Biological Control for Plant Protection: Recent Advances in Research and Sustainability E-Book
Editors: Sonika Sharma
85,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
With pesticide overuse threatening ecosystems, food safety, and human health,Biological Control for Plant Protection: Recent Advances in Research and Sustainability addresses one of the most pressing challenges in modern agriculture, enhancing crop productivity while reducing reliance on chemical pesticides. Integrating scientific advances with practical strategies to support integrated pest, weed, and disease management systems, the book brings together contributions from leading researchers and academicians providing an up-to-date compilation of topics ranging from isolation, characterization, and mass rearing of natural enemies to the field application of botanicals and biological methods for biotic stress management in plants. Key Features: Explores cutting-edge biological control methods for pests, pathogens, and weeds. Highlights environmentally sustainable alternatives to chemical pesticides. Covers natural enemies, botanicals, and biofertilizers as components of integrated management. Presents case studies and research from diverse agroecosystems, including organic farming. Provides a comprehensive reference for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers.
Das E-Book können Sie in Legimi-Apps oder einer beliebigen App lesen, die das folgende Format unterstützen:
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
Ähnliche
BENTHAM SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD.
End User License Agreement (for non-institutional, personal use)
This is an agreement between you and Bentham Science Publishers Ltd. Please read this License Agreement carefully before using the ebook/echapter/ejournal (“Work”). Your use of the Work constitutes your agreement to the terms and conditions set forth in this License Agreement. If you do not agree to these terms and conditions then you should not use the Work.
Bentham Science Publishers agrees to grant you a non-exclusive, non-transferable limited license to use the Work subject to and in accordance with the following terms and conditions. This License Agreement is for non-library, personal use only. For a library / institutional / multi user license in respect of the Work, please contact: [email protected].
Usage Rules:
All rights reserved: The Work is the subject of copyright and Bentham Science Publishers either owns the Work (and the copyright in it) or is licensed to distribute the Work. You shall not copy, reproduce, modify, remove, delete, augment, add to, publish, transmit, sell, resell, create derivative works from, or in any way exploit the Work or make the Work available for others to do any of the same, in any form or by any means, in whole or in part, in each case without the prior written permission of Bentham Science Publishers, unless stated otherwise in this License Agreement.You may download a copy of the Work on one occasion to one personal computer (including tablet, laptop, desktop, or other such devices). You may make one back-up copy of the Work to avoid losing it.The unauthorised use or distribution of copyrighted or other proprietary content is illegal and could subject you to liability for substantial money damages. You will be liable for any damage resulting from your misuse of the Work or any violation of this License Agreement, including any infringement by you of copyrights or proprietary rights.Disclaimer:
Bentham Science Publishers does not guarantee that the information in the Work is error-free, or warrant that it will meet your requirements or that access to the Work will be uninterrupted or error-free. The Work is provided "as is" without warranty of any kind, either express or implied or statutory, including, without limitation, implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose. The entire risk as to the results and performance of the Work is assumed by you. No responsibility is assumed by Bentham Science Publishers, its staff, editors and/or authors for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products instruction, advertisements or ideas contained in the Work.
Limitation of Liability:
In no event will Bentham Science Publishers, its staff, editors and/or authors, be liable for any damages, including, without limitation, special, incidental and/or consequential damages and/or damages for lost data and/or profits arising out of (whether directly or indirectly) the use or inability to use the Work. The entire liability of Bentham Science Publishers shall be limited to the amount actually paid by you for the Work.
