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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Biology and Ecology of Fishes Immerse yourself in the world of fish ecology with the newest edition of this essential introduction The study of fish ecology has traditionally proceeded along two tracks: the first is more basic, concerned with the anatomy, physiology and theoretical ecology of fish, and the second is more practical, concerning itself with fish populations, management, and habitats. Many fish researchers have come to view this distinction as artificial, and to develop a new study of fish that combines both tracks in a single holistic approach. It has never been more critical for introductory textbooks to represent this combined study in order to prepare the next generation of fish biologists and fishery scientists. Biology and Ecology of Fishes meets this need with a textbook that incorporates both biology and population management. Beginning with a general introduction to aquatic life and ecosystems, this book covers anatomical, environmental, and ethological topics to give a thoroughly rounded view of its subject, promising to serve as the fundamental introduction to multidisciplinary fish studies. Readers of the third edition of Biology and Ecology of Fishes will also find: * Detailed coverage of subjects including growth and bioenergetics, feeding and predation, mortality and recruitment and more * Increased attention to stressors of fish populations and communities * New and revised chapters that introduce quantitative methods and present emerging issues facing fish populations and communities Biology and Ecology of Fishes is a useful overview for advanced undergraduate and graduate students studying fish ecology or fishery biology, as well as a reference for researchers and professionals in fish ecology, fish population management, and related fields.
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Seitenzahl: 1317
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Acknowledgments
PART 1: Introduction
CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Aquatic Ecosystems
Properties of Water
What is a Fish?
Lentic Systems
Lotic Systems
Marine Systems
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 2: Fish Diversity
Fish Trait Diversity (Interspecific)
Intraspecific Trait Variation
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 3: Morphology and Evolution of Fishes
Body Plan and External Anatomy
Evolution of Fishes
Fish Body Structure
Summary
Literature Cited
PART 2: Bioenergetics and Growth
CHAPTER 4: Balanced Energy Equation
Energy Flow in Animals
Application of Energy Budgets
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 5: Metabolism and Other Energy Uses
Respiration and Metabolism
Energy Substrates
Metabolic Rates
Temperature Effects on Metabolic Rate
Metabolism and Swimming
Metabolism and Size
Cost of Digesting Food
Defecation and Excretion
Summary Equation and Energetics Model
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 6: Patterns of Growth and Reproduction
Factors Influencing Growth
Body Growth and Energy Storage
Growth and Latitude
Growth and Reproductive Tradeoffs
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 7: Estimating Growth and Condition of Fish
Measuring Size
Estimating Age
Back‐Calculating Size at Age
Growth in Length
Growth in Mass
Condition
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 8: Bioenergetics Models
Bioenergetics Models
Corroboration of Bioenergetics Models
Examples of Uses
Summary
Literature Cited
PART 3: Population Processes
CHAPTER 9: Abundance and Size Structure of Fish Stocks
Fish Stocks
Stock Discrimination
Characterizing Stocks: Relative Abundance
Characterizing Stocks: Estimating Actual Abundance
Characterizing Stocks: Size Distributions
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 10: Mortality
Variability in Mortality Rates
Estimating Mortality
Fishing and Natural Mortality
Emerging Methods for Estimating Mortality
Latitudinal Variation in Mortality Rates of Eurasian Perch
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 11: Density‐Dependence and Independence
Exponential and Logistic Population Growth Models
Surplus Production Model
Density‐Dependent and Density‐Independent Effects
Compensatory Density‐Dependence
Depensatory Density‐Dependence
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 12: Recruitment
The Critical Period and Why Recruitment is so Variable
Marine Versus Freshwater Larval Dynamics
Recruitment Indices
Stock–Recruitment Relationships
Stock Recruitment Models
Year‐Class Strength from Catch Curves
Incorporating Additional Explanatory Variables to Predict Recruitment
Synchrony in Recruitment
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 13: Social Behavior
Individual Behavior
Nonreproductive Social Behaviors
Social Hierarchies
Territoriality
Schooling
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 14: Competition
Niches of Intertidal Fishes
Tests of Competition
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 15: Positive Interactions
Common Types of Positive Interactions
Costs of Positive Interactions
Context Dependency in Positive Interactions
Positive Interactions and Community Organization
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 16: Movement and Habitat Use
Patterns of Movement
Methods to Study Movement and Habitat Use
Case Studies of Movements of Predators
Summary
Literature Cited
PART 4: Feeding and Predation
CHAPTER 17: Predation and Foraging Behavior
Components of Predation
Search Behavior
Capture Success
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 18: Optimal Foraging and Patch Use
Selection of Prey
Optimal Foraging
Optimal Patch Use
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 19: Diet Composition and Ration in Nature
Trophic Categories in Fishes
Determining the Trophic Group of Species
Determining the Food Habits of a Fish
Estimating Ration of Fishes in the Field
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 20: Predation Risk and Refuges
Laboratory Experiments on Foraging in Structure
Field Experiments on Foraging in Structure
Foraging and Predation Risk
Summary
Literature Cited
PART 5: Reproduction and Life Histories
CHAPTER 21: Reproductive Traits
Reproductive Differences
Maturation
Gonadal Investment
Parental Care
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 22: Reproductive Behavior and Spawning Migrations
Generalized Reproductive Behavior
Examples of Reproductive Behavior
Spawning Migrations
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 23: Life‐History Patterns and Reproductive Strategies
Reproductive Strategies
Life‐History Patterns
Life‐History Patterns
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 24: Ontogeny and Early Life of Fishes
Early Development in Fishes
Environmental Effects on Hatching and Emergence
Summary
Literature Cited
PART 6: Fish Communities in Aquatic Ecosystems
CHAPTER 25: Description and Measurement of Fish Communities
Fish Richness and Abundance
Diversity and Evenness
Similarity of Fish Communities
Evaluating Fish Communities Among Indiana Lakes
Changing Fish Communities in Lake Erie and Saginaw Bay
Assessing Rarity
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 26: Aquatic Food Webs
Food Web Structure
Perturbations and Stressors of Food Webs
Ecopath and Ecosim to Explore Fisheries Effects
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 27: Temperature and Fish Distributions
Factors Influencing Geographic Ranges of Fishes
Thermal Guilds of Fishes
Vertical Distribution of Fishes in Lakes and Oceans
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 28: Fish Communities in Temperate Streams
Stream Ecology
Fish Assemblage Studies in Streams
The Index of Biotic Integrity
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 29: Tropical Rivers
Species Diversity in the Tropics
Tropical Freshwater Fishes
Seasonality in the Tropics
Fish Communities of the Amazon River
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 30: Fish Communities in Lakes
Lake Zones
Lake Productivity
Bottom‐Up and Top‐Down Control
Immigration and Extinction in Lake Communities
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 31: Marine Ecosystems
Oceanographic Patterns
Marine Biogeographic Realms
Pelagic Zone
Coral Reefs
Deep Sea Fishes
Estuaries
Summary
Literature Cited
PART 7: Human Influences on Fish and Fisheries
CHAPTER 32: Fisheries Harvest
Types of Fisheries
Harvest Patterns
Overharvest
Fishing Regulations
Biological and Ecological Consequence of Fisheries Harvest
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 33: Invasive Species
Non‐native Species and Introductions
Invasive Carps
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 34: Aquaculture
Introduction
Culture Harvest
Management of Aquaculture
Positive and Negative Effects of Aquaculture
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 35: Climate Change and Consequences for Fish
Climate‐Induced Changes to Aquatic Systems
Effects on Fish Populations and Communities
Summary
Literature Cited
CHAPTER 36: Conservation of Freshwater Fishes
Introduction
Endangered Species and Extinctions
Conservation Genetics
Conservation Status of Freshwater Fishes in the United States
Case Histories in Conservation and Management
Summary
Literature Cited
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
TABLE 2‐1 The Estimated Number of Described Species and Number of Threatene...
