Biomass to Biofuels E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1212

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Focusing on the key challenges that still impede the realization of the billion-ton renewable fuels vision, this book integrates technological development and business development rationales to highlight the key technological.developments that are necessary to industrialize biofuels on a global scale. Technological issues addressed in this work include fermentation and downstream processing technologies, as compared to current industrial practice and process economics. Business issues that provide the lens through which the technological review is performed span the entire biofuel value chain, from financial mechanisms to fund biotechnology start-ups in the biofuel arena up to large green field manufacturing projects, to raw material farming, collection and transport to the bioconversion plant, manufacturing, product recovery, storage, and transport to the point of sale. Emphasis has been placed throughout the book on providing a global view that takes into account the intrinsic characteristics of various biofuels markets from Brazil, the EU, the US, or Japan, to emerging economies as agricultural development and biofuel development appear undissociably linked.

Leseprobe

Contents

Foreword

Preface

Contributors

Part I Structure of the Bioenergy Business

1 Characteristics of Biofuels and Renewable Fuel Standards

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Molecular Structure

1.3 Physical Properties

1.4 Chemical Properties

1.5 Biofuel Standards

1.6 Perspective

References

2 The Global Demand for Biofuels: Technologies, Markets and Policies

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Motivation and Potential of Renewable Fuels

2.3 Renewable Fuels in the Transportation Sector

2.4 Status and Potential of Major Biofuels

2.5 Biofuel Policies and Markets in Selected Countries

2.6 Perspective

References

3 Biofuel Demand Realization

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Availability of Renewable Resources to Realize Biofuel Demand

3.3 Technology Improvements to Enhance Biofuel Production Economics

3.4 US Regulatory Requirements for Organisms Engineered to Meet Biofuel Demand

3.5 Perspective

Acknowledgments

References

4 Advanced Biorefineries for the Production of Fuel Ethanol

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Ethanol Production Plants Using Sugar Feedstocks

4.3 Dedicated Dry-Grind and Dry-Mill Starch Ethanol Production Plants

4.4 Dedicated Wet-Mill Starch Ethanol Production Plants

4.5 Dedicated Cellulosic Ethanol Production Plants

4.6 Advanced Combined Biorefineries

4.7 Perspective

Acknowledgments

References

Part II Diesel from Biomass

5 Biomass Liquefaction and Gasification

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Direct Liquefaction

5.3 Biosynfuels from Biosyngas

5.4 Perspective

References

6 Diesel from Syngas

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Overview of Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis

6.3 Historical Development of the Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis Process

6.4 Modern Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis Processes

6.5 Economics

6.6 Perspective

Acknowledgments

References

7 Biodiesel from Vegetable Oils

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Use of Vegetable Oils as Diesel Fuels

7.3 Renewable Diesel

7.4 Properties

7.5 Biodiesel Production

7.6 Transesterification

7.7 Biodiesel Purification

7.8 Perspective

References

8 Biofuels from Microalgae and Seaweeds

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Biofuels from Microalgae: Products, Processes, and Limitations

8.3 Biofuels from Seaweeds: Products, Processes, and Limitations

8.4 Perspective

References

Part III Ethanol and Butanol

9 Improvements in Corn to Ethanol Production Technology Using Saccharomyces cerevisiae

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Current Industrial Ethanol Production Technology

9.3 Granular Starch Hydrolysis

9.4 Corn Fractionation

9.5 Simultaneous SSF and Distillation

9.6 Dynamic Control of SSF Processes

9.7 Cost of Ethanol

9.8 Perspective

References

10 Advanced Technologies for Biomass Hydrolysis and Saccharification Using Novel Enzymes

10.1 Introduction

10.2 The Substrate

10.3 Glycosyl Hydrolases

10.4 The Cellulosome Concept

10.5 New Approaches for the Identification of Novel Glycoside Hydrolases

10.6 Perspective

References

11 Mass Balances and Analytical Methods for Biomass Pretreatment Experiments

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Analysis of Feedstocks for Composition and Potential Ethanol Yield