General:
Any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this License Agreement or the Work (including non-contractual disputes or claims) will be governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of Singapore. Each party agrees that the courts of the state of Singapore shall have exclusive jurisdiction to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this License Agreement or the Work (including non-contractual disputes or claims).Your rights under this License Agreement will automatically terminate without notice and without the need for a court order if at any point you breach any terms of this License Agreement. In no event will any delay or failure by Bentham Science Publishers in enforcing your compliance with this License Agreement constitute a waiver of any of its rights.You acknowledge that you have read this License Agreement, and agree to be bound by its terms and conditions. To the extent that any other terms and conditions presented on any website of Bentham Science Publishers conflict with, or are inconsistent with, the terms and conditions set out in this License Agreement, you acknowledge that the terms and conditions set out in this License Agreement shall prevail.Bentham Science Publishers Pte. Ltd. No. 9 Raffles Place Office No. 26-01 Singapore 048619 Singapore Email: [email protected]
FOREWORD
I am extremely happy to know that the book ‘Biological Control for Plant Protection: Recent Advances in Research and Sustainability’ is being published by Bentham Science Publishers, UAE. I feel delighted to congratulate the editorial team of Dr. Sonika Sharma (DAV University, Jalandhar), Dr. Talwinder Kaur (Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar), Dr. Ashutosh Sharma (DAV University, Jalandhar), and Dr. Bahaderjeet Singh (Guru Kashi University, Talwandi Sabo) for the conceptualization and compilation of this important book on the eco-friendly and sustainable approaches to plant protection in field crops. A sizeable proportion of our agricultural production is reduced by competing organisms, which include insect pests, plant pathogens, and weeds. Further, some insect pests also cause significant post-harvest losses. To ensure global food security, it is important to reduce the potential damage due to weeds, insect pests, and plant pathogens. To increase productivity by reducing the competition with weeds or the damage by insect pests and pathogens is need of the hour. The conventional methods of controlling weeds and pests through chemicals have environmental and human health concerns. In recent years, a wealth of useful information has been accumulated about the biological control of these problems in an eco-friendly manner, and some of the biocontrol formulations have also been commercialized. The present book covers a range of topics from the viewpoint of biocontrol of weeds, insect pests, nematodes, and other plant pathogens. Further, the role of botanicals and specific microbes like actinobacteria and Alternaria spp. have also been discussed in detail. The role of bio-priming in plant disease management has been elaborately discussed in one chapter. The book is a compilation of 15 chapters written by different academicians/researchers working in the area of biocontrol of weeds and pests. It will present a holistic package of information on the recent advances in biological control of weeds, insect pests, and plant pathogens for the researchers, teachers, and students.
I convey my thanks and best wishes to the editors and the contributing authors for this significant edited work. I hope and believe that the readers will relish reading this excellent compilation on plant protection sciences.
PREFACE
The food and nutritional security of the increasing human population is one of the biggest challenges of the present century. Various organisms, like weeds, crop pests, diseases, etc., are some of the major limiting factors in increasing crop productivity for increasing human population and decreasing agricultural land. Biocontrol or biological control is a method of management for any potentially noxious organisms (crop pests, pathogens, or weeds) using another organism in an ecologically sustainable manner, thereby saving our crops from such noxious organisms. These biological strategies include the use of predators, parasitosis, antagonist organisms, pathogens of noxious organisms, competitors, herbivores, etc., that have naturally evolved alongside the noxious organisms during the evolution as a part of the food chain or to maintain the ecological balance. The mass multiplication of these biocontrol agents and utilization of them against crop pest pathogens and weeds is a new category of human interventions for crop protection in an eco-friendly way, thereby reducing the dependence on agrochemicals that may not be ecologically safe. In recent years, due to environmental awareness as a result of mass media and discussions at several international forums, there has been a gradual shift in people’s choice toward relatively safer methods of crop protection interventions. Several efforts were made to evaluate new biocontrol methods, and a lot of scientific information has emerged. Therefore, there was a need to compile the recent progress in this area in the form of a book.
In this regard, the present edited book entitled ‘Biological Control for Plant Protection: Recent Advances in Research and Sustainability’ is a timely attempt to incorporate all the recent advancements in the field of biological control in relation to plant protection. A total of 15 chapters have been included in this edited collection. Its chapters cover all major areas of biocontrol, like mass multiplication of bio-control agents, their genetic engineering, biopesticides, etc. An attempt has also been made to discuss all major classes of biocontrol agents like actinobacteria, biocontrol agents for nematodes and lepidopteran pests, etc. Further, the new biotechnological methods to improve the effectiveness of biocontrol agents have also been discussed. Besides this, its role in organic agriculture and ecological sustainability has also been discussed in specific chapters. The editors wish the readers an enjoyable journey while going through this book.