Chapter 6
TABLE 6‐1 The Energy Budget for Each Age and Sex of Northern Pike from Lac ...
Chapter 8
TABLE 8‐1 Parameter Values for a Perch Bioenergetics Model.
Chapter 9
TABLE 9‐1 Total Lengths of 66 Individual Yellow Perch Collected in Pentwate...
Chapter 10
TABLE 10‐1 Example Estimated Instantaneous Annual Natural Mortality Rates o...
TABLE 10‐2 Example Field‐Derived Estimated Instantaneous Daily Mortality Ra...
TABLE 10‐3 Stage‐Specific Instantaneous Mortality (
Z
) and Duration for a Hy...
Chapter 13
TABLE 13‐1 The Social Hierarchy and Size of Cutthroat Trout in Three Pools....
Chapter 14
TABLE 14‐1 Differences Among Five Sculpin Species in Their Ability to Toler...
TABLE 14‐2 Distribution in the Intertidal Zone, Relative Abundance, and Cor...
TABLE 14‐3 Percent Contribution of Prey Categories Consumed by Each Sunfish...
TABLE 14‐4 Average Dry Weight (SE) at the End of Each Experiment for Each S...
Chapter 15
TABLE 15‐1 Definitions of Terms Used in Positive Interactions of Fishes....
Chapter 16
TABLE 16‐1 The Frequency and Percent Occurrence of Various Habitat Characte...
TABLE 16‐2 Number and Percent Occurrence of Active or Inactive Periods Duri...
Chapter 17
TABLE 17‐1 The Number of Responses and Swimming Speeds (Cm/S) for Fathead M...
Chapter 18
TABLE 18‐1 Effect of Relative Abundance of Prey (Ratio of
Neomysis
:
Crangon
Chapter 19
TABLE 19‐1 Trophic Classification Scheme for North American Freshwater Fish...
TABLE 19‐2 Proposed Fish Functional Groups with Emphasis on Interactions of...
TABLE 19‐3 Pivotal Size and Weight Categories that Determine Ontogenetic Ni...
Chapter 20
TABLE 20‐1 Search and Handling Times for Largemouth Bass Consuming Two Prey...
TABLE 20‐2 Average Percent Composition of the Diet of Bluegill by Habitat f...
Chapter 22
TABLE 22‐1 Recapture Data for Salmon Marked in the Issaquah River, Washingt...
Chapter 23
TABLE 23‐1 Factors Linked to Alternate Reproductive Life Histories in Fish ...
Chapter 24
TABLE 24‐1 Some Reproductive Characteristics of Adult Fishes that Produce L...
Chapter 25
TABLE 25‐1 Counts of Different Fish Species Collected by the Indiana Depart...
TABLE 25‐2 Paired Measures of Similarity and Distance Based on Comparisons ...
Chapter 28
TABLE 28‐1 Metrics and scoring criteria (points) for an IBI of warmwater Wi...
Chapter 29
TABLE 29‐1 Estimated Number of Fish Species for Freshwater and Marine Bioge...
TABLE 29‐2 Foods of Adult Characins of the Rio Madeira Basin.
Chapter 31
TABLE 31‐1 Some General Characteristics of Mesopelagic, Bathypelagic, and B...
Chapter 32
TABLE 32‐1 Harvest estimates for various categories of fisheries, in millio...
Chapter 36
TABLE 36‐1 The Number of Described Species in Various Taxonomic Groups for ...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
FIGURE 1‐1 Schematic of penetration by different wavelengths of light into f...
FIGURE 1‐2 Diagram of a lake and its zonation by depth during climatic seaso...
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3‐1 Basic terms to describe the orientation (bolded) and external mor...
FIGURE 3‐2 Phylogeny of major groups of extant fishes.
FIGURE 3‐3 (a) General fish body shapes and terminology for their descriptio...
FIGURE 3‐4 Sketches of the body form for (a) ambush, northern pike and (b) c...
Chapter 4
FIGURE 4‐1 The energy budget for an average carnivorous fish.
Chapter 5
FIGURE 5‐1 Diagram of several respirometers: Closed respirometer (glass a...
FIGURE 5‐2 Schematic diagram of a swimming respirometer (Brett 1964) used to...
FIGURE 5‐3 The relationship between metabolic rate and swimming speed of a 1...
FIGURE 5‐4 The relationship between standard metabolism (natural log scale) ...