11.3 Pretreatment

11.4 Enzymatic Extraction of Sugars

11.5 Fermentation of Pretreated Hydrolysates to Ethanol

11.6 Feedstock and Process Integration

11.7 Perspective

Acknowledgments

References

12 Biomass Conversion Inhibitors and In Situ Detoxification

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Inhibitory Compounds Derived from Biomass Pretreatment

12.3 Inhibitory Effects

12.4 Removal of Inhibitors

12.5 Inhibitor-Tolerant Strain Development

12.6 Inhibitor Conversion Pathways

12.7 Molecular Mechanisms of In Situ Detoxification

12.8 Perspective

Acknowledgments

References

13 Fuel Ethanol Production From Lignocellulosic Raw Materials Using Recombinant Yeasts

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Consolidated Bioprocessing and Ethanol Production

13.3 Pentose-Fermenting S. cerevisiae Strains

13.4 Lignocellulose Fermentation and Ethanol Inhibition

13.5 Perspective

Acknowledgments

References

14 Conversion of Biomass to Ethanol by Other Organisms

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Desired Biocatalysts for Biomass to Bioethanol

14.3 Gram-Negative Bacteria

14.4 Gram-Positive Bacteria

14.5 Perspective

Acknowledgments

References

15 Advanced Fermentation Technologies

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Batch Processes

15.3 Fed-Batch Processes

15.4 Continuous Processes

15.5 Immobilized Cell Systems

15.6 Growth-Arrested Process

15.7 Integrated Bioprocesses

15.8 Consolidated Bioprocessing (CBP)

15.9 Perspective

References

16 Advanced Product Recovery Technologies

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Membrane Separation

16.3 Advanced Technologies for Biofuel Recovery: Industrially Relevant Processes

16.4 Perspective

Acknowledgments

References

17 Clostridia and Process Engineering for Energy Generation

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Substrates, Cultures, and Traditional Technologies

17.3 Agricultural Residues as Substrates for the Future

17.4 Butanol-Producing Microbial Cultures

17.5 Regulation of Butanol Production and Microbial Genetics

17.6 Novel Fermentation Technologies

17.7 Novel Product Recovery Technologies

17.8 Fermentation of Lignocellulosic Substrates in Integrated Systems

17.9 Integrated or Consolidated Processes

17.10 Perspective

Acknowledgments

References

Part IV Hydrogen, Methane and Methanol

18 Hydrogen Generation by Microbial Cultures

18.1 Introduction: Why Biological Hydrogen Production?

18.2 Biological Hydrogen Production

18.3 Metabolic Basics for Hydrogen Production: Fermentation and Photosynthesis

18.4 H2 Production in Application: Cases in Point

18.5 Perspective

References

19 Engineering Photosynthesis for H2 Production from H2O: Cyanobacteria as Design Organisms

19.1 The Basic Idea: Why Hydrogen from Water?

19.2 Realization: Three Mutually Supporting Strategies

19.3 The Biological Strategy: How to Design a Hydrogen-Producing (Cyano-) Bacterial Cell

19.4 Engineering the Environment of the Cells: Reactor Design

19.5 How Much Can We Expect? The Limit of Natural Systems

19.6 Perspective

Acknowledgments

References

20 Production and Utilization of Methane Biogas as Renewable Fuel

20.1 Introduction

20.2 The Microbes and Metabolisms Underpinning Biomethanation

20.3 Potential Feedstocks Used for Methane Biogas Production

20.4 Biomethanation Technologies for Production of Methane Biogas

20.5 Utilization of Methane Biogas as a Fuel

20.6 Perspective

20.7 Concluding Remarks

Disclaimer

References

21 Methanol Production and Utilization

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Biomass Gasification: Mature and Immature