List of Contributors
Biological Control in Organic Agriculture
Ruchika Kumari1,#,Kushal Thakur1,#,Damini1,Palak Thakur1,Kirti Raina1,Rohit Sharma2,Rohit Sharma3,Amandeep Singh4,Randeep Singh5,Ashun Chaudhary1,*Abstract
Eco-friendly management of insect pests using sustainable measures is the need of the hour to prevent crop yield losses caused by pests. For sustainable agriculture, the use of biological methods, viz., botanicals, biological control, biopesticides, and pheromones for pest management, should be adopted and popularized on high priority. Chemical pesticides accumulate in the soil, disrupting its structure and fertility over time, causing long-term contamination and ecological imbalance. Biological control is a central component of integrated pest management (IPM), which constitutes an array of scientific methods adopted in both conventional and organic farming systems. The main objective of the study is to better understand the potential of botanicals in sustainable pest and disease management while maintaining ecological balance to assess the effectiveness of various botanical extracts or chemicals in eradicating specific pests, diseases, or weeds and to identify natural alternatives to synthetic pesticides and herbicides, thereby lowering the environmental and health dangers connected with chemical use. The study utilized search engines, research papers, online databases, and books, with data from various platforms contributing to this study. Unlike chemical pesticides, botanicals degrade quickly, hence enhancing soil health and maintaining rhizosphere microorganisms. They are cost-effective, non-toxic, and accessible for pest management. Botanicals are a sustainable alternative to agrochemicals that benefit soil health, protect microflora, and support organic farming. Plants, such as Azadirachta indica, Chrysanthemum, Pongamia, Lantana, Calotropis, Shorea robusta, etc., are used as botanicals. The
development and utilization of botanicals in pest management offer an environment-friendly and cost-effective approach. The focus should be on advancing well-researched botanical solutions to promote sustainable agriculture. These botanicals can play a crucial role in integrated pest management (IPM) strategies. By integrating these natural solutions into sustainable agricultural practices, we can reduce reliance on synthetic pesticides, minimize ecological harm, and promote long-term agricultural productivity and soil health.
INTRODUCTION
The plant kingdom has benefitted human civilizations in several ways since ancient times. The discovery of agriculture took place about 10,000 years ago, during the New Stone Age. Agriculture’s beginnings may be traced back to the rich Crescent Valley. Civilized man developed agriculture to use plant resources primarily as food and then with further development for fiber and fodder. As the years passed, intensive agriculture and the Industrial Revolution began to fulfill the requirements of vigorously increasing the human population and increasing the yield of crops for their benefit, and adverse effects on the environment took place. Human ailments soon took a severe toll on civilizations, and the plant world once again came to the rescue, culminating in the creation of Ayurveda, homeopathic, and Unani healthcare systems. Intensive agriculture has resulted in a rise in pest population and disease propagules, as well as increased competition for food. Synthetic pesticides are heavily used, leading to soil deterioration, environmental pollution, and various human diseases. Following the signing of the World Trade Organization (WTO) general agreement on trade and tariffs in recent years, more focus has been placed on using ecologically friendly pesticides for crop production due to their low toxicity, low disease resistance, and low residual concerns.
Since there are several methods available for pest and disease management, before using any of the control methods in organic agriculture, we must look into the advantages and drawbacks of that particular method. The major types of pest control methods are biological, physical, and chemical. Tillage for weed management and open-field burning for pest control are examples of physical control. Whereas, chemical control includes using various synthetic chemicals to control the pest population. The side effects of chemical control may lead to the deterioration of soil health, water pollution, increased salinity of the soil, etc. They are also expensive and every farmer cannot afford them and also have some non-target effects [1].
DeBach defines biological control as the “Action of parasites, predators, or pathogens in maintaining another organism's population density at a longer average than would occur in their absence”. Cultural practices were introduced into use much before the discovery of biocontrol by chance. The historic tradition of avoiding planting identical crops in the same agricultural land every third or fourth year, or even longer, to avoid the spreading of diseases is known as crop rotation. Crop rotation results in the insect or pathogen level in the soil falling below a certain threshold value.