FIGURE 5‐5 Metabolic rates of gobies acclimated to cool (dotted lines and op...
FIGURE 5‐6 Routine metabolic rates (log scale) of acclimated fish at each te...
FIGURE 5‐7 Standard and active metabolic rates for 10‐g sockeye salmon and 1...
FIGURE 5‐8 The relationship between time to consume 10 mg of oxygen and swim...
FIGURE 5‐9 The relationship between the standard metabolic rate and weight f...
FIGURE 5‐10 The oxygen consumption of an aholehole after consuming a 4.7% ra...
FIGURE 5‐11 Metabolic rate at a variety of rations and temperatures for (a) ...
Chapter 6
FIGURE 6‐1 Relationship between growth and ration for fingerling sockeye sal...
FIGURE 6‐2 Mean weight of immature Arctic charr after various time durations...
FIGURE 6‐3 Schematic lifetime growth patterns for animals exhibiting determi...
FIGURE 6‐4 Hypothetical changes in maximum and maintenance ration with fish ...
FIGURE 6‐5 Maintenance and maximum ration at each temperature for fingerling...
FIGURE 6‐6 Relationship between growth and ration at 5, 10, and 20 °C for fi...
FIGURE 6‐7 Comparison between predicted (open squares) and actual (solid squ...
FIGURE 6‐8 The seasonal accumulation of energy in the body, liver, and gonad...
FIGURE 6‐9 Differences in growth and mortality of Eurasian perch across a la...
FIGURE 6‐10 Relative body growth differences with age for parental (solid li...
FIGURE 6‐11 Schematic representation of body growth in parental and cuckolde...
Chapter 7
FIGURE 7‐1 Walleye (
Sander vitreus
) demonstrating the three most common meas...
FIGURE 7‐2 Example chronometric structures. (a) Pressed image of a yellow pe...
FIGURE 7‐3 Pressed image of a yellow perch scale from Lake St. Clair, estima...
FIGURE 7‐4 Illustrative relationships among lifetime age and length and mass...
FIGURE 7‐5 A hypothetical von Bertalanffy growth in length curve. Note that ...
Chapter 8
FIGURE 8‐1 Body mass predicted by the bass bioenergetics model (lines) as we...
FIGURE 8‐2 Measured and predicted rations over various time periods for larg...
FIGURE 8‐3 Observed mass (mean
+
2SE) and predicted mass from the bass bioen...
FIGURE 8‐4 Comparison between estimated food consumption (circles and square...
Chapter 9
FIGURE 9‐1 Russel’s (1931) stock dynamics diagram. For a closed stock, growt...
FIGURE 9‐2 General assumed relationship between population abundance and cat...
FIGURE 9‐3 Hypothetical length distribution of a large sample of individuals...
Chapter 10
FIGURE 10‐1 Typical organism survivorship curves. Most fish populations foll...
Chapter 11
FIGURE 11‐1 Example population abundance trajectories over time for (a) expo...
FIGURE 11‐2 Relationships between population abundance (N) and population gr...
FIGURE 11‐3 Density‐dependent reductions in daily growth for tilapia in aqua...
FIGURE 11‐4 Density‐dependent increases in mortality (Z) for brown trout sto...
FIGURE 11‐5 Density‐dependent production of age‐0 brown trout populations ov...
FIGURE 11‐6 Depensatory (declining) mortality (per‐day mortality coefficient...
Chapter 12
FIGURE 12‐1 Hypothetical Ricker stock–recruitment relationships for differen...
FIGURE 12‐2 Hypothetical Beverton–Holt stock–recruitment relationships for d...
Chapter 13
FIGURE 13‐1 Social hierarchy and position choice of five cutthroat trout in ...
FIGURE 13‐2 Social hierarchy and position choice of five cutthroat trout in ...
FIGURE 13‐3 Schematic of reduced chance of discovery for fishes in a group. ...
FIGURE 13‐4 Fountain effect of herring to a barracuda approach from the rear...
FIGURE 13‐5 Flash expansion of herring to a barracuda attack from the side o...
FIGURE 13‐6 The effect of school size on the ratio of captures per contact f...
FIGURE 13‐7 The effect of presence of large predatory fishes (lower charts) ...
FIGURE 13‐8 Vortices created by swimming fish (dots and curved arrows) and w...
Chapter 14
FIGURE 14‐1 Comparative growth rates for each species of stickleback in two ...
FIGURE 14‐2 Percentage of vegetation or sediment prey eaten by (a) pumpkinse...
FIGURE 14‐3 Seasonal changes in dry weight of food eaten by three centrarchi...
FIGURE 14‐4 Gains in body weight (dry g) by bluegill and pumpkinseed in a po...
FIGURE 14‐5 Growth and survival of
Gobiodon histrio
and
G. brochus
after 0, ...
Chapter 15
FIGURE 15‐1 All possible pairwise species interactions can be depicted using...
FIGURE 15‐2 Nest of bluehead chub with redbelly dace associates.
FIGURE 15‐3 Abundance distribution of 49 fish species collected in surveys o...
Chapter 16
FIGURE 16‐1 Leptokurtic pattern of fish movements frequently observed in rad...
FIGURE 16‐2 A generalized model of fish life cycle, habitat use, and movemen...
FIGURE 16‐3 Locations of blue sharks during the day, twilight, or night: (a ...
FIGURE 16‐4 Daily movements of five northern pike in Lac Ste. Anne, Alberta....
FIGURE 16‐5 Percent of different distances moved (in 200‐m intervals; 100 m ...
FIGURE 16‐6 Map of locations where pop‐up tags from bluefin tuna first appea...
Chapter 17
FIGURE 17‐1 Functional response of a human picking up sandpaper discs by tou...
FIGURE 17‐2 Functional (upper), numerical (middle), and total (lower) respon...
FIGURE 17‐3 Distance between the predator and prey (cm) when a strike was in...
FIGURE 17‐4 Tracings of the center line of a musky body during a Pattern A o...
FIGURE 17‐5 Relationship between distance traveled and time for Pattern A (o...
FIGURE 17‐6 The number (upper) and percent catch (lower) for different attac...