21.3 Feedstocks: Diverse and Plentiful

21.4 Biomethanol: ICEs, FFVs, and FCVs

21.5 Case Study: Waste Wood Biorefinery

21.6 Case Study: Two-Step Thermochemical Conversion Process

21.7 Case Study: Mobile Methanol Machine

21.8 Case Study: Scandinavia Leading the Way with Black Liquor Methanol Production

References

Part V Perspectives

22 Enhancing Primary Raw Materials for Biofuels

22.1 Introduction

22.2 In-Fibril Modification

22.3 In-Wall Modifications

22.4 In-Planta Modifications

22.5 In-CRES-T Modification

22.6 A Catalogue of Gene Families for Glycan Synthases and Hydrolases

22.7 Perspective

Acknowledgments

References

23 Axes of Development in Chemical and Process Engineering for Converting Biomass to Energy

23.1 Global Outlook

23.2 Enhancement of Raw Material Biomass

23.3 Conversion of Biomass to Fuels and Chemicals

23.4 Chemical Engineering Development

23.5 Perspective

References

24 Financing Strategies for Industrial-Scale Biofuel Production and Technology Development Start-Ups

24.1 Background: The Financial Environment

24.2 Biofuels Project: Steps in Value Creation and Required Funding at Each Stage

24.3 Governmental Incentives to Support the Nascent Biofuel and Biomaterial Industry

24.4 Perspective: What is the Best Funding Source for Each Step in a Company's Development?

References

Index

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Biomass to biofuels : strategies for global industries / edited by Alain A.

Vertes … [et al.].

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-470-51312-5 (cloth)

1. Biomass energy–International cooperation. 2. Biomass energy industries–International cooperation. 3. Globalization. I. Vertes, Alain A.

TP339.B5765 2009

333.95'39–dc22

2009041780

Foreword

The development of the field of Green Chemistry has proceeded through a set of remarkable technological advances over nearly two decades. While one of the Twelve Principles of Green Chemistry is devoted to ensuring that all feedstocks for both materials and energy are renewable rather than depleting, it is actually the case that the pursuit of the bio-based energy and material economy will rely on all of the principles of Green Chemistry and Green Engineering. Through the adoption of these design frameworks as a holistic system rather than individual criteria, biofuels and biomaterials will be sustainable both for the planet as well as for profits.

This book provides an important review of the main issues and technologies that are essential to the future success of biofuels, and the editors and authors are to be commended for constructing this high quality collection. The scientific and engineering breakthroughs contained in this volume are the essential building blocks that construct the foundation of this new technology platform. Equally necessary are the issues of business drivers, integrated material and energy flows, and systems thinking that incorporates topics such as land use and biodiversity in order to ensure a truly sustainable, resilient biofuel system. One can view these topics as the mortar that holds the building blocks of technology in place. Both are needed for success.

As we begin thinking about the necessary transformation from essentially a petroleum-only based fuel system, to a world where there is a greater diversity and balance with biofuels, it is important to learn the lessons from the petrochemical industry. In a matter of decades, the oil business went from a nascent industry that grew into an industrial complex completely ingrained into all aspects of the economy. Today, there are many who believe economic growth is inextricably linked to petroleum. The oil business achieved this success not merely by identifying the fact that you can burn a black liquid that comes from the ground and get energy. The earliest stages of the oil industry were launched by visionaries such as Benjamin Silliman, who sought to extract value from every aspect and distillation fraction of oil. Through brilliant innovation, the oil business became the petrochemicals industry that today touches every part of our lives.

The lessons provided in this book show us a glimpse of how to learn from the successes of the petrochemical industry. Biofuels need to pursue innovations that extract value from every element of the material and energy supplied by Nature. The brilliant technologies discussed in this volume are an important step toward understanding biofuels within the integrated bio-based value chain.

However, the biofuels world must also learn from the mistakes of the petrochemicals industry. In order to design, develop, implement, and grow a viable biofuels future, we must understand the fundamentals of sustainability. This means understanding the long-term impacts of all aspects of the processes and the products on human health and the environment. By thoroughly understanding the inherent nature of the material and energy flows, their interaction with humans and the environment and their potential to cause adverse consequence anywhere in the life-cycle, we are more able to design a resilient sustainable system.