Nitrates and pesticides have been found in groundwater in several agricultural areas. Nitrate levels in drinking water are harmful to people's health, especially newborns, and can be fatal in some circumstances. In cereals, pulses, vegetable oils, meat, vegetables, fruits, and animal feed, traces of banned pesticides like DDT and BHC isomers have been reported. Sustainable agriculture is one of the methods to avoid the depreciation of the environment, soil health, and human health. Sustainable agriculture encompasses a variety of atypical farming methods, including organic, alternative, regenerative, ecological, and low-input farming. A sustainable farm must produce enough quality food, safeguard its resources, and should be ecologically friendly and profitable. Organic farming relies on favorable natural processes, including resources that can be regenerated from the yard itself, rather than purchasing items such as fertilizers. Organic farmers help in improving soil health by nourishing the soil's living component i.e., the microbial inhabitants who release, convert, and transport plant nutrients. Organic farming starts by focusing on soil health and using locally accessible resources to add organic matter. ‘Certified organic’ label applies to agricultural goods that have been cultivated and processed according to given standards and validated by accredited state or private organizations. Organic and integrated farming provides substantial opportunities on numerous levels, contributing to thriving rural economies through long-term growth.
The increased concern about the environmental and health effects of synthetic pesticides and herbicides has fuelled the search for sustainable alternatives in agriculture. Botanicals made from plants are a promising answer for pest and disease management in organic and environmentally sound farming systems. These natural products contain bioactive components that can efficiently manage pests, diseases, and weeds while causing minimal damage to non-target creatures and the environment. Exploring the potential of various botanicals is critical for developing sustainable methods that reduce chemical dependency, maintain ecological balance, and promote long-term productivity in agriculture. This study focuses on identifying plants, their extracts, oils, and specific compounds with proven efficacy in controlling insects, nematodes, mites, rodents, etc. (Fig. 1). By analyzing their potential as natural alternatives to synthetic chemicals, the study intends to contribute to the development of eco-friendly and sustainable pest management systems, improving agricultural output while protecting the environment and human health.
Fig. (1)) Various botanicals, their targeted organisms, and the associated benefits of using botanical.BOTANICALS USED AGAINST INSECTS
Acacia catechu
Family: Mimosaceae
Acacia catechu is widely cultivated in Southeast Asia, including India. It is widely planted in Bangladesh's northern districts, particularly in Nawabganj and Pabna. This tree is primarily utilized for catechu extraction, with the wood chips being used as firewood. It has insecticidal activity against 4 stored pests Tribolium confusum, T. castaneum, C. chinensis L., Sitophilus oryzae L. HCl and sodium bicarbonate can be used to make a catechin-based insecticidal product [2]. Its gum spray has been reported to reduce the population of the rice moth.
Acacia concinna
Family: Mimosaceae
It is a tropical and subtropical perennial shrub found primarily in Assam, Bihar, the Western Peninsula of India, Burma, and Malaysia. The ovicidal and larvicidal activity of the extracts of Acacia concinna seeds and leaves, prepared from organic solvents (such as petroleum ether and acetone, etc.) and water against the teak defoliator Hyblaea puera have been reported. The extract treatment led to 100% mortality of the larvae at a concentration of 0.25% [3]. The leave powder was also successfully used to give protection against R. dominica and S. oryzae during storage of rice grains.
Acorus calamus
Family: Araceae
This plant is mostly found in Jammu and Kashmir, Mysore, and the Northern Himalayas. Asarones, which are derived from the crude extract of its rhizomes, are effective antifeedants and growth inhibitors of the variegated cutworm [4]. Insecticidal action against T. castaneum, S. oryzae, and the flat-grain beetle Latheticus oryzae has been reported using the powder of its roots and extracts in water. The vapors from the essential oil of this plant have been shown to possess toxicity against newly formed adults of C. chinensis [5]. Benzene extract of its rhizome provides grain protection in green grams.
Aegle marmelos
Family: Rutaceae
It is found all over India and Southeast Asia. Essential oil obtained from the leaves of this plant is used against the pests of stored gram, i.e., Callosobruchus chinensis and Tribolium castaneum [6].
Ageratum conyzoides
Family: Asteraceae
It is an invasive species found in subtropical and temperate areas. The antijuvenile hormonal mechanism of its essential oil and the pre-primary components of the oil, especially the precocene, have been observed. The oil causes toxicity in adults of Callosobruchus maculatus and cowpea weevil [7]. In citrus groves, A. conyzoides provides a safe harbor for spider mite predators. Its flower and leaf extracts can also be used against hemipterans pests and cotton stainers [8].