FIGURE 17‐7 The number (upper) and percent catch (lower) of different strike...
FIGURE 17‐8 Prey reaction distance (mean
+
2 SE) for Type 1 (open circles) o...
Chapter 18
FIGURE 18‐1 Hypothetical relationship between expected energy return (E
*
FIGURE 18‐2 Hypothetical changes in total energy intake by consuming prey of...
FIGURE 18‐3 Consumption of
Daphnia
by bluegill at low (a), intermediate ((b)...
FIGURE 18‐4 Average search time to encounter 10 large prey at each
Daphnia
d...
FIGURE 18‐5 Gastric evacuation rates of weakfish after consuming 5% BW of
Ne
...
FIGURE 18‐6 (Upper graph) Capture success and (lower graph) profitability of...
FIGURE 18‐7 Disappearance of different size classes of crayfish due to preda...
FIGURE 18‐8 Energy return per handling time (mg food/s) for smallmouth bass ...
FIGURE 18‐9 Cumulative food intake for a consumer feeding in a patch of food...
FIGURE 18‐10 Macroinvertebrate colonization rates and physical habitat chara...
FIGURE 18‐11 Box and whisper plot of prey density at abandoned, newly coloni...
Chapter 19
FIGURE 19‐1 A graphic depiction of the trade‐offs associated with different ...
Chapter 20
FIGURE 20‐1 Number of occurrences (left) and time (right) in different behav...
FIGURE 20‐2 Percent of successful behaviors for bass at each stem density....
FIGURE 20‐3 Percent of bluegill schooling in presence or absence of bass at ...
FIGURE 20‐4 Number of fish out of the first four prey items consumed by bass...
FIGURE 20‐5 Predation rate (number of bluegill eaten) for each size group of...
FIGURE 20‐6 Percent predation of tethered pinfish related to mangrove proxim...
FIGURE 20‐7 Number of small bluegill containing different percentages of pre...
FIGURE 20‐8 The number of
Rineloricaria
and
Ancistrus
remaining from six of ...
FIGURE 20‐9 Changes (mean + SE) in numbers of short moves by different size ...
Chapter 21
FIGURE 21‐1 Monthly gonadosomatic index (GSI) values for male and female wal...
FIGURE 21‐2 Patterns of female gonadosomatic index values for different popu...
Chapter 22
FIGURE 22‐1 Relationship between total daily spawning acts by lemon tetras a...
Chapter 23
FIGURE 23‐1 Summary of Murphy’s arguments on life‐history strategy for marin...
FIGURE 23‐2 A model adaptive surface of fish life‐history strategies based o...
FIGURE 23‐3 Relationship between percent repeat spawners and latitude for 13...
FIGURE 23‐4 Size at age for male (a) and female (b) American shad from five ...
FIGURE 23‐5 Relative fecundity at size for the same five shad populations....
FIGURE 23‐6 Shad catches (squares) and water temperature (line) for (a) St. ...
Chapter 24
FIGURE 24‐1 Prey and predators of early life‐history stages of pollock in th...
FIGURE 24‐2 Developmental periods in the life of walleye, including specific...
FIGURE 24‐3 Developmental events in the early life of an anchovy.
FIGURE 24‐4 Two‐dimensional, highly simplified representation of the effects...
FIGURE 24‐5 Wind speed and direction (a) and nearshore water temperature (b)...
FIGURE 24‐6 Occurrence of capelin larvae (a) in sediments at three locations...
FIGURE 24‐7 Relationship between density of capelin larvae in sediments (log...
FIGURE 24‐8 Percent of time (mean + 95% CL) capelin larvae spent in each beh...
FIGURE 24‐9 Daily mortality rate of anchovy compared to the number of calm p...
FIGURE 24‐10 Theoretical relationships between recruitment and upwelling
Chapter 25
FIGURE 25‐1 Venn diagram depicting terminology framework for groups of speci...
FIGURE 25‐2 Curve demonstrating the accumulation of additional species with ...
FIGURE 25‐3 Temporal patterns of the Saginaw Bay fish community from 1970 to...
Chapter 26
FIGURE 26‐1 Simple two, three, and four trophic level food chains. Primary p...
FIGURE 26‐2 Four examples of simple food webs, from the simplest two‐level f...
FIGURE 26‐3 Four examples of simple food webs. The numbers next to each link...
FIGURE 26‐4 Relationship between the estimated trophic level of top piscivor...
FIGURE 26‐5 Conceptual plot of the relationship between changing nutrient lo...
FIGURE 26‐6 Reciprocal feedback loops proposed by Roth et al. (2007), with f...
FIGURE 26‐7 Estimated change in biomass of selected Chesapeake Bay food web ...
Chapter 27
FIGURE 27‐1 Native and naturalized ranges of largemouth bass.
FIGURE 27‐2 Frequency distributions of thermal preferenda (laboratory) and a...
FIGURE 27‐3 Mean temperatures of the lake surface, the depth at the 3.0 mg/l...
FIGURE 27‐4 Frequency of locations for spiny dogfish in relation to temperat...
FIGURE 27‐5 Relationship between sustained yield and thermal habitat volume ...
Chapter 28
FIGURE 28‐1 Relationship between stream order and structural or functional a...
FIGURE 28‐2 Schematic of the life history of habitats and migrations in stre...
FIGURE 28‐3 Detrended correspondence analysis of 20 study sites (numbers inc...
FIGURE 28‐4 Assemblage similarity for pairs of adjacent sites in a downstrea...
FIGURE 28‐5 The Czekanowski coefficient (percent similarity) of the fish ass...
FIGURE 28‐6 Dendogram for a cluster analysis of stream fish clusters in Mich...
FIGURE 28‐7 Mean LFY and CA conditions of sites where each cluster was most ...
FIGURE 28‐8 Distribution of IBI scores among rivers in various impact catego...
Chapter 29
FIGURE 29‐1 Monthly rainfall pattern near Bangkok, Thailand, from 1983 to 19...
FIGURE 29‐2 The seasonal cycle of events in a tropical floodplain river.
FIGURE 29‐3 Monthly changes in the water level of two Amazon tributaries....
