Biopolymer Nanocomposites E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: Wiley Series on Plastics Engineering and Technology
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1124

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

Sets forth the techniques needed to create a vast array of useful biopolymer nanocomposites Interest in biopolymer nanocomposites is soaring. Not only are they green and sustainable materials, they can also be used to develop a broad range of useful products with special properties, from therapeutics to coatings to packaging materials. With contributions from an international team of leading nanoscientists and materials researchers, this book draws together and reviews the most recent developments and techniques in biopolymer nano-composites. It describes the preparation, processing, properties, and applications of bio- polymer nanocomposites developed from chitin, starch, and cellulose, three renewable resources. Biopolymer Nanocomposites features a logical organization and approach that make it easy for readers to take full advantage of the latest science and technology in designing these materials and developing new products and applications. It begins with a chapter reviewing our current understanding of bionanocomposites. Next, the book covers such topics as: * Morphological and thermal investigations of chitin-based nanocomposites * Applications of starch nanoparticle and starch-based bionanocomposites * Spectroscopic characterization of renewable nanoparticles and their composites * Nanocellulosic products and their applications * Protein-based nanocomposites for food packaging Throughout the book, detailed case studies of industrial applications underscore the unique challenges and opportunities in developing and working with biopolymer nanocomposites. There are also plenty of figures to help readers fully grasp key concepts and techniques. Exploring the full range of applications, Biopolymer Nanocomposites is recommended for researchers in a broad range of industries and disciplines, including biomedical engineering, materials science, physical chemistry, chemical engineering, and polymer science. All readers will learn how to create green, sustainable products and applications using these tremendously versatile materials.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Wiley Series on Polymer Engineering and Technology

Title page

Copyright page

Foreword

Contributors

CHAPTER 1: Bionanocomposites: State of the Art, Challenges, and Opportunities

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Nanocrystalline Cellulose

CHAPTER 2: Preparation of Chitin Nanofibers and Their Composites

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Isolation of Chitin Nanofibers from Different Sources

2.3 Characterization of Chitin Nanofibers Obtained from Crab, Prawn, and Dry Chitin Powder

2.4 Preparation of Chitin Nanofibers from Edible Mushrooms

2.5 Preparation of Chitin Nanofiber Nanocomposites

2.6 Acetylation of Chitin Nanofibers

2.7 Conclusion

CHAPTER 3: Chemical Modification of Chitosan and Its Biomedical Application

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Structure of Chitosan

3.3 Chemical Modifications of Chitosan

3.4 Biomedical Applications of Chitosan Derivatives

3.5 Conclusion

CHAPTER 4: Biomimetic Lessons for Processing Chitin-Based Composites

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Physicochemical Properties of Chitin

4.3 Biomimetic Lessons from Natural Chitin Nanocomposites

4.4 Bioinspired Lessons for Processing Chitin Nanocomposites

4.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 5: Morphological and Thermal Investigations of Chitin-Based Nanocomposites

5.1 Morphological Investigations of Chitin-Based Nanocomposites

5.2 Thermal Investigations of Chitin-Based Nanocomposites

CHAPTER 6: Mechanical Properties of Chitin-Based Nanocomposites

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Mechanical Properties of Chitin/Chitosan Nanocomposites

6.3 Conclusion

CHAPTER 7: Preparation and Applications of Chitin Nanofibers/Nanowhiskers

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Chitin Nanowhiskers by Acid Hydrolysis

7.3 Chitin Nanofibers/Nanocrystals by TEMPO-Mediated Oxidation

7.4 Chitin Nanofibers/Nanowhiskers by Regeneration from Chitin Solutions

7.5 Chitin Nanofibers by Electrospinning

7.6 Other Methods for Chitin Nanofibers

CHAPTER 8: Preparation of Starch Nanoparticles

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Starch

8.3 Starch Nanoparticles

8.4 Starch Nanocrystals

8.5 Comparison of rSNP and SNC

8.6 Conclusions and Prospects

CHAPTER 9: Chemical Modification of Starch Nanoparticles

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Chemical Modification of Starch Nanocrystals Pertaining to Hydrolysis and Regeneration–Co-crystallization

9.3 Chemical Modification of Starch Nanoparticles, Nanomicelles, and Nanocolloids

9.4 Role of Chemical Modification in the Application of Starch Nanoparticles

9.5 Conclusions and Prospects

CHAPTER 10: Starch-Based Bionanocomposite: Processing Techniques

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Microstructures of Starch

10.3 Starch-Based Bionanocomposite

10.4 Conventional Nanocomposites Manufacturing Techniques

10.5 Processing Techniques of Starch-Based Bionanocomposites

10.6 Conclusion

CHAPTER 11: Morphological and Thermal Investigations of Starch-Based Nanocomposites

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Morphologies of Starch-Based Nanocomposites

11.3 Thermal Behavior of Starch-Based Nanocomposites

11.4 Conclusions and Prospects

CHAPTER 12: Mechanical Properties of Starch-Based Nanocomposites

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Starch as Matrix in Nanocomposites

12.3 Starch as Filler in Nanocomposites

12.4 Conclusion

CHAPTER 13: Applications of Starch Nanoparticles and Starch-Based Bionanocomposites

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Applications of Starch Nanoparticle

13.3 Applications of Starch-Based Composites

13.4 Conclusion

CHAPTER 14: Preparation of Nanofibrillated Cellulose and Cellulose Whiskers

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Preparation of Nanofibrillated Cellulose