Ajuga parviflora
Family: Lamiaceae
It is a bugleweed with a creeping habitat and small flowers. Its leaf and stem extracts cause high mortality in insects like Sitophilus granaries and Tribolium castaneum (red flour beetle), particularly in their larval stage [9].
Allium sativum
Family: Amaryllidaceae
It is an everlasting plant that grows from the bulb. Different concentrations of garlic juice cause the mortality of the two dipterans pests, viz., Musca domestica L. and Delia radicum [10]. Garlic extracts from its bulb are also effectively used against Spodoptera litura at different concentrations [11].
Azadirachta indica
Family: Meliaceae
This tree grows in tropical, subtropical, semi-arid, and arid climates. The neem tree can be found in India, Pakistan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and East Africa. Neem has been found to possess insecticidal, antifeedant, and insect-repellent activities. Neem seed kernel extract has been shown to possess insecticidal activity towards the Brassica aphid, L. erysimi [12].
Neem oil: Various formulations of neem oil have been used against M. testulalis [13]. Neem oil's bioactivity is mostly due to the presence of disulfides. Although there are a lot of azadirachtin analogs in neem oil, azadirachtin is the most important contributor to its insecticidal action. Different concentrations of neem oil are used against Culex and Aedes mosquitoes [14]. Azadirachtin kills the larvae by inhibiting their growth and was found to have anti-ecdysteroid action. Seed cake gathered during the production of neem oil from seeds can also be utilized as an organic fertilizer.
Neem leaves: Its leaves are the vermicomposting material, having pesticide qualities as well. Adding foliage while vermicasting with earthworms encourages speedy earthworm growth [15]. By offering protection against the pulse beetle Callosobruchus chinensis, the neem leaf extends the storage stability of mung beans. A dosage of 1.5mg/100g of neem leaf increased the death rate by 62%, thus acting as an effective insecticide [16].
Neem bark: The presence of increased cyanogenic glucosides, higher azadirachtin, and nimbin content in neem bark was recently demonstrated to have anti-lepidopteran activity [16].
Insecticidal Constituents of Neem
Azadirachtin: It is the major constituent of neem. Morgan et al. from Keel University in England identified this compound from A. indica, which accounts for 0.1-0.3 percent of neem seeds. It is a tetranortriterpenoid limonoid with pesticidal and repellent effects. Azadirachtin, as well as some other complementary triterpenoids, including azadirachtin B, nimbin, and salannin, are the dynamic components. They work by interrupting insect maturation and growth process and, at the same time, discouraging them from feeding on crop plants. It is a botanical insecticide with excellent growth-modulating effectiveness, as well as inhibitory effects on insect ovipositing and eating [17].
Nimbolide: The herbicidal activity of neem is further demonstrated by two primary active components, viz., Nimbic acid and Nimbolide B. They may hinder the development of several plants like alfalfa, lettuce, barnyard grass, etc., demonstrating their phytotoxic activity. Some common plants (or their parts) that are used for the management of insect pests are shown in Fig. (2).
Annona squamosa
Family: Annonaceae
This plant grows as a tiny tree or shrub in the sub-tropical climates. This plant is native to South America; however, it may be found all over India. The pulse beetle, C. chinensis, the principal pest of pulses, may be efficiently reduced using a blend of partly purified flavonoids from A. squamosa. A concentration of 2.5% oils from seeds of A. squamosa significantly reduced the leaf damage incurred by their larvae [18]. Several chemicals with excellent insecticidal action have been identified and reported from extracts of various sections of the plant used in agricultural fields. The largest phytochemical category, annonaceous acetogenins, has a unique spectrum of activity (ATP depletion) against insecticide-resistant pests [19].
Argemone mexicana
Family: Papaveraceae
It is a common annual plant found mostly in agricultural fields and wastelands. At varying concentrations, the larvicidal competence of its aquas extract prepared from leaves against the larvae of Spodoptera was investigated, and it was recorded that the death rate increased with the concentration of plant extracts in a dose-dependent manner [20]. Dysdercus koenigii was killed by the aqueous extract of the whole plant and its seed oil. The impact of Argemone mexicana leaf extract in acetone solvent on Heliothis armigera after 24 hours of treatment demonstrated severe epithelial lining damage, with epithelial cells displaying vacuoles in specific locations. The severity of epithelial lining damage was greater in larvae exposed for 96 hours, and epithelial cells revealed vacuoles in several spots [21]. Methanol extracts of A. mexicana seeds, aerial parts, and roots had insecticidal and repellent action toward Callosobruchus chinensis and Sitophilus [22].