FIGURE 29‐4 Cross section of the Amazon floodplain.
FIGURE 29‐5 Comparison of observed FTD of local fish assemblages during dry ...
Chapter 30
FIGURE 30‐1 Relationships between chlorophyll a and total phosphorus concent...
FIGURE 30‐2 The size composition of zooplankton in Crystal Lake, Connecticut...
FIGURE 30‐3 Hypothesized time course of ecosystem response to a strong pisci...
FIGURE 30‐4 Hypothetical changes in immigration or extinction rates for (a) ...
FIGURE 30‐5 Species–area relationship (log
x
+ 1) for 169 small lakes in Fin...
Chapter 31
FIGURE 31‐1 Major surface currents of the oceans.
FIGURE 31‐2 Primary production in the oceans.
FIGURE 31‐3 Diagrammatic vertical profile through the ocean.
FIGURE 31‐4 Map of global MBRs. 1, Inner Baltic Sea; 2, Black Sea; 3, NE Atl...
Chapter 32
FIGURE 32‐1 Capture harvest (millions of metric tons, MMT) for each continen...
FIGURE 32‐2 General relationships among total catch (
C
), effort (
f
), and c...
FIGURE 32‐3 Annual catch of Mekong giant catfish in Chiang Khong, Thailand, ...
FIGURE 32‐4 Illustration of typical size limits used to regulate fisheries h...
Chapter 33
FIGURE 33‐1 Total native fauna, number of non‐native species, and percent no...
FIGURE 33‐2 Percent of non‐native species in each taxonomic group that have ...
FIGURE 33‐3 Changes in number of shared species for 1128 pairwise combinatio...
FIGURE 33‐4 Number of species extirpated from (top) or introduced to (bottom...
FIGURE 33‐5 Percent endemic (top) or non‐native (bottom) fish species as a f...
FIGURE 33‐6 (a) Annual catch of carps collected by the Long Term Resource Mo...
FIGURE 33‐7 Range expansion maps of all four species of carp: green circles ...
FIGURE 33‐8 eDNA detections for carps (red) in the Chicago waterways upstrea...
Chapter 34
FIGURE 34‐1 Changes in capture and culture harvests (in MMT) and percent of ...
FIGURE 34‐2 Changes in culture harvest (MMT) since 1980 for each continent. ...
FIGURE 34‐3 Culture harvest (MMT) in 2018 for various species and groups. Fi...
FIGURE 34‐4 Pond aquaculture system for intensive fish production.
FIGURE 34‐5 Schematic and image of raceway aquaculture system.
FIGURE 34‐6 Schematic and image of cage culture system.
FIGURE 34‐7 Schematic of recirculating aquaculture system.
FIGURE 34‐8 Yield of Atlantic salmon from aquaculture and capture fisheries ...
FIGURE 34‐9 Yield of Nile tilapia from aquaculture and capture fisheries fro...
Chapter 35
FIGURE 35‐1 Simulated annual growth of (a) lake trout, (b) yellow perch, and...
FIGURE 35‐2 Estimated shifts in centers of biomass for winter flounder, summ...
FIGURE 35‐3 Estimated past changes and predicted future changes in stream oc...
FIGURE 35‐4 Estimated changes in methylmercury (MeHg) concentrations of Atla...
Chapter 36
FIGURE 36‐1 Total number of fish species, the number at risk, and the percen...
FIGURE 36‐2 Percent of all US species in each risk category for various grou...
FIGURE 36‐3 The number of fish and mussel species at risk in various freshwa...
FIGURE 36‐4 Major known causes of vertebrate extinctions worldwide. Cases in...
FIGURE 36‐5 Landings of lake sturgeon from commercial fisheries in Lake Huro...
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Acknowledgments
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
Wiley End User License Agreement
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Biology and Ecology of Fishes
Third Edition
JAMES S. DIANA
TOMAS O. HÖÖK
This edition first published © 2023© 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication DataNames: Diana, James S., 1951– author. | Ho¨o¨k, Tomas O., author.Title: Biology and ecology of fishes / James S. Diana, Tomas O. Ho¨o¨k.Description: Third edition. | Revised edition of: Biology and ecology of fishes / James S. Diana. 2nd edition. 2003. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2022055936 (print) | LCCN 2022055937 (ebook) | ISBN9781119505778 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119505761 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119505747 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Fishes–Ecology. | Fishes–Feeding and feeds. | Fishes–Reproduction. | Fish populations. | Freshwater fishes–Ecology. | Freshwater fishes–Physiology.Classification: LCC QL639.8 .D54 2023 (print) | LCC QL639.8 (ebook) | DDC 597.17–dc23/eng/20221219LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022055936LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022055937
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © RLS Photo/Shutterstock; Justas in the wilderness/ Shutterstock; FedBul/Shutterstock; Yannick Tylle/Getty Images
Preface
Studies of fishes have historically focused on one of two perspectives. The first—a more basic, academic approach emerging from universities—has dealt with systematics, anatomy, physiology, and theoretical ecology. The second—a more practical and applied approach emanating from natural resource organizations—has emphasized fishery biology, population ecology, and fishery management. The distinction between applied and basic perspectives has become less marked over time as researchers, managers, educators, and students have realized the importance of both lines of inquiry and have crossed this boundary. However, this dual perspective has been less common in the published literature—particularly textbooks—in the field of fish ecology.
This is the third edition of a book attempting to consider both biological and management needs in this field. It is written as a textbook for upper division undergraduate or graduate courses in fish ecology or fishery biology. It should be broad enough to include many areas of interest to practicing fish ecologists and fishery managers, but the writing style, selection of materials, and coverage of concepts are more appropriate for a textbook than a research or reference text.
In writing this book, we decided that keeping the interest of readers is more important than including all details or literature. We have attempted to develop text that is accessible for a reader and focuses on describing concepts and studies. A case study approach is more interesting to us than an exhaustive review approach, and we rely on case studies throughout the text. Following this approach, we also decided to limit the number of references to primary literature. In many cases, our understanding and generally accepted facts replace documented reviews of papers to support a particular point. We did not want to develop text that requires readers to pause after every sentence to comprehend its content and reflect upon multiple references. We believe this approach leads to a more interesting and readable work. However, it does not blend well with highly specialized graduate courses, so this book should be considered for the first courses students take in fish ecology, biology, or management—not for more specialized courses.
