous crust harboring life in the interdisciplinary framework of Critical Zone science (Richter & Billings, 2015). Recent advances in isotope geochemistry, hydrology, ecology, and remote sensing have made it possible to better constrain the interactions between different components of atmosphere, geosphere, and biosphere at various scales and better understand how they shape the surface of Earth and transform parent rock to soil and sediments that sustain life (Chorover et al., 2011; Zaharescu, Palanca‐Soler, Hooda, et al., 2016).
Incipient stages of mineral weathering, when the first microbes, fungi, and plant roots explore freshly exposed mineral surfaces, are among the most active (Zaharescu et al., 2017), and they trigger the flow of energy and nutrients feeding the major biogeochemical cycles. Mass‐balance approaches are often used to follow the flow of chemical elements from minerals thorough different ecosystem components during weathering in both natural and experimental settings (Anderson et al., 2002; Burghelea et al., 2018; Yousefifard et al., 2012). The modern‐day silicate‐weathering environment is characterized by abundant carbon in oxidized (CO2) and reduced (organic acids, siderophores, and biopolymers) forms, mostly released by the biosphere through respiration, decomposition, and other metabolic activities. Human activity adds an important and increasing fraction of carbon through the fossil‐fuel extractive industry (Figure 1.4). Interactions among abiotic and biotic components of the biosphere modulate modern‐day weathering of the exposed upper crustal environment and the cycles of elements through Earth’s solid, fluid, and gaseous reservoirs.
Figure 1.4 Carbon and energy flows on the modern, biosphere‐dominated Earth surface. Under modern‐day weathering, CO2 released through mantle degassing (terrestrial and marine), biosphere respiration, or anthropogenic fossil‐fuel extraction and burning reacts with rainwater, producing carbonic acid. The biosphere further converts CO2 to organic acids (through light‐harvesting photosynthesis), which together with the carbonic acid and O2 from the atmosphere react with exposed silicate rock to release chemical elements to flowing water. These elements enter the biosphere and migrate through its different trophic levels as nutrients, are transported to oceans, or precipitate as secondary minerals in soils and sediments.
1.5.1. Abiotic Weathering
Disentangling the contribution of various abiotic and biotic factors to weathering in a biosphere‐dominated terrestrial world is challenging. Whether living or nonliving factors are the first agents of weathering has been a persistent “chicken‐and‐egg” question in Earth sciences. Perhaps a good way to approach this problem is by studying incipient weathering and ecosystem colonization of freshly exposed minerals or in recently exposed rock such as volcanic fields, exposed bedrock in the mountains, and landscapes exposed by glacial retreat.
Studies carried out in controlled laboratory settings with unreacted rock exposed to incipient weathering under abiotic conditions have shown an initial spike in solute (anion and cation) export to pore waters (driven by carbonation reactions), which was significantly affected by microbial and plant presence (Burghelea et al., 2018; Zaharescu et al., 2019). This was consistent with early mineral exposure by fracturing and initial mass loss of elements from freshly exposed mineral lattices due to increased exchange at the water–mineral interface, e.g., cracking developed during oxidative/hydration expansion stresses of reduced mineral surfaces under unsaturated pore fluids. Repulsive forces during water–rock interaction have been demonstrated in laboratory experiments (Levenson & Emmanuel, 2017), and field studies have shown evidence of micron‐scale surface spalling and loss of Na‐containing glass from grain surface to a depth of 250 μm, with minimal secondary mineral deposition in subsurface basalt exposed to subpolar climate (Hausrath et al., 2008).
Temperature has a strong effect on incongruent mineral weathering due to the different activation energies of mineral dissolution; e.g., between pH ~7 and 9, basaltic glass dissolution is faster than embedded minerals at low temperature (~0°C), while basaltic forsterite dissolves more quickly than glass at higher temperatures (~50°C; Bandstra & Brantley, 2008).
Ice nucleation, pervasive over large swaths of the terrestrial surface, particularly at high altitudes and latitudes, and during periods of terrestrial history, e.g., glaciations and Snowball Earth events, is also a major driver of physical and, indirectly, chemical weathering. Studies have shown that active sites of ice nucleation on mineral surfaces generally coincide with sites of incipient chemical weathering in field conditions, e.g., lamellar edges in biotite, cracks, and other mineral defects (Lybrand & Rasmussen, 2014; Murray et al., 2012). Such crystal defects increase the surface area exposed to weathering. Ice nucleation in rock cracks and pores also increases water volume by about 9% (Fahey & Dagesse, 1984), increasing the stresses on minerals making it about three to four times more effective than wetting–drying in disintegrating rock (Fahey, 1983). Cycles of water adsorption on minerals followed by drying, however, have a similar or greater effect on mass loss (leaching) compared to freeze–thaw cycles, releasing ~0.2% of basalt mass after 200 cycles (Yesavage et al., 2015) and up to 3–10% after 25 dry–wet cycles on carbonate rocks (Dunn & Hudec, 1972). Wetting–drying effect on physical disaggregation is enhanced in clays (Dunn & Hudec, 1972) due to their layered structure, which is exposed to repulsive forces when layers adsorb highly polar water molecules in the interspace (Fahey, 1983).
Friction/abrasion of mineral surfaces during gravitational kinetics, e.g., rock transport by rivers and streams (Petrovich, 1981