Fig. (2)) (a) Azadirachta indica plant and leaves. (b) Catharanthus roseus leaves and flowers.Calophyllum inophyllum
Family: Caryophyllaceae
It is a slow-growing tree, commonly grown for its aesthetic value. Leaf extracts of Callophyllum have insect-repellent activity against eggplant aphids and the aphids of black beans [23]. The seed oil of this plant has been successfully used against the termite attack [24]. The seed extracts are also effective against the larvae of Spilosoma obliqua.
Catharanthus roseus
Family: Apocynaceae
Aqueous preparations of Catharanthus roseus leaves against Earias vittella, the okra shoot, and fruit borer have been documented [25]. The pupicidal activity of plants was investigated by topical administration of Catharanthus roseus leaf extract to the pre-pupal phase of Spodoptera litura and it was found that the mortality increased with the increase in its concentration [26]. Root extract with ethyl acetate as the solvent caused sterility in adults of Spilarctia obliqua [27].
Cestrum nocturnum
Family: Solanaceae
It is a shrub or small tree having fragrant flowers. In an experiment where the efficacy of ethanol extracts from the foliage of Cestrum nocturnum on the stored grain pest Tribolium castaneum was investigated, it was recorded that they had an impressive insecticidal action, and the larval mortality was increased [28].
Curcuma longa
Family: Zingiberaceae
This is a tropical and temperate zone annual plant, also used as a condiment. The extracts made from turmeric rhizomes show insecticidal properties against Plutella xylostella [29]. A spectroscopic investigation identified the bio-active component of the turmeric rhizome as sesquiterpene ketone (ar-turmerone). The outcome of the volatile oil derived from the foliage of Curcuma longa on offspring production in three insects, namely Tribolium castaneum, Rhyzopertha dominica, and Sitophilus oryzae, was studied and it was reported that the mortality rate was very high [30]. The rhizome powder of turmeric also protects stored rice grains from S. cerealella.
Tagetes minuta
Family: Asteraceae
On farms, it is an unwanted weed commonly found in maize fields. When blended with grain, the powder of the plants is efficient against bean weevils, but the powder is required in high quantity. Insecticidal constituents were found in all plant parts of T. minuta tested; therefore, any plant part could be effectively used for controlling insects in the stored products. Both the flowers and leaf extracts possess some volatile chemicals that act quickly, presumably as the fumigants [31].
Syzygium aromaticum
Family: Myrtaceae
The powder of S. aromaticum has insecticidal effects on the survival of S. oryzae. Essential oils from S. aromaticum have shown insecticidal activity toward Callosobruchus maculatus when exposed for 24 hours [32]. Clove oil's main ingredient is two-methoxy-4-(2-propenyl)-phenol (D5). Clove oil had a toxic and repellent activity toward S. oryzae and R. dominica [33].
Ferula asafoetida
Family: Apiaceae
This perennial herb thrives in subtropical climates. Cornfield ants were shown to be repellent to their whole plant extract.
Ficus carica
Family: Moraceae
This is a Mediterranean native, small tree or bush. When studied under controlled environments, its extracts from leaves were noticed to have an antifeedant effect on Spodoptera litura. Its leaf extracts can be employed as an alternative tool for the management of stink bugs.
Nerium oleander
Family: Apocynaceae
Nerium oleander is extensively planted as a decorative shrub or an improvised hedge all over India. The ethanol extract from its foliage has insecticidal properties against C. albiceps larvae [34]. The insecticidal properties of crude extract of leaves were investigated against Trogoderma granarium, and the mortality rate was about 70% [35]. Nerium water extract in methanol was found to be hazardous to natural communities of C. leucomelas in semi-controlled circumstances, with a 100% mortality rate after four days of its application.
Origanum vulgare
Family: Lamiaceae
It is a fragrant, woody perennial plant that grows up to 20-90 cm. Origanum vulgare oil has insecticidal efficacy against Alphitobius diaperinus, a smaller mealworm [36]. The essential oil contains carvacrol, which has insecticidal activities [37]. The effects of oregano essential oil on rice beetle adults and egg development were investigated and reported by contact toxicity [38]. The essential oils of O. vulgare and carvacrol are harmful to houseflies and can be used as insecticides to manage them [39].