This book emphasizes how fishes respond to environmental conditions at the individual, population, and community levels of biological organization. This subject is commonly considered fish ecology although emphasis from some sections is often found in books on fish biology. Broadly, the first three chapters are intended as an introduction on aquatic systems, fish diversity, morphology, and functionality. These chapters are very much intended to orient the reader, and we emphasize that other texts are much more suitable for in‐depth instruction related to aquatic systems and ichthyology. Chapters 4–8 emphasize growth of individual fish from a bioenergetics perspective. The subsequent 16 chapters provide a population perspective, addressing population processes (Chapters 9–16), feeding and predation mechanisms (Chapters 17–20), and reproduction and life histories (Chapters 21–24). The book concludes with chapters related to community and food web structuring (Chapters 25–31), followed by consideration of human influences on fish and fisheries, including fisheries, aquaculture, and climate change (Chapters 32–36). Processes such as growth, population structure, and behavior are included in the book as they are the underpinnings for a foundation in fishery management. We have expanded material on fishery management in this edition of the book, but all areas of concern to fishery managers and fishery scientists are not included. Again, the emphasis of the book is concepts, not methods. On occasion, methods—including quantitative methods—are described to better educate the reader in these areas but not in great detail or in great breadth. The above perspectives attempt to put this text into its proper place in the field of ichthyology and indicate to users the main emphasis and direction.
In selecting case studies for the book, we were aware that there is a historical lack of diversity (broadly defined) in terms of scientists conducting fish ecology research. To this point, many of the historical studies we describe were authored by white males. While still apparent, this bias is less dramatic in more recent studies, and we have attempted to select recent citations from a diversity of authors.
Finally, we would like to emphasize that this book should provide good coverage of current and historic themes in fish ecology and prepare readers to understand and analyze the concepts of importance in the field. An approach covering concepts allows the reader to cope more effectively with future changes in the field and remain current in spite of changing methods or emphases. It is our hope that this book will assist readers to further develop their insight and ability to understand and critically evaluate ecological literature.
Acknowledgments
Many people have aided us during the preparation of all three editions of this book. We owe them a debt of gratitude. This third edition expands authorship to include Tomas Höök as coauthor and Emmanuel Frimpong as a contributing author. Frimpong contributed to the development of overall topics for the book, and in particular did much of the writing for the chapters on morphology and evolution, positive interactions, and movements and habitat occupancy. Barbara Diana has done much of the word processing, edited and reviewed the writing, and helped us remain organized and on track to finish this work. It would never have been completed without her help. All three editions of the book have her personal touch and improved dramatically because of her effort.
In developing the third edition, we have added several chapters and combined and revised extant chapters. In so doing, we have added a great deal of text and several new figures and tables. However, this edition very much builds directly from the two previous editions, and in many cases text, figures, and tables are retained from the earlier editions.
This book initially arose from a course taught at the University of Michigan. Besides Diana, Drs. Paul Webb, Gerald Smith, Ed Rutherford, Richard Clark, James Breck, and Paul Seelbach have all taught portions of this course at various times and have influenced our thinking in many ways. Material was also informed from Höök’s experience teaching fisheries and fish ecology courses at Purdue University. We are grateful to all of the students we have interacted with in these courses, as they have helped shape how we present this information.
In developing the first two editions, much of the actual writing was accomplished during two sabbatical leaves, funded by the University of Michigan. Diana produced the first edition during a leave at the Institute for Fisheries Research, Michigan Department of Natural Resources in Ann Arbor. Diana produced the second edition during a sabbatical leave at Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia. In producing this third edition, Diana and Höök did not take leaves from their academic positions, and hence, drafting this edition stretched across multiple years. At this time, they were partially supported by the University of Michigan, Purdue University, Michigan Sea Grant, and Illinois‐Indiana Sea Grant.
Many colleagues reviewed draft portions of this book and provided useful comments. For this edition, we particularly thank Jim Breck, who not only reviewed two of the chapters for content, but then provided a review of the entire book, leading to a number of important suggestions. For this edition, we thank the many people who reviewed chapters and provided critical feedback, including Zoe Almeida, Karen Alofs, Nancy Auer, Mark Bevelheimer, Russell Borski, Jim Breck, David “Bo” Bunnell, Leandro Castello, Paris Collingsworth, Alison Coulter, David Coulter, Derek Crane, Jacob Daley, Solomon David, Jason Doll, Damilola Eyitayo, Troy Farmer, Zach Feiner, Michelle Fonda, Lee Fuiman, Tracy Galarowicz, Joel Hoffman, Dana Infante, Brian Irwin, Yan Jiao, Yoichiro Kanno, Conor Keitzer, Holly Kindsvatar, Steve Kohler, Hernan Lopez‐Fernandez, Stu Ludsin, Chuck Madenjian, Ellen Marsden, Christine Mayer, Steve Midway, Don Orth, Brandon Peoples, Steve Pothoven, Mark Pyron, Frank Rahel, James Roberts, Jamie Roberts, Brian Roth, Lars Rudstam, Carl Ruetz, Justin VanDeHey, Hui‐Yu Wang, Paul Webb, Earl Werner, Rusty Wright, and Mitch Zischke. For the second edition, we particularly thank Jim Breck, Chuck Madenjian, Jeff Schaeffer, and Kevin Wehrly for reviewing the new chapters and providing constructive feedback. For the first edition, Michael Benedetti, Jim Breck, Scott DeBoe, Dan Dettweiler, Gary Fahnensteil, Neal Foster, Roger Haro, Liz Hay‐Chmielewski, Leon Hinz, Pat Hudson, Dave Jude, Carl Latta, Jeff Schaeffer, Jim Schneider, Paul Seelbach, Kelley Smith, Paul Webb, and Troy Zorn all provided useful feedback. In addition, Joanne Cooper did an excellent review and copy edit of the final manuscript.