14.3 Characterization of Nanofibrillated Cellulose

14.4 Preparation of Cellulose Whiskers

14.5 Characterization of Cellulose Whiskers

14.6 Commercial Development of Nanocelluloses

14.7 Summary

14.8 Further Reading

CHAPTER 15: Bacterial Cellulose

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Producing Microorganisms

15.3 Static and Agitated Cultures

15.4 Carbon and Nitrogen Sources

15.5 Production of Bacterial Cellulose from Food and Agro-Forestry Residues

15.6 Purification

15.7 Structure of Bacterial Cellulose

15.8 Properties of Bacterial Cellulose

15.9 Applications

15.10 Conclusions

CHAPTER 16: Chemical Modification of Nanocelluloses

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Nanocellulose Substrates

16.3 Chemical Modifications

16.4 Conclusions

CHAPTER 17: Cellulose-Based Nanocomposites: Processing Techniques

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Cellulose Nanocomposites

17.3 Future Directions for Cellulose-Based Materials

17.4 Conclusion

Abbreviations

CHAPTER 18: Morphological and Thermal Investigations of Cellulosic Bionanocomposites

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Theoretical Considerations on the Transitions and the Crystallization Kinetics of Thermoplastic Polymers

18.3 Thermal Behavior and Morphology of Crystallizable Biopolymers Modified with Cellulose Nanofibers

18.4 Conclusions and Discussion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 19: Mechanical Properties of Cellulose-Based Bionanocomposites

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Mechanical Performance of Bionanocomposites

19.3 Conclusion

CHAPTER 20: Review of Nanocellulosic Products and Their Applications

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Micro- and Nanocellulosic Products Today

20.3 The Business Case for Nanocrystalline Cellulose and Other Nanocellulosic Materials

20.4 Comparison: Nanocrystalline Cellulose versus Microfibrillated Cellulose and Nanofibrillated Cellulose

20.5 Other Commercial Applications for Nanocrystalline Cellulose and Nanofribrillated Cellulose

20.6 Concluding Remarks

Appendix A

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 21: Spectroscopic Characterization of Renewable Nanoparticles and Their Composites

21.1 Cellulose Nanoparticles

21.2 Plant Cellulose

21.3 Bacterial Cellulose

21.4 Spectroscopic Characterization of Cellulose Nanocomposites

21.5 Chitin and Chitosan Nanoparticles

21.6 Spectroscopic Characterization of Chitin Nanoparticles

21.7 Chitosan Nanoparticles

21.8 Nanocomposites

21.9 Starch

21.10 Characterization of Modified Starch Nanoparticles

21.11 Nanocomposities from Starch Nanoparticles

21.12 Concluding Remarks

CHAPTER 22: Barrier Properties of Renewable Nanomaterials

22.1 Introduction to Renewable Materials and Bionanocomposites

22.2 Introduction to Barrier Properties

22.3 Barrier Properties of Bionanocomposites

22.4 Factors Affecting Barrier Performance

22.5 Conclusions and Perspectives

CHAPTER 23: Biocomposites and Nanocomposites Containing Lignin

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Lignins and Their Use in Composites

23.3 Obtaining Lignin Nanoparticles

23.4 Preparation of Composites and Blends

23.5 Biobased Nanocomposites Containing Lignin

23.6 Lignin in Thermoplastic Composites

23.7 Lignin in Thermosets

23.8 Lignin and Other Polymer Blends

23.9 Conclusions and Outlook

CHAPTER 24: Preparation, Processing and Applications of Protein Nanofibers

24.1 Introduction

24.2 Protein Nanofibers: Structure, Formation, and Applications

24.3 Preparation and Processing of Protein Nanofibers

24.4 Applications of Protein Nanofibers

24.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 25: Protein-Based Nanocomposites for Food Packaging

25.1 Introduction

25.2 Preparation of Protein-Based Nanocomposite Materials

25.3 Mechanical Properties of Protein-Based Nanocomposite Materials

25.4 Barrier Properties of Protein-Based Nanocomposite Materials

25.5 Controlled Delivery Systems for Active Packaging

25.6 Safety Aspects of Protein-Based Nanocomposites Used as Food Contact Materials

25.7 Conclusions and Perspectives

Index

Copyright © 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved

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Published simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Cataloging-In-Publication Data:

Biopolymer nanocomposites : processing, properties, and applications / edited by Alain Dufresne, Sabu Thomas, Laly A. Pothan.

pages cm

Includes index.

ISBN 978-1-118-21835-8 (hardback)

1. Biopolymers. 2. Nanocomposites (Materials) I. Dufresne, Alain, 1962– editor of compilation. II. Thomas, Sabu, editor of compilation. III. Pothan, Laly A, editor of compilation.

TP248.65.P62B5457 2013

572–dc23

2013002843

Foreword

It is important to minimize the environmental impact of materials production by decreasing the environmental footprint at every stage of their life cycle. Therefore, composites where the matrix and reinforcing phase are based on renewable resources have been the subject of extensive research. These efforts have generated environmental friendly applications for many uses such as for automotive, packaging, and household products to name some.

Cellulose is the most abundant biomass on the earth and its use in the preparation of biobased nanomaterials has gained a growing interest during the last ten years. This interest can be illustrated by how the number of scientific publications on the cellulose nanomaterial research has grown very rapidly and reached more the 600 scientific publications during 2011. The research topics have been extraction of cellulose nanofibers and nanocrystals from different raw material sources, their chemical modification, characterization of their properties, their use as additive or reinforcement in different polymers, composite preparation, as well as their ability to self-assemble.