Laurus nobilis
Family: Lauraceae
It is a large shrub with scented, everlasting leaves commonly utilized throughout the Mediterranean. The insecticidal properties of Laurus nobilis have been studied extensively. In an experiment, when the chemical constitution of L. nobilis essential oil and its insecticidal effectiveness toward T. castaneum were investigated, it was found that all of the essential oil concentrations examined caused more deaths than the control [40]. Oils from L. nobilis have also been used as a fumigant against the flour moth Ephestia kuehniella, and its mortality rate was extremely high [41].
Mentha pulegium
Family: Lamiaceae
It is a Middle Eastern and North African herbaceous plant. Even at low doses, its essential oil has a high insecticidal action toward the adults of rice weevils [42]. Its fatality effect was also assessed using contact poisoning and fumigation tests on R. dominica. The essential oil was notable for its high concentration of oxidized monoterpenes [43].
Ricinus communis
Family: Euphorbiaceae
The castor bean is a small tree that is moderately woody. In anti-frost regions, this lusty, delicate perennial plant can grow high. The extracts from the seeds displayed stronger insecticidal activity than leaf preparations, indicating that essential oil and ricinine are the main compounds of castor beans that act toward S. frugiperda [44]. The mortality rate was much higher when foliage-cutting ants were exposed to higher doses of ricinine [45]. The insecticidal efficacy of extract of the leaves of Ricinus towards Callosobruchus chinensis was found to be excellent. Towards C. chinensis, its flavonoids had insecticidal, oviposition, and ovicidal deterrent properties. Within 9 hours, both dried fresh leaves in methanol demonstrated 100% deaths in C. chinensis. The activity of the aqueous extract of the leaf was lower [46]. In another experiment, castor bean oil's biocidal efficacy towards S. zeamais was investigated at different dosages. Weevil mortality increased substantially with the oil dosage of Ricinus. It was found that 2 ml of oil was capable of killing about 50% of the maize weevils. At higher quantities, the oil strongly suppressed the germination of maize seeds [47]. The crude extract can be used to manage M. domestica fly numbers as a safer, more environmentally cordial, and close-fisted substitute for synthetic insecticides. The plant extract was also shown to result in larval death and developmental abnormalities [48].
Adansonia digitata
Family: Malvaceae
A. digitata is a deciduous tree that can outstretch to a height of roughly 20 m and has a sparse canopy, particularly in the drier portions of its habitat. The effect of bark powder on D. porcellus mortality was the strongest [49].
Jatropha curcas
Family: Euphorbiaceae
It is distributed worldwide in dry and semi-desert areas. Powder samples and extract from J. curcas seeds and pericarps were examined for toxicity on R. dominica and Tribolium castaneum. The insect deaths were found to be significantly higher in the seed treatments as compared to the pericarp treatments [50]. The leaf extract of Jatropha contained greater levels of cardiac glycosides and saponins. The use of J. curcas leaf powder has the potential to act as a viable substitute for chemical insecticides in the treatment of C. maculatus outbreaks.
Besides the above-mentioned plants, various other plants are used for insecticidal properties, and they are mentioned in Table 1.
BOTANICALS IN DEFIANCE OF NEMATODES
Acacia auriculiformis
Family: Mimosaceae
This is a tropical perennial tree grown for its graceful dangling phyllodes and attractive yellow flowers. Extracts of Acacia auriculiformis funicles are used as a foliar spray onto lady finger plants to suppress Meloidogyne incognita infection and promote plant growth [62]. In the case of brinjal, a combination of acacia compost with bioagents significantly reduced root-knot nematode and improved growth indices.
Azadirachta indica
Family: Meliaceae
When the Meloidogyne javanica second-stage juveniles were given an aqueous leaf extract of neem, it caused 70% mortality of the nematodes in tomatoes [63]. Pratylenchus goodeyi populations were lowered by soil infusions of crushed seeds (100 g/plant) at transplanting and thereafter for three-month durations [64]. In greenhouse trials, 1% neem cake reduced the lesion (P. penetrans) and root-knot (M. hapla) nematodes in the roots of tomatoes by 67-90%. In the field, neem cake decreased the frequency of lesion nematodes in maize roots by 23% and 70% in the soil around the root system [65]. In the case of Cicer arietinum, the leaf powder and seed cake reduced the nematode populations in the soil [66]. For all neem and manure treatments compared to untreated control plots, there was a noteworthy cutback in plant-parasitic nematode populations and an increment in plant growth in the case of pigeon peas [67].