In covering the varied aspects of fish ecology, the distinctions became unclear to us regarding what we had learned from our own reading and research compared to what we had learned from personal interactions. Much of the knowledge we possess today was driven into us by former professors and teachers, often after extreme efforts on their parts. Jim Diana in particular thanks Drs. Dave Lane, Cliff Hill, Don Nelson, Bill Mackay, and Dave Beatty for helping him understand the basics of fish ecology. Tomas Höök in particular thanks Paul Webb, Jim Breck, and Ed Rutherford.
Finally, we both thank our families, colleagues, and students for being understanding of our time and effort (and occasional frustration) in developing this book.
PART 1Introduction
CHAPTER 1Introduction to Aquatic Ecosystems
The organisms that scientists consider fishes represent the most diverse groups of all vertebrates as there are more species of fishes than of all other vertebrates combined. Fishes occupy diverse habitats such as normal surface waters, great ocean depths exceeding 8,000 m, heated desert pools and caverns that may exceed 40 °C, caves deep in the Earth, under the ice in the Arctic and Antarctic seas, and a variety of other extreme habitats. Adaptation to these habitats has resulted in extreme diversity in fish physiology and anatomy, coupled with differences in foraging patterns and other behaviors. This variability makes it hard to generalize the responses of fishes to local conditions but makes their adaptation to environments very interesting.
There has been much recent debate about what exactly is a fish. Historically, fishes have been considered to include five classes of vertebrates, although the taxonomic status of fossil groups is unsure. Currently existing fishes represent three classes: Agnatha – hagfish and lamprey; Chondrichthyes – cartilaginous fishes including sharks and rays; and Osteichthyes – bony fishes including the most current species. A recent novel by Miller (2021) has examined not only the history of fish biology and systematics but also the evidence that fishes do not represent a single evolutionary line, which means they have not evolved from a single common ancestor. Genetic evidence has recently shown closer relationships between some of the groups of fishes and reptiles, amphibians, and mammals, questioning whether what we call fishes actually are an evolved group or are just an animal life form. Ecologists have included all aquatic living vertebrates with gills, scales, and fins as fishes (although some species have secondarily lost some of these traits), and we will follow that pattern in this book. Certainly cladists (evolutionary biologists that study species relationships) can better explain the evolution of different classes of vertebrates, which may change this higher level of taxonomy. For the purpose of this book, we will continue to consider the three classes of vertebrates listed above as fishes as they share similarities in their life form.
Freshwater organisms are among the most endangered of all species in the world. Analysis by The Nature Conservancy shows that 70% of all freshwater mussels, 50% of crayfishes, and 40% of freshwater fishes are at risk of extinction in the United States (Master et al. 1998). In comparison, approximately 18% of reptiles, 15% of mammals, and 14% of birds are in a similar status. This is particularly daunting when we realize that the highest diversity of vertebrates is found in the classes known as fishes, where there exist at least 32,000 species. This is more than all the species of birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians, combined. Such a high fraction of the fauna being endangered among freshwater fishes is due to the various challenges we place on freshwater ecosystems, including the use of water for irrigation, industry, and human consumption, as well as the discharge of chemicals into water for disposal. In addition to direct use of water, humans alter habitat by building dams, channelizing streams for ship passage, and building canals. All of these changes in aquatic ecosystems have resulted in major reductions in the fish fauna. There have been a number of evaluations of factors causing animal extinction in various ecosystems. All of these divide the causes of extinction into three main groups of approximately the same magnitude: introduction of exotic species, overexploitation, and habitat disruption. Since fishes are the only major group of organisms remaining that are hunted as food on a global scale, much damage is due to overexploitation, as well as habitat disruption and exotic species. It is no wonder why freshwater organisms, in particular freshwater fishes, are under such threat.
Ecology has a variety of popular, or lay, definitions, but the science of ecology has been well defined and accepted by most scientists. The definition has evolved over time, depending largely on the level of our understanding of ecological interactions. Krebs (2009) provided the best definition: ecology is the study of the interactions that determine the distribution and abundance of organisms. These can be categorized as interactions with physical, chemical, or biological factors in the environment. The purpose of this textbook is to overview the means by which fish distributions and abundances are influenced by physical, chemical, and biological factors.
This book is divided into six main topics that focus on the three major disciplines of ecology: physiological, behavioral, and community ecology. These three disciplinary areas of ecology have boundaries that are intentionally unclear, so some concepts will be presented several times throughout the book.
To appreciate the ecology of fishes, it is important to first understand the habitat in which fish exist – the aquatic system. This chapter reviews living in the water, the characteristics of fish, and aquatic ecosystems, emphasizing several systems that are more familiar. A key theme throughout this book (highlighted in this chapter) is that the environments in which fish exist differ in two important dimensions: the distribution of temperature in time and space, and the distribution of food in time and space.
Properties of Water
Water has a number of physical properties that are challenging to organisms living in the water and yet promote life within the water because of the long‐term stability of water conditions. Water is one of the few compounds that is liquid at ambient temperatures and has high viscosity and surface tension. This means that movement through the water is difficult, and diffusion across the water surface level is limiting. Animals moving within the water must overcome this high viscosity in order to shoulder their way through this dense and difficult medium. The maximum density of water occurs at 3.9 °C, which is unusual for liquids because the freezing point of water is 0 °C. The fact that water does not freeze at its maximum density allows water to exist under the ice in winter conditions and is key to sustaining life in many aquatic ecosystems. Water also has an extremely high heat capacity. It requires 1 kcal of energy to increase 1 kg of water by 1 °C. In fact, this demonstrates the importance of water to humans because many of our characteristics in physics are based on water, such as the Celsius scale of temperature and the caloric scale of energy. Because of this high specific heat, water does not change temperature very easily and remains relatively consistent over time. As a result, living in the water is actually living in a moderate thermal condition, where it is neither extremely cold nor extremely hot. In fact, fishes utilize this thermal characteristic to specialize within even narrower ranges within the typical temperatures of surface waters.
FIGURE 1‐1 Schematic of penetration by different wavelengths of light into freshwater.