Nanocelluloses, both fibers and crystals, have been shown to have promising and interesting properties, and the abundance of cellulosic waste residues has encouraged their utilization as a main raw material source. Cellulose nanofibers have high mechanical properties, which combined with their enormous surface area, low density, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and renewability make them interesting starting materials for many different uses, especially when combined with biobased polymers. Since bionanocomposites are a relatively new research area, it is necessary to further develop processing methods to make these nanomaterials available on a large scale, so that new applications based on them can be developed.

Information about this emerging research field could also prove to be a catalyst and motivator not only for industries but also to a large number of students and young scientists. A matrix of tools that could aid such work could be developed through research enterprise. The book Biopolymer Nanocomposites: Processing, Properties, and Applications by Alain Dufresne, Sabu Thomas, and Laly A. Pothan, as the authors themselves have pointed out elsewhere, “is an attempt to introduce various biopolymers and bionanocomposites to a student of materials science. Going beyond mere introduction, the book delves deep into the characteristics of various biopolymers and bionanocomposites and discusses the nuances of their preparation with a view to helping researchers find out newer and novel applications.” Students, researchers, and industrialists in the field of biocomposites will be greatly benefitted by this book since its chapters are authored by an impressive array of prominent current researchers in this field. Sincere attempts like this at promoting the use of green materials for sustainable growth of humanity should be lauded indeed.

Kristiina Oksman

Luleå University of Technology

Contributors

Debbie P. Anderson, Bioproducts and Bioprocesses National Science Program, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, SK, Canada

Hélène Angellier-Coussy, UnitéMixte de RechercheIngénierie des Agropolymères et Technologies Emergentes, INRA/ENSA.M/UMII/CIRAD, Université Montpellier II, Montpellier Cedex, France

Mirta I. Aranguren, INTEMA-CONICET, Facultad de Ingeniería-Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Mar del Plata, Argentina

Joe Aspler, FPInnovations, Pointe Claire, QC, Canada

Stephanie Beck, FPInnovations, Pointe Claire, QC, Canada

Richard Berry, FPInnovations, Pointe Claire, QC, Canada

Jean Bouchard, FPInnovations, Pointe Claire, QC, Canada

John A. Carver, School of Chemistry and Physics, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia; Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, ACT, Australia

Georgeta Cazacu, PetruPoni” Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Physical Chemistry of Polymers Department, Ghica Voda Alley, Iasi, Romania

Pascale Chalier, Unité Mixte de Recherche Ingénierie des Agropolymères et Technologies Emergentes, INRA/ENSA.M/UMII/CIRAD, Université Montpellier II, Montpellier Cedex, France

Peter R. Chang, Bioproducts and Bioprocesses National Science Program, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, SK, Canada; Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada

B. Deepa, Department of Chemistry, Bishop Moore College, Mavelikara, Kerala, India; Department of Chemistry, C.M.S. College, Kottayam, Kerala, India

François Drolet, FPInnovations, Pointe Claire, QC, Canada

Alain Dufresne, Grenoble Institute of Technology (Grenoble INP), The International School of Paper, Print Media, and Biomaterials (Pagora), Saint Martin d’Hères Cedex, France

Heath Ecroyd, School of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia

Megan Garvey, Institute of Molecular Biotechnology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany

Emmanuelle Gastaldi, Unité Mixte de Recherche Ingénierie des Agropolymères et Technologies Emergentes, INRA/ENSA.M/UMII/CIRAD, Université Montpellier II, Montpellier Cedex, France

Juliet A. Gerrard, Biomolecular Interaction Centre, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand; School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand; MacDiarmid Institute, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand

Nathalie Gontard, Unité Mixte de Recherche Ingénierie des Agropolymères et Technologies Emergentes, INRA/ENSA.M/UMII/CIRAD, Université Montpellier II, Montpellier Cedex, France

Valérie Guillard, Unité Mixte de Recherche Ingénierie des Agropolymères et Technologies Emergentes, INRA/ENSA.M/UMII/CIRAD, Université Montpellier II, Montpellier Cedex, France

Carole Guillaume, Unité Mixte de Recherche Ingénierie des Agropolymères et Technologies Emergentes, INRA/ENSA.M/UMII/CIRAD, Université Montpellier II, Montpellier Cedex, France

Youssef Habibi, Center of Innovation and Research in Materials and Polymers, University of Mons, Belgium

Wadood Hamad, FPInnovations, Pointe Claire, QC, Canada

Jin Huang, College of Chemical Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, China; and State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China

Qing Huang, College of Chemical Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, China

Shinsuke Ifuku, Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Tottori University, Koyama-cho Minami, Tottori, Japan

Marco Iotti, Research Scientist, Paper and Fibre Research Institute, Trondheim, Norway

Jun-Ichi Kadokawa, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Kagoshima University, Korimoto, Kagoshima, Japan

Rekha Rose Koshy, Department of Chemistry, Bishop Moore College, Mavelikara, Kerala, India

Marie-Pierre Laborie, Institute of Forest Utilization and Work Sciences, Albert-Ludwigs University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany, and Freiburg Materials Research Centre—FMF, Albert-Ludwigs University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany

Déborah Le Corre, University of Canterbury, New Zealand

Liyuan Lu, Engineering Research Center of Nano-Geomaterials of Ministry of Education, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China

Norma E. Marcovich, INTEMA-CONICET, Facultad de Ingeniería-Univer­sidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Mar del Plata, Argentina