Brassica campestris
Family: Brassicaceae
It is an herbaceous plant grown for oil. When utilized as green manure, chopped stems of Brassica species reduced soil nematode populations [68]. Blending these plants into farming systems is an option that is advantageous in supervising three nematode pests viz., Globodera, Meloidogyne, and Pratylenchus [69]. Certain nematodes, such as Caenorhabditis elegans, were inhibited by glucosinolates found in rapeseed [70].
Calendula officinalis
Family: Asteraceae
It is an attractive annual herb planted for its vivid yellow-colored flowers. The possibilities of nematode infection were very low when chickpea plants were intermixed with Calendula officinalis [71]. M. incognita population was found to be reduced in the vegetables when the dried plants were supplemented in the soil [72].
Calotropis procera
Family: Apocynaceae
It is an evergreen tree with flowers of cup-shaped. When contaminated nursery beds were treated with Calotropis leaves, root galls and the number of eggs were significantly reduced [73]. In the case of eggplant, chopped C. procera shoots significantly reduced the population of M. incognita in soil [74]. Calotropis shoots can also be utilized to control lesion nematodes in the case of sugarcane; however, their efficiency is limited [75].
Cannabis sativa
Family: Cannabaceae
In the instance of cucumber, the foliage of the marijuana plant was integrated into the soil, and the number of galls and egg mass of M. incognita were reduced considerably [76].
Catharanthus roseus
Family: Apocynaceae
It is a little decorative perennial plant native to the West Indies that can be found in India. When the M. incognita second-stage juveniles were tested with root extracts from Catharanthus roseus, it was found that they were extremely nematicidal [77]. Nematicidal and ovistatic effects are produced by incorporating leaves and stems into the soil [78].
Important alkaloids in periwinkle
Vinblastine: Vinblastine stops cancer cells from dividing. It binds to tubulin and prevents microtubules from developing. Cell cycle stall in M phase due to lack of chromosomal separation during anaphase of mitosis due to suppression of microtubule production [79].
Vincristine: It is commonly utilized in cancer treatment, specifically lymphoblastic leukemia.
Allium sativum
Family: Amaryllidaceae
It is a perennial herb that grows from the bulb. Garlic oil acts as a good nematicide in case of the wilt disease of pine [80]. Allicin, a nematicidal active ingredient in garlic, has been extracted and evaluated against Meloidogyne incognita. Every concentration of allicin was found to be highly toxic for the eggs of nematodes [81]. When given to jirds (Meriones spp.) alone or in combination with T. erecta extracts, the nematocidal effect of A. sativum extract against H. contortus was recorded. Therefore, the use of plant extracts with anthelmintic activity as part of a comprehensive bio-control strategy is a practical and sustainable option [82].
Aloe barbadense
Family: Asphodelaceae
Aloe is a plant that thrives in hot and dry environments. It is grown all over the world in subtropical climates. Stem extracts from Aloe vera plants were tested contrary to the M. incognita in the field of tomatoes. Tomato plants treated with varying concentrations grew taller, had longer roots, heavier shoots, and more yield. Because of the nemostatic action of the varied amounts of extract, the treated plant had improved growth parameters [83]. In the instance of diseased banana plants, the effectiveness of Aloe vera plants in the form of oil or water extract, alone or in combination, was studied. The mortality of nematodes in the second stage was very high [84].
Carthamus tinctorius
Family: Asteraceae
Safflower is a Mediterranean annual plant. Its flower extracts are highly toxic to Aphelenchoides besseyi. The mortality of Pratylenchus penetrans also gets increased when safflower oil is combined with dirt. The nematicidal components like 3-trans,11-trans-trideca-l, 3, 1l-triene 5,7,9-triyne, and 3-cis,11-trans have been isolated from its flowers [85].
Crotalaria juncea
Family: Fabaceae