Currently, there is a focus on how to make processes more efficient. While efficiency can be a good thing, it is far more important that a process is sustainable. When we look at the challenges of society and the world, energy, water, resource depletion, food production, climate change – efficiency alone will not get us on to a sustainable trajectory. Innovations will be required; ideally transformative innovations that move us to a more sustainable future. The technologies and perspectives in this book provide us with insight into some of these transformative innovations through Green Chemistry.

Paul T. Anastas

New Haven, CT

USA

Preface

Alain A. Vertès, Nasib Qureshi, Hans P. Blaschek and Hideaki Yukawa

Energy is a fundamental enabler of economy, and revolutionary changes in energy cost and effectiveness, from animal and wood, to coal, whale oil, petroleum and nuclear technologies, have deeply shaped throughout history societal evolution worldwide. The next wave of changes, as the world economic engine integrates renewable energy technologies such as solar technologies or biofuels, perhaps constitutes a greater challenge since predictably these technologies will be at least transiently less efficient than the conventional energies of today based on fossil and nuclear fuels. Understanding these challenges that lie ahead is an important task to perform in order to design winning industrial strategies for the future.

Economic outputs are essentially the function of workforce size, capital invested, total factor productivity (TFP), and resources. A simple model of economic growth was proposed by Robert Solow in 1956 where economic output per worker is calculated as a function of capital employed, depreciation, and savings. At the point of equilibrium, capital savings and depreciation are equal, and both capital and output are constant. As a result, this model suggests the existence of an economic steady state where no additional growth can occur, unless enabled by technological progress, which acts by raising the rate of return per unit of capital employed, and thus displaces upwards the equilibrium point. This displacement typically results in improved living standards and conditions by maintaining on average gross domestic products (GDP) on trajectories of constant growth. Placed in this context of the Solow growth model, sudden and durable large global economic disturbances thus result in a sudden and durable decrease in output, which is accompanied de facto by a corresponding decrease in savings (such as R&D investments), and consequently in a downwards displacement of the economic equilibrium point, with presumably a decrease in standards of living conditions. This needs, of course, to be modulated by the increased appetite for risk and accumulation of latent innovation capital, which characterize such troubled times, and that get integrated into the economy when capital returns, thereby accelerating a rebound. On the other hand, other economic models that integrate the process of innovation creation, such as the so-called endogenous growth models, all predict that continuous growth is achievable as long as capital is accumulated. A drawback of these latter growth models is that they do not account for the cost of sudden global disruptive technology changes (creation and adoption), for they integrate technological change as a continuous accumulation of R&D capital.

The pressures exerted on the one hand by the cost of global waste treatment (such as atmospheric CO2 or methane) and by tensions in energy markets, a key component of the resource parameter of the economic function, and on the other hand by the cost of the adoption of new technologies on a global scale (such as renewable materials and sustainable energy) are likely to constitute a perfect storm for the global economy. This can even be exacerbated not only by resistance to change originating from an array of vested interests, but also by political interference leading to suboptimal choices as compared to market-based choices, or by the burst of economic bubbles that have a direct negative impact on investments, as exemplified by the housing asset crisis that occurred during the last few years of the first decade of the 21st century. While, in conditions of limited resources, capital investments for technological innovation may extend the useful life of finite reserves or introduce resource substitutability properties, this time horizon expansion of finite reserves is dependent on choices (akin to discount rates used in corporate finance) made regarding utilization rates and energy efficiencies. Derivation of the economic function applied to energy suggests that the variation of the energy need is the sum of the variations affecting population, GDP per capita, and energy use per unit of GDP. In a context of constant population expansion, beyond suggesting that the exhaustion of energy sources would obviously stall the economic engine, this equation suggests that any change that tends to decrease energy effectiveness (such as a dramatic rise in energy cost due to energy supply disequilibria or to the integration of the cost of atmospheric CO2 or methane remediation) would negatively impact the economic output if such a rise is not offset by a corresponding increase in TFP. As demonstrated by the controversy surrounding the Kyoto protocol and subsequent protocols to regulate CO2 emissions, in the absence of perfectly equivalent substitutes there is thus a strong preference (akin to a high discount rate) for the value (and use) today, instead of tomorrow, of fossil or nuclear fuel reserves, and for delaying or decreasing today’s CO2 remediation expenditures, unless near term environmental and economic threats of dramatic consequences can be readily identified and acknowledged, thus generating a sense of urgency.