Siji K. Mary, Bishop Moore College, Mavelikara, Kerala, India

Vikas Mittal, Chemical Engineering Department, The Petroleum Institute, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Mirna A. Mosiewicki, INTEMA-CONICET, Facultad de Ingeniería-Univer­sidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Mar del Plata, Argentina

Tiffany Omokanwaye, Catholic University of America, BONE/CRAB Lab, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington, DC

Anayancy Osorio-Madrazo, Institute of Forest Utilization and Work Sciences, Albert-Ludwigs University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany, and Freiburg Materials Research Centre—FMF, Albert-Ludwigs University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany

Stéphane Peyron, Unité Mixte de Recherche Ingénierie des Agropolymères et Technologies Emergentes, INRA/ENSA.M/UMII/CIRAD, Université Montpellier II, Montpellier Cedex, France

Saumya S. Pillai, Department of Chemistry, Bishop Moore College, Mavelikara, Kerala, India

David Plackett, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark

Laly A. Pothan, Department of Chemistry, Bishop Moore College, Mavelikara, Kerala, India

Shiva P. Rao, New Zealand Institute of Plant and Food Research, Christchurch, New Zealand; Biomolecular Interaction Centre, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand

Hiroyuki Saimoto, Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Tottori University, Koyama-cho Minami, Tottori, Japan

Robert A. Shanks, School of Applied Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Vic., Australia

Zameer Shervani, Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Tottori University, Koyama-cho Minami, Tottori, Japan

Deepa Thomas, Department of Chemistry, Bishop Moore College, Mavelikkara, Kerala India

Merin Sara Thomas, Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, M.G. University, Kottayam, Kerala, India

Sabu Thomas, Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, M.G. University, Kottayam, Kerala, India

Eliane Trovatti, CICECO and Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal

Cornelia Vasile, PetruPoni” Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Physical Chemistry of Polymers Department, Ghica Voda Alley, Iasi, Romania

Madhusudan Vasudevamurthy, New Zealand Institute of Plant and Food Research, Christchurch, New Zealand; Biomolecular Interaction Centre, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand

Otto C. Wilson, Jr., Catholic University of America, BONE/CRAB Lab, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington, DC

Qingyu Xu, Hubei Research Institute of Chemistry, Wuhan, China, and Haiso Technology Co., Ltd, Wuhan, China

Jiahui Yu, Institute of Biofunctional Materials and Devices, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China

Ming Zeng, Engineering Research Center of Nano-Geomaterials of Ministry of Education,China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China, and State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China

Xuejun Zou, FPInnovations, Pointe Claire, QC, Canada

CHAPTER 1

Bionanocomposites: State of the Art, Challenges, and Opportunities

Alain Dufresne, Sabu Thomas, and Laly A. Pothan

1.1 Introduction

Researchers are currently developing and modifying biobased materials that have various applications in different fields. Ecological concerns are the main reasons behind this renewed interest in natural and compostable materials. Tailoring new products with the perspective of sustainable development is a philosophy that is applied to more and more materials now. The importance gained by natural polymers recently should be viewed from this perspective. Compared with their synthetic counterparts, natural polymers are renewable, biocompatible, and biodegradable. Production of nanocomposites from natural polymers, such as starch, chitin, and cellulose, and specific research in this field aimed at increasing the properties of the products and developing newer techniques are the order of the day. Polysaccharide polymers that are abundant in nature are increasingly being used for the preparation of nanocomposites.

Biopolymers are polymers that are biodegradable. They are designed to degrade through the action of living organisms. They are the best alternatives to traditional nonbiodegradable polymers whose recycling is unpractical or not economical. The input materials for the production of such biodegradable polymers may be either renewable (based on agricultural plant or animal products) or synthetic. Biopolymers from renewable resources are more important than others for obvious reasons [1]. Biopolymers are said to be from renewable sources because they are made from materials that can be grown each year, indefinitely. Plant-based biopolymers usually come from agricultural nonfood crops. Therefore, the use of biopolymers would create a sustainable industry. In contrast, the feedstock of synthetic polymers derived from petrochemicals will eventually run out. Biopolymers have also been reported to be close to carbon-neutral. When a biodegradable material (neat polymer, blended product, or composite) is obtained completely from renewable resources, we may call it a green polymeric material.

Nature provides an impressive array of polymers that are generally biodegradable and that have the potential to replace many current polymers, as biodegradation is part of the natural biogeochemical cycle. Natural polymers, such as proteins, starch, and cellulose, are examples of such polymers. Polymer nanocomposites represent a new alternative to conventional polymers. Polymer nanocomposites are materials in which nanoscopic inorganic or organic particles, typically 10–1000 Å in at least one dimension, are dispersed in an organic polymer matrix in order to improve the properties of the polymer dramatically. Owing to the nanometer length scale, which minimizes scattering of light, nanocomposites are usually transparent and exhibit properties that are markedly improved over those of pure polymers or their traditional composites. They have increased modulus and strength, outstanding barrier properties, improved solvency, heat resistance, and generally lower flammability, and they do not have detrimental effects on ductility.

1.2 Nanocrystalline Cellulose

The hierarchical structure and semicrystalline nature of polysaccharides (cellulose, starch, and chitin) allow nanoparticles to be extracted from naturally occurring polymers. Native cellulose and chitin fibers are composed of smaller and mechanically stronger long thin filaments, called microfibrils, consisting of alternating crystalline and noncrystalline domains. Multiple mechanical shearing actions can be used to release these microfibrils individually.