In addition to the characteristics above, water has several other characteristics that are important to life in the water. There is very low gas concentration in water. The atmosphere contains 21% oxygen and is relatively light and reasonable to ventilate. In contrast, water at saturation contains maximum level of 14.6 mg of oxygen for every liter of water. If we equate the two, 1 kg of air would contain 0.23 kg of oxygen, while 1 kg of water contains only 0.0000146 kg of oxygen, over 5 orders of magnitude less than the same mass of air. Clearly, this low oxygen concentration results in difficulties passing enough water across respiratory surfaces to allow animals living in water to attain high metabolic rates. This is one of the major specializations in fish – that of extracting oxygen from water at low oxygen concentration.
Water is known as the universal solvent, which means almost all materials can dissolve in water. This is both a benefit and a difficulty for aquatic life as many materials from the land and industrial processes dissolve in the water and influence physiology of fish breathing water containing that material. This universal solvent property is important in the discharge of waste as assimilation by natural ecosystems is one of the ways humans dispose of sewage. At the same time, waste dissolved in water can cause significant damage to aquatic species living in the region receiving wastes.
Finally, light is absorbed rapidly with depth in water and differentially depending on the wavelength of the light. Maximum light transmission in distilled water is approximately 100 m, and only the blue wavelengths of light penetrate to this depth. In contrast, infrared wavelengths, which include heat, only penetrate to a very shallow depth – usually less than 1 m – and there is differential distribution of wavelengths between those two extremes (Figure 1‐1). These penetration depths are achieved only in very clear water; once water contains dissolved materials, there is considerably less light penetration as well as different penetration for various wavelengths. Given the oceans have a mean depth of 4,000 m, most of the ocean is below the level of light penetration, and organisms living there have difficulty using eyesight as a means of orientation.
What is a Fish?
Given the constraints placed upon fish by living in aquatic habitats, the characteristics of fish vary dramatically to allow locomotion, respiration, and feeding in this medium. A fish is an aquatic vertebrate, that is, fish spend most of their life cycle in water and belong to the phylum Chordata (chordates), subphylum Vertebrata. There are fishes that can remain out of water for considerable periods of time, utilizing modified lungs to breathe from air under moist conditions. All chordates have a notochord, which is a flexible nerve cord that extends the length of the body. In most fishes, this notochord is surrounded by bony or calcified tissue to protect it from damage and allow for more vigorous muscle action. Fishes have 5–7 gill arches, which vary in complexity and range, from each gill arch having a separate opening to existence of one opening under the operculum for more advanced fishes. There are many fishes that have lungs, which evolved into swim bladders in more advanced fishes. Some of the more advanced fishes have secondarily developed lungs as a means of living in poorly oxygenated environments or for respiration while transporting themselves across land. Fishes have fins to help propel themselves through the water, including medial fins along the middle of the body, a caudal fin at the posterior extreme, and paired pectoral and pelvic fins. Most fishes also have scales to protect their bodies; these have evolved over time from being absent in early fishes, to very stout scales, to more flexible and lightweight scales in advanced fishes. Finally, fishes have a two‐chambered heart, from which the blood is circulated through the gills to the body and then returns to the heart. All of these characteristics vary among groups of fishes but are common characteristics of the three classes of vertebrates considered to be fishes.
The details above indicate that there are many challenges to being a fish. Water is a dense and viscous medium; thus, swimming through the water utilizes much muscle power and fin activity. The low concentration of dissolved gases means the gill structure and function must be efficient in order to allow for high rates of metabolism. The high thermal capacity of water means that most fishes are ectothermic and poikilothermic, or what we refer to as cold blooded. Their body temperature will vary with the temperature of water, and there is generally no difference between their body temperature and water temperature. In addition, the conditions are generally dark and difficult to see in aquatic systems. Some advantages of being a fish include buoyancy that can be maintained by simple changes in swimming motion, inflation of swim bladder, retention of lipids in the body, and other such characteristics. Since fishes live in the water, it is never too hot or cold, and few fishes have developed a system of insulating their body from extremely cold external conditions. Water transmits chemicals and sound from long distances, and thus, senses of smell, hearing, and taste are acute and can occur over long distances, allowing fish to utilize these senses very efficiently. In addition, fishes can sense movement in the water and water currents and are capable of adjusting to these through the lateral line sense. These senses are also effective in some species of fish for finding prey or escaping predation.
Lentic Systems
Much of our knowledge of aquatic ecology comes from work in temperate freshwater ecosystems. This is not due to any special importance of these ecosystems, but more to their proximity to scientists and institutions interested in aquatic ecology. This section on fish habitats will begin with details on temperate lakes. The emphasis on aquatic systems has broadened to include tropical and Arctic freshwaters, as well as marine ecosystems, but the preponderance of ecological studies still deals with organisms living in freshwaters of the temperate zone.
Most people are familiar with standing water ecosystems, that is, lakes and ponds. They are termed lentic because the movement of water is relatively unimportant in the ecology of the system. The kinds of habitats available in lentic systems are related to lake types, which are determined by the internal processes in lakes and in watersheds where lakes are located. The largest differences within temperate lakes occur during midsummer when productivity and thermal processes vary most dramatically in regions of a lake.
Vertical Stratification of Temperature
One interesting seasonal process in temperate lakes occurs because of the physical relationship between temperature and density of water. Water that is colder or warmer than 4 °C floats on top of this cool and heavy water. As water warms, the warmer water floats on the surface of colder water. This process of vertical segregation of water by temperature is termed vertical stratification. The classic stratification pattern of an inland lake varies with season (Figure 1‐2). During winter, ice covers the lake, and immediately below the ice, temperatures between 0 and 4 °C occur. Water at 4 °C is at the bottom of the lake because of its density, and the amount of water between 0 and 4 °C depends on the rate of cooling that occurred in the lake prior to freezing.
In spring, warming by the Sun allows the ice to melt on the lake, and wind blowing across the surface of the lake mixes water from top to bottom in most lakes. During this time, lakes are isothermal, having the same temperature from top to bottom. Also during this time, oxygen is mixed throughout lakes, and nutrients and other chemicals that might be tied up in bottom sediments or in deep water are redistributed to the surface.
FIGURE 1‐2 Diagram of a lake and its zonation by depth during climatic seasons.