Consequently, combining science and business perspectives pertaining to innovation creation and adoption of innovative technologies in the field of sustainable energy is a critical task to accomplish for Society as a whole to efficiently cope with the current period of transition from fossil fuel-derived energy, chemicals and materials to renewable energy, chemicals and materials. To this end, various elements are reviewed here that describe the structure of the bioenergy business: a review of diesel, ethanol and butanol methods of production from biomass; hydrogen, methane, and methanol production from biomass; closing on global perspectives that exemplify paths towards resolving financing and commercializing hurdles of these innovative renewable energy and materials technologies. Key milestones to be accomplished in each of these various enabling areas of the new energy and materials value chains are also defined with the aim to describe technological and technical transformation maps, as well as potential opportunities for new jobs and new products creation.

In Part I of the present monograph, Biomass to Biofuels: Strategies for Global Industries, the structure of the bioenergy business is analyzed through the lens of the manufacturers and end users. First, the characteristics of biofuels and renewable standards are described in major markets, with a particular emphasis on the various chemical attributes of biodiesel (ethyl/methyl esters) and bioethanol. The worldwide projected demand for biofuels is reviewed in light of public policies, with particular consideration given to policies in Brazil, the European Union, Japan and the US. Biofuel demand realization is explored by analyzing the global biofuel production potential using sugars such as sucrose or hexoses and lignocellulosic materials, with a particular assessment of the biodiesel and ethanol volumes that could be sustainably generated using all these different raw materials and using existing arable lands. An important theme is of course that of the tension between the use of agricultural commodity for food vs. for fuel, chemicals or biomaterials, and the need to better preserve Nature’s environment capital. This section closes with considerations regarding under which circumstances a biorefinery to generate an array of useful products from a variety of primary raw materials is preferable to a dedicated manufacturing plant.

In Part II, the various technologies required to produce diesel from biomass are reviewed to provide a snap-shot of the present-day technology and a view of the future. These perspectives include the liquefaction and gasification of solid biomass; the Fischer-Tropsch process to generate diesel from syngas; the use of vegetable oils in transesterification reactions to yield biodiesel; and the production of algal oil as biodiesel raw materials.

In Part III, conventional biotechnological ethanol and butanol production technologies are reported together with their newest advances. The discussion includes economic considerations as emphasis at both the laboratory and industrial scale must be placed not on optimizing biological performance, but rather on optimizing the performance and rewards of the complete ethanol or butanol value chain. Notably, fermentation and downstream processing technologies are both considered here. The first chapter of this section thus presents a review of the economics and technologies of current industrial processes for ethanol production using baker’s yeast as a natural ethanol producer. The purpose of the chapter is to identify opportunities of technological development to render ethanol production more cost-effective, for example by converting a greater share of the energy value of the biomass into ethanol. Advanced technologies for biomass hydrolysis and saccharification are subsequently reported, including treatments that make use of dilute sulfuric acid, sodium hydroxide, ammonia, or combined chemical and enzymatic treatments. Notably, the question is addressed whether generic pretreatments exist that can be applied to most biomass sources, or whether tailor-designed pretreatments are needed. A chapter on the thermo-chemical pretreatments of lignocellulose serves as a brief introduction to these industrial steps in biomass processing and to the reasons why such pretreatments still remain inescapable. Emphasis is placed on the desirable traits of these pretreatment processes and on their relative comparative advantages. Commonly encountered biomass hydrolysis inhibitors are subsequently described, together with methods to achieve their removal from fermentation media. This particular chapter is completed by a description of the conversion of lignocellulosic materials into bioethanol using recombinant yeasts. The use of alternative microbial converters to produce ethanol is also reviewed, and notably the use of ethanologenic gram(-) bacteria that can catabolize a large spectrum of sugars, as well as the use of bacteria that exhibit intrinsically high industrial robustness such as Lactobacilli or Corynebacteria. Several of the advantages of these novel systems, as well as hurdles to their industrial-scale implementation, are discussed in detail. What is more, an array of advanced fermentation technologies are assessed such as fed-batch, continuous, immobilized cell, growth-arrested cells at very high cell densities, and cell recycle membrane systems. This analysis includes a detailed comparison of the advantages and drawbacks of each of these technologies, as compared to existing industrial fermentation processes. The discussion around downstream processing presents alternative product recovery technologies including adsorption, stripping, pervaporation, and extraction. Emphasis is placed on technology development for the cost-effective recovery from dilute streams, since such technologies could be critical to implement alternative (e.g., bacterial) production systems. Part III closes on the use of clostridia as fuel producers, including the latest technological developments and the relevant economic modeling of the acetonebutanol-ethanol fermentation.