The extraction of crystalline cellulosic regions, in the form of nanowhiskers, can be accomplished by a simple process based on acid hydrolysis. Samir et al. have described cellulose whiskers as nanofibers that have been grown under controlled conditions that lead to the formation of high purity single crystals [2]. Many different terms have been used in the literature to designate these rod-like nanoparticles. They are mainly referred to as whiskers or cellulose nanocrystals. A recent review from Habibi et al. gives a clear overview of such cellulosic nanomaterials [3].

Nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) derived from acid hydrolysis of native cellulose possesses different morphologies depending on the origin and hydrolysis conditions. NCCs are rigid rod-like crystals with a diameter in the range of 10–20 nm and lengths of a few hundred nanometers (Figure 1.1). Acid treatment (acid hydrolysis) is the main process used to produce NCC, which are smaller building blocks released from the original cellulose fibers. Native cellulose consists of amorphous and crystalline regions. The amorphous regions have lower density than the crystalline regions. Therefore, when cellulose fibers are subjected to harsh acid treatment, the amorphous regions break up, releasing the individual crystallites. The properties of NCC depend on various factors, such as cellulose sources, reaction time and temperature, and types of acid used for hydrolysis.

Figure 1.1 NCCs are rigid rod-like crystals with diameter in the range of 10–20 nm and lengths of a few hundred nanometers Reproduced with the permission from Reference [5].

Polysaccharide nanoparticles are obtained as aqueous suspensions, and most investigations have focused on hydrosoluble (or at least hydrodispersible) or latex-form polymers. However, these nanocrystals can also be dispersed in nonaqueous media using surfactants or chemical grafting. The hydroxyl groups present on the surface of the nanocrystals make extensive chemical modification possible. Even though this improves the adhesion of nanocrystals with nonpolar polymer matrices, it has been reported that this strategy has a negative impact on the mechanical performance of the composites. This unusual behavior is ascribed to the reinforcing phenomenon of polysaccharide nanocrystals resulting from the formation of a percolating network due to hydrogen bonding forces.

As a result of its distinctive properties, NCC has become an important class of renewable nanomaterials, which has many useful applications, the most important of which is the reinforcement of polymeric matrices in nanocomposite materials. Favier et al. were the first to report the use of NCC as reinforcing fillers in poly(styrene co-butyl acrylate) (poly(S-co-BuA))-based nanocomposites [4]. Since then, numerous nanocomposite materials have been developed by incorporating NCC into a wide range of polymeric matrices. Owing to their abundance, high strength and stiffness, low weight, and biodegradability, nanoscale polysaccharide materials can be used widely for the preparation of bionanocomposites. In fact, a broad range of applications of these nanoparticles exists. Many studies show its potential, though most focus on their mechanical properties and their liquid crystal self-ordering properties. The homogeneous dispersion of cellulosic nanoparticles in a polymer matrix is challenging. In addition, there are many safety concerns about nanomaterials, as their size allows them to penetrate into cells of humans and to remain in the system. However, finding newer applications for nanocellulose will have a very positive impact on organic waste management. To date, there is no consensus about categorizing nanocellulosic materials as new materials.

NCC is an environmentally friendly material that could serve as a valuable renewable resource for rejuvenating the beleaguered forest industry. New and emerging industrial extraction processes need to be optimized to achieve more efficient operations, and this will require active research participation from the academic and industrial sectors. The application of nanotechnology in developing NCC from the forest industry to more valuable products is required because the availability of materials based on NCC is still limited. Increasing attention is devoted to producing NCC in larger quantities and to exploring various modification processes that enhance the properties of NCC, making it attractive for use in a wide range of industrial sectors [5]. As the second most abundant biopolymer after cellulose, chitin is mainly synthesized via a biosynthetic process by an enormous number of living organisms such as shrimp, crab, tortoise, and insects and can also be synthesized by a nonbiosynthetic pathway through chitinase-catalyzed polymerization of a chitobiose oxazoline derivative [6, 7].

Chitosan, as the most important derivative of chitin, can be prepared by deacetylation of chitin. Chitin and chitosan have many excellent properties including biocompatibility, biodegradability, nontoxicity, and absorption, and thus they can be widely used in a variety of areas such as biomedical applications, agriculture, water treatment, and cosmetics. Chitin has been known to form microfibrillar arrangements in living organisms. These fibrils with diameters from 2.5 to 25 nm, depending on their biological origins, are usually embedded in a protein matrix [8]. Therefore, they intrinsically have the potential to be converted to crystalline nanoparticles and nanofibers and to find application in nanocomposite fields. The structure of chitin is very analogous to cellulose. Chitin and cellulose are both supporting materials for living bodies and are found in living plants or animals with sizes increasing from simple molecules and highly crystalline fibrils on the nanometer level to composites on the micrometer level upward [9]. Therefore, they intrinsically have the potential to be converted to crystalline nanoparticles and nanofibers and to find application in nanocomposite fields. Chitin has been known to form microfibrillar arrangements in living organisms [10, 11].

Chitin whiskers (CHW) can be prepared from chitins isolated from chitin-containing living organisms by a method similar to the preparation of cellulose whisker through hydrolysis in a strong acid aqueous medium. On the basis of preparation of cellulose crystallite suspension, Marchessault et al. [11] for the first time reported a route for preparing suspension of chitin crystallite particles in 1959. In this method, purified chitin was first treated within 2.5 N hydrochloric acid (HCl) solutions under reflux for 1 hour; the excess acid was decanted; and then distilled water was added to obtain the suspension. Acid-hydrolyzed chitin was found to be spontaneously dispersed into rod-like particles that could be concentrated to a liquid crystalline phase and self-assemble to a cholesteric liquid crystalline phase above a certain concentration [12].

CHWs are attracting attention from both the academic field and industry since it is a renewable and biodegradable nanoparticle. CHWs have numerous advantages over conventional inorganic particles such as low density, nontoxicity, biodegradability, biocompatibility, easy surface modification, and functionalization. Figure 1.2 shows the transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) images of CHWs obtained by the 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl radical (TEMPO) mediated oxidation method. CHWs, with or without modification, are hoped to have extensive application in many areas such as reinforcing nanocomposites, the food and cosmetics industries, drug delivery, and tissue engineering. However, recent studies have focused mainly on the preparation and nanocomposite application of CHWs, and less attention has been paid to other application areas. It is hoped that in the future, more attention will be focused on developing novel applications of CHWs. Even for the CHW-reinforced nanocomposites there will still be much valuable work to be done, for example, developing new simple and effective processing methods so as to commercialize high performance polymer/CHWs composites, producing polymer nanocomposites filled with individual CHWs that would create higher reinforcing efficiency than the conventional CHW due to the high aspect ratio of individual CHWs. Thus, there are abundant opportunities combined with challenges in CHW-related scientific and industrial fields [13].

Figure 1.2 TEM (a) and AFM (b) images of a dilute suspension of chitin whiskers and TEM images of individual chitin whiskers obtained by the TEMPO method (c) and surface cationization (d). Reproduced with permissions from Reference [9].

Starch is the second most studied organic material for producing nanocrystals. Starch nanocrystals are the nanoscale biofillers derived from native starch granules and are a suitable candidate for the preparation of semicrystalline polymers for preparing renewable and potentially biodegradable nanoparticles. As a natural biopolymer, starch is abundant, renewable, inexpensive, biodegradable, environmentally friendly, and easy to chemically modify, making it one of the most attractive and promising bioresource materials. Several techniques for preparing starch nanoparticles (SNP) have been developed over the years and render different kinds of SNP, which are described in this book. Acid hydrolysis and precipitation methods are the two main methods employed for the preparation of SNPs. Starch nanocrystals obtained by acid hydrolysis of starch have been used as fillers in natural and synthetic polymeric matrices and appear to be an interesting reinforcing agent. Figure 1.3 shows the TEM image of starch nanocrystals [14]. Nanoreinforced starch-based nanocomposites generally exhibit enhanced mechanical and thermal properties when nanofillers are well dispersed, while the nature of the matrix and/or nanofiller contributes to its biological properties.

Figure 1.3 TEM observations of starch nanocrystals: longitudinal view and planar view. Reproduced with permission from Reference [14]. Copyright 2003 American Chemical Society.

Nanocellulose produced by the bacterium Gluconacetobacter xylinus (bacterial cellulose, BC), is an another emerging biomaterial with great potential as a biological implant, wound and burn dressing material, and scaffold for tissue regeneration. This BC is quite different from plant celluloses and is defined by high purity (free of hemicelluloses, lignin, and alien functionalities such as carbonyl or carboxyl groups) and a high degree of polymerization (up to 8000) [15]. BC has remarkable mechanical properties despite the fact that it contains up to 99% water. The water-holding ability is the most probable reason why BC implants do not elicit any foreign body reaction. Fibrosis, capsule formation, or giant cells were not detected around the implants, and connective tissue was well integrated with the BNC structures. Moreover, the nanostructure and morphological similarities with collagen make BC attractive for cell immobilization, cell migration, and the production of extracellular matrices [16, 17]. Figure 1.4 shows BNC fleeces formed by different Gluconacetobacter strains and their network structure.

Figure 1.4 Fleeces of bacterial nanocellulose produced by two different Gluconacetobacter strains and their network structure. Reproduced with permissions from Reference [17].

The advanced natural fiber-reinforced polymer composite contributes to enhancing the development of bionanocomposites with regard to performance and sustainability. In the future, these biocomposites will see increased use in optical, biological, and engineering applications. But there are still a number of problems that have to be solved before biocomposites become fully competitive with synthetic fiber composites. These include extreme sensitivity to moisture and temperature, expensive recycling processes, high variability in properties, nonlinear mechanical behavior, poor long-term performance, and low impact strength. As of now, the methods for extracting nanocrystals of these various biomaterials are expensive, and more economical methods will have to be sorted out in future.

The poor interfacial adhesion between natural fibers and polymeric matrix is the key issue that dictates the overall performance of the composites. Interaction of two or more different materials with each other depends on the nature and strengths of the intermolecular forces of the components involved. The mechanical performance of composites is dependent on the degree of dispersion of the fibers in the matrix polymer and the nature and intensity of fiber–polymer adhesion interactions. Therefore, the selection of appropriate matrices and filler with good interfacial interaction is of great importance. The irreversible aggregation of the nanofiller (hornification) in the matrix, which prevents its redispersion in the matrix, is another hurdle to be overcome. This irreversible aggregation results in a material with ivory-like properties that can neither be used in rheological applications nor be dispersed for composite applications. Therefore, it is necessary to continue research in this area to obtain a better understanding of the adhesion interactions including mechanical interlocking, interpenetrating networks, and covalent linkages on a fundamental level to improve interfacial properties with thermoplastics, thermosets, and biopolymers.