In Part IV, hydrogen, methane and methanol production technologies are described, including particularly the generation of hydrogen by microbial cultures and by undefined consortia of microorganisms. A key feature of these latter two chapters is to set the goals that must be achieved in this arena in order to manufacture and use hydrogen on a cost-competitive basis. In addition, technologies for the industrial scale production of methane are reviewed in the following chapter, with a brief description of the use of this compound as a replacement fuel and of its challenges. Methanol production and utilization methods are also presented in a brief overview in the final chapter of this section.

Part V constitutes a perspectives section to highlight two critical hurdles to the realization of the biofuels vision: the genetic engineering of biomass-producing crops and the financing of the new industry. The first chapter of Part V thus provides a description of plant engineering techniques to enhance biofuels primary raw materials. This forward looking chapter stems from the needs of the biofuel industry to establish a few concrete possible technical solutions that could be implemented directly into the agricultural fields with the view to minimize changes to agricultural practice and to maximize public acceptance over the large scale planting of enhanced energy crops. Axes of development in chemical and process engineering for converting biomass to energy are discussed with the aim to provide a synthesis of the portfolio of technologies that were described in the preceding chapters. Also, the contribution of forms of renewable energies other than those derived from biomass are summarized here (e.g., photovoltaic, Aeolian, hydroelectric, geothermal). Finally, financing strategies for very large-scale biofuel production and technology development start-ups are described to better mitigate financing hurdles in the domain of bioenergy. This chapter comprises financing of large scale manufacturing projects (such as biorefineries and multi-million gallons dedicated plants), and financing of biofuel technology start-ups including the crucial role that composition of matter patents protecting the production and sale of novel materials are likely to play in the expansion of a renewed chemical industry.

The key messages of the monograph, beyond a detailed review of the science of bioenergy and replacement transportation fuels, is that perhaps the period of transition that one is currently witnessing is maybe just that, a brief period of transition, yet measured in a period of a decade or more, during which the world will move from a centralized model of energy production with a diversified energy mix (electricity, fossil fuels), to a more decentralized model where electricity (produced from a variety of means including increasingly from renewable sources, such as Aeolian, hydroelectric, or perhaps to a greater extent solar technologies) would become the dominant form of energy utilized by the end user, including for transportation. Indeed, electricity, given its very low entropy, in principle constitutes, as opposed to fuels, a universal energy currency and it can be mass produced cheaply and essentially ubiquitously. It is this fundamental feature, with all its related economic benefits, that will in the long run enable the displacement and replacement of the combustion engine and its associated value chains, by a superior technology (the electric engine) and associated value chains, including smart distribution grids. Of course, this in itself constitutes a leap of faith, and chiefly for transportation purposes, as the appropriate electric batteries to store and restore cheaply and efficiently their energy contents remain to be developed. Notably, several automobile makers are already embracing this challenge. Should this vision become true in the mid- to long-term, the technologies and value chains developed to produce biotechnological diesel, ethanol, butanol, hydrogen, methane or methanol would nevertheless not have been in vain, since these technologies and their deployment at the industrial scale would become useful to drive the next wave of transformation of the petrochemical industry via the creation of novel industrial materials and renewable commodity chemicals markets. What is more, managing the period of transition is critical to maintain global trends of economic growth, and the deployment on a global scale of biofuels, including in regions of high growth potential such as the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China) or countries of the African continent, represents an important link and a crucial complement to the continued development and deployment of, for example, photovoltaic and thermal technologies to harness, store, and restitute at will solar energy.