This book is an attempt to introduce various biopolymers and bionanocomposites to students of material sciences. Going beyond a mere introduction, the book delves deep into the characteristics of various biopolymers and bionanocomposites and discusses the nuances of their preparation with a view to helping researchers discover newer and novel applications. Chapter 2, for instance, describes the preparation of chitin nanofibers and their composites and discusses the basics, such as isolation of chitin nanofibersfrom different sources. Chapter 3 discusses chemical modification of chitosan and its biomedical application. While biometric lessons for processing chitin-based composites are provided in Chapter 4, Chapter 5 deals with morphological and thermal investigations of chitin-based nanocomposites. Mechanical properties of chitin-based nanocomposites are discussed in Chapter 6, and preparation and applications of chitin nanofibers/nanowhiskers is the topic of Chapter 7. Thus, Chapters 2 to 7 are allotted to chitin and related topics.

Various aspects of starch-based composites, such as preparation of SNPs (Chapter 8), chemical modification of SNPs (Chapter 9), processing techniques of starch-based bionanocomposites (Chapter 10), morphological and thermal investigations of starch-based nanocomposites (Chapter 11), mechanical properties of starch-based nanocomposites (Chapter 12), and applications of SNPs and starch-based bionanocomposites (Chapter 13), are the subject matter of Chapters 8 to 13.

Preparation of nanofibrillated cellulose and cellulose whiskers are dealt with in Chapter 14. Chapter 15 is exclusively set apart for BC. It examines the details of production of microorganisms, production of BC, production of BC from food and agro-forestry residues, and the structure of BC. Chemical modification of nanocelluloses is discussed in Chapter 16, and processing techniques of cellulose-based nanocomposites are dealt with in Chapter 17. Chapter 18 is on morphological and thermal investigations of cellulosic bionanocomposites, and Chapter 19 discusses mechanical properties of cellulose-based bionanocomposites. A review of nanocellulosic products and their applications is provided in Chapter 20. In Chapter 21 spectroscopic characterization of renewable nanoparticles and their composites are dealt with. Chapter 22 deals with barrier properties of renewable nanomaterials. Chapter 23 is set apart for biocomposites and nanocomposites containing lignin. While Chapter 24 deals with preparation, processing, and applications of protein nanofibers, Chapter 25 deals with protein-based nanocomposites for food packaging. Thus, this book is a sincere attempt at promoting the use of green materials for sustainable growth of humanity.

References

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[2] Samir, M.A.S.A., Alloin, F., and Dufresne, A. (2005) Review of recent research into cellulosic whiskers, their properties and their application in nanocomposite field. Biomacromolecules, 6, 612–626.

[3] Habibi, Y., Lucia, L.A., and Rojas, O.J. (2010) Cellulose Nanocrystals: Chemistry, self assembly, and applications. Chemical Reviews, 110(6), 3479–3500.

[4] Favier, V., Chanzy, H., and Cavaille, J.Y. (1995) Polymer nanocomposites reinforced by cellulose whiskers. Macromolecules, 28, 6365–6367.

[5] Peng, B.L., Dhar, N., Liu, H.L., and Tam, K.C. (2011) Chemistry and applications of nanocrystalline cellulose and its derivatives: A nanotechnology perspective. Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 89(5), 1191–1206.

[6] Kobayashi, S., Kiyosada, T., and Shoda, S.I. (1996) Synthesis of artificial chitin: Irreversible catalytic behavior of a glycosyl hydrolase through a transition state analogue substrate. Journal of American Chemical Society, 118, 13113–13114.

[7] Kadokawa, J. (2011) Precision polysaccharide synthesis catalyzed by enzymes. Chemical Reviews, 111, 4308–4345.

[8] Revol, J.F., Marchessault, R.H. (1993) In vitro chiral nematic ordering of chitin crystallites. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 15, 329–335.

[9] Fan, Y., Saito, T., and Isogai, A. (2008) Preparation of chitin nanofibers from squid pen β-chitin by simple mechanical treatment under acid conditions. Biomacromolecules, 9, 1919–1923.

[10] Carlstrom, D. (1957) The crystal structure of α-chitin (poly-n-acetyl-d-glucosamine). The Journal of Biophysical and Biochemical Cytology, 3, 669–683.

[11] Marchessault, R.H., Morehead, F.F., and Walter, N.M. (1959) Liquid crystal systems from fibrillar polysaccharides. Nature, 184, 632–633.

[12] Li, J., Revol, J.F., Naranjo, E., and Marchessault, R.H. (1996) Effect of electrostatic interaction on phase separation behaviour of chitin crystallite suspensions. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 18, 177–187.

[13] Zeng, J.B., He, Y.S., Li, S.L., and Wang, Y.Z. (2012) Chitin whiskers: An overview. Biomacromolecules, 13, 1–11.

[14] Putaux, J.L., Molina-Boisseau, S., Momaur, T., and Dufresne, A. (2003) Platelet nanocrystals resulting from the disruption of waxy maize starch granules by acid hydrolysis. Biomacromolecules, 4(5), 1198–1202.

[15] Kramer, F., Klemm, D., Schumann, D., Heßler, N., Wesarg, F., Fried, W., and Stadermann, D. (2006) Nanocellulose polymer composites as innovative pool for (Bio) material development. Macromolecular Symposia, 244, 136–148.

[16] Gatenholm, P., Klemm, D. (2010) Bacterial nanocellulose as a renewable material for biomedical applications. MRS Bulletin, 35, 208–213.