Contributors

Edward A. Bayer, Department of Biological Chemistry, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel

John Benemann, Benemann Associates, Walnut Creek, CA, USA

Margret E. Berg Miller, Department of Animal Sciences, Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA

Gábor Bernát, Plant Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology & Biotechnology, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany

Hans P. Blaschek, Center for Advanced BioEnergy Research, Department of Food Science & Human Nutrition and The Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA

Jennifer M. Brulc, Department of Animal Sciences, Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA

Nicolaus Dahmen, Institute for Technical Chemistry, Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany

BruceDien, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, ARS, USDA, Peoria, IL, USA

Gregory A. Dolan, Methanol Institute, Arlington, VA, USA

Thaddeus C. Ezeji, Department of Animal Sciences and Ohio State Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH, USA

Harry J. Flint, Microbial Ecology Group, Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK

Jon Van Gerpen, Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, University of Idaho, Moscow, USA

William Gibbons, Biology/Microbiology Department, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, USA

Bärbel Hahn-Hägerdal, Department of Applied Microbiology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden

Alan C. Hansen, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA

Thomas Happe, Plant Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology & Biotechnology, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany

Takahisa Hayashi, Kyoto University, RISH, Gokasho, Uji, Kyoto, Japan

Anja Hemschemeier, Plant Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology & Biotechnology, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany

EdmundHenrich, Institute for Technical Chemistry, Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany

Michael Huesemann, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Marine Sciences Laboratory, Sequim, WA, USA

Stephen R. Hughes, Bioproducts and Biocatalysis Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Peoria, IL, USA

Masayuki Inui, Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology Group, Research Institute of Innovative Technology for the Earth (RITE), Kyoto, Japan

David B. Johnston, Eastern Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Wyndmoor, USA

Rumi Kaida, Kyoto University, RISH, Gokasho, Uji, Kyoto, Japan

Shin-ichiro Kidou, Graduate School of Natural Science, Nagoya City University, Yamanohata, Mizuho, Nagoya, Japan

Scott Kohl, ICM, Inc., Colwich, KS, USA

Andrea Kruse, Institute for Technical Chemistry, Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany

Dimitrios C. Kyritsis, Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA

Raphael Lamed, Department of Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Israel

Chia fon F. Lee, Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA

Yebo Li, Department of Food, Agricultural and Biological Engineering and Ohio State Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH, USA

Yong-Wang Li, State Key Laboratory of Coal Conversion, Institute of Coal Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Taiyuan, Shanxi, P. R. China

Siqing Liu, Bioproducts and Biocatalysis Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Peoria, IL, USA

Z. Lewis Liu, Bioenergy Research, United States Department of Agriculture, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Peoria, IL, USA

F. Blaine Metting, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA

Nobutaka Mitsuda, Gene Regulation Research Group, Research Institute of Genome-based Biofactory, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tsukuba, Japan

Mark Morrison, Department of Animal Sciences and Environmental Science Graduate Program, The Ohio Agricultural Development and Research Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus OH, USA

KatrinMüllner, Plant Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology & Biotechnology, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany

Nobuyuki Nishikubo, RIKEN Plant Science Center, Yokohama, Japan

Masaru Ohme-Takagi, Gene Regulation Research Group, Research Institute of Genome-based Biofactory, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tsukuba, Japan

Nasib Qureshi, Bioenergy Research, United States Department of Agriculture, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Peoria, IL, USA

Klaus Raffelt, Institute for Technical Chemistry, Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany

Kent D. Rausch, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA

G. Roesjadi, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Marine Sciences Laboratory, Sequim, WA, USA

MatthiasRögner, Plant Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology & Biotechnology, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany

ThiloRühle, Plant Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology & Biotechnology, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany

Floyd L. Schanbacher, Department of Animal Sciences, The Ohio Agricultural Development and Research Center, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH, USA

Jürgen Scheffran, Institute for Geography, KlimaCampus, Universität Hamburg, Germany. Formerly based at the Center for Advanced BioEnergy Research and the Energy Biosciences Institute, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA

Vijay Singh, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA

Grant Stanley, School of Molecular Sciences, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia

M. E. Tumbleson, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA

Alain A.Vertès, Sloan Fellowship, London Business School, London, UK

Nadine Waschewski, Plant Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology & Biotechnology, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany

Bryan A. White, Departments of Animal Sciences and Pathobiology, The Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA

JianXu, State Key Laboratory of Coal Conversion, Institute of Coal Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Taiyuan, Shanxi, P. R. China

Yong Yang, State Key Laboratory of Coal Conversion, Institute of Coal Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Taiyuan, Shanxi, P. R. China

Sarit Soccary Ben Yochanan, ATI Technological Incubator, Ashkelon High-Tech Park, Zomet Abba Hillel, Ashkelon, Israel

Kouki Yoshida, Technology Center, Taisei Corporation, Totsuka-ku, Yokohama, Japan

Zhongtang Yu, Department of Animal Sciences and Environmental Science Graduate Program, The Ohio Agricultural Development and Research Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA

Hideaki Yukawa, Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology Group, Research Institute of Innovative Technology for the Earth (RITE), Kyoto, Japan

Part I

Structure of the Bioenergy Business

1

Characteristics of Biofuels and Renewable Fuel Standards

Alan C. Hansen, Dimitrios C. Kyritsis and Chiafon F. Lee

1.1 Introduction

Liquid biofuels currently in commercial use comprise primarily ethanol-derived fuels, mainly from grain, sugarcane or sugar beet, and biodiesel produced from a variety of vegetable oils and animal fats. It is expected that, in the future, a greater diversity of primary raw materials for manufacturing renewable transportation fuels will be used, including an array of recycled materials. For example, ethanol production from cellulosic material is likely, as well as butanol production from grain and possibly also from cellulose. Furthermore, the use of hydrogenation-derived renewable diesel and gasoline from fats, waste oils, or virgin oils processed either pure or blended with crude oil using petroleum refinery or similar operations, is being explored as an alternative [1]. In addition, the conversion of biomass to liquid fuel via pyrolysis is receiving attention, as well as the production of alkanes from the hydrogenation of carbohydrates, lignin, or triglycerides. Although methane production from waste materials is already well established, its use as a biofuel for transportation remains marginal to this date. In the long term, hydrogen derived from biomass is considered as the ideal fuel, because its combustion yields zero carbon dioxide. However, there are several technical hurdles that will need to be circumvented before this vision becomes reality, including not only the production of hydrogen from renewable materials but also safe methods for the storage and transport of hydrogen fuels [2].

In this chapter, the characteristics of biofuels will be focused primarily on ethanol and biodiesel, although other biofuels will also be mentioned when comparing the key properties of these materials.

1.2 Molecular Structure

Although in general, petroleum-based fuels are a blend of a very large number of different hydrocarbons, biofuels may consist of pure single-component substances such as hydrogen, methane or ethanol; alternatively, as in the case of biodiesel, they may be a mixture of typically five to eight esters of fatty acids, the relative composition of which is dependent on the raw material source. This relatively finite number of fatty acid esters in biodiesel contrasts with the much broader and more complex range of hydrocarbons that exists in petroleum. In addition, these biofuels are typically blended with petroleum-based fuels. A primary factor that distinguishes fuel alcohols and biodiesel from petroleum-based fuels is the presence of oxygen bound in the molecular structure. Alcohols are defined by the presence of a hydroxyl group (−OH) attached to one of the carbon atoms. For example, the molecular structure of ethanol is CHOH, and that of butanol is CHOH. Butanol is a more complex alcohol than ethanol as the carbon atoms can form either a straight-chain or a branched structure, thus resulting in different properties. Butanol production from biomass tends to yield mainly straight-chain molecules.