[17] Klemm, D., Kramer, F., Moritz, S., Lindstrom, T., Ankerfors, M., Gray, D., and Dorris, A. (2011) Nanocelluloses: A new family of nature-based materials. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 50, 5438–5466.

CHAPTER 2

Preparation of Chitin Nanofibers and Their Composites

Shinsuke Ifuku, Zameer Shervani, and Hiroyuki Saimoto

2.1 Introduction

Biodegradable chitin nanofibers (CNFs) have attracted the attention of researchers worldwide in recent years, as they constitute an important part of the rapidly growing field of nanotechnology, which deals with nanometer-sized (1–100 nm) composites. Bionanofibers have superiority over their synthetic counterparts because of their biocompatible nature. They have applications in the medical, cosmetics, pharmaceutical, and chemical industries. If doped with inorganic metals, the hybrid organic–inorganic composites can have vast applications in electronics, electrical, and optical fields, and, most important, in much needed renewable energy production. Nanofibers (NFs) have a large surface-to-mass ratio, making them promising candidates for advanced material devices. A number of methods are employed to spin NFs. Electrospinning is one of the methods that use electrical charge to draw nanoscale fibers from polymer liquid solutions. As synthetic NFs are environmentally toxic, natural NFs are preferred products over synthetic fibers. Natural NFs are known to exist in nature in various forms: collagen fibrils, silk fibroin, double helical deoxyribonucleic acid, and so on. Apart from natural chitin NFs, there are cellulose microfibrills, which are more abundant natural NFs.

Abe et al. [1] achieved efficient extraction of wood cellulose NFs, which existed in a cell wall, of a uniform width of 15 nm, using a simple mechanical treatment. Wood powder of size <60 mesh from the Radiata pine tree was used. First, organic solvent extraction was conducted to remove wax and other small organic components. The larger complex lignin moiety was separated by acidified sodium chlorite solution. A number of extraction cycles were used until the product turned white. Hemicellulose was leached by the treatment of 6 wt% potassium hydroxide. Cellulose thus obtained as α-cellulose constituted 85% of whole cellulose. Finally, 1 wt% slurry of cellulose was passed through a grinder at a speed of 1500 rpm. Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) measurement confirmed the formation of 15 nm width cellulose NFs.

All cellulose composites of consisting fibers and matrix were studied [2, 3] for structural, mechanical, and thermal properties. The elastic modulus, in the direction parallel to the polymer molecule chain axis, was found to be 138 GPa for the crystalline regions. This value is comparable to that of high performance synthetic fibers. The tensile strength of cellulose is 17.8 GPa, which is seven times higher than that of steel. The linear thermal expansion coefficient is about 10−7/K. Due to their high elastic modulus and tensile strength and low thermal expansion, fibers are promising candidates as reinforcement agent for a number of composites.

Chitin is the second most abundant biopolymer after cellulose that occurs in nature [4]. Its annual production worldwide is 1010 to 1011 tons, mostly produced from external skeletons of shellfish, crabs, shrimp, insects, mushrooms, and algae. The fibrous material of cellular walls of mushrooms and algae and external skeletons in shellfish and insects are composed of chitin. Chitin content is in the range of 8–33%, which is disposed of as industrial waste in shellfish canning industries. Chitin and chitin compounds find application in various fields, including cosmetics and chemical industries, engaging researchers from around the world. Chitin and their hybrid inorganic composites are also expected to have applications in electrical, electronics, and optical devices. Natural chitin is highly crystalline (mostly α-chitin), though the distribution among α- and -β-chitin depends on the source. Among the applications discovered so far, chitin serves as an effective reinforcement for the preparation of composites; there are reports in the literature on chitin whisker-reinforced nanocomposites [4]. The chitin structure comprises the repeating units along the N-acetylglucosamine structure. It has two hydroxyl and an acetamide groups per unit [5], which make the molecule reactive for a number of applications. A dominant feature of arthropod exoskeletons is that they are well organized, arranged in different structural levels. Considering molecular levels, there are long chain polysaccharide chitin fibrils with dimensions of 3 nm in width and 300 nm in length. The fibrils are wrapped in proteins and aggregated into bundles of fibers of about 60 nm in diameter. Step-by-step breakup of these assemblies has been shown by Chen et al. [6], who have described the structural and mechanical properties of crab exoskeleton in detail. Chitin whiskers were prepared from crab shells by using chemical treatment followed by mechanical treatment [4]. The proteins were removed with 5% KOH; NaClO2 and a small amount of sodium acetate buffer were used as bleaching agents. The residual proteins were again removed by using 5% KOH.

The purified chitin sample was hydrolyzed with 3 N HCl followed by centrifuging the hydrolyzed suspension. The centrifugated suspension was dialyzed overnight in distilled water until the pH of the preparation reached 4. The dispersion was sonicated for 5 minutes, and prepared whiskers were finally stored at 6°C. There are other methods as well to extract CNFs from natural materials, such as ultrasonic methods [7] and electrospinning [8]. However, NFs obtained by these methods are different from the high quality CNFs in terms of width, aspect ratio, crystallinity, chemical structure, and narrow size distribution. Researchers have extracted NFs by 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxy radical (TEMPO)-mediated oxidation of natural cellulose, followed by ultrasonic treatment. This method was then tested for isolating α-chitin from crab shells, but the average nanocrystal length was considerably low [9], and instead of chitin, the derivatives of chitin were also obtained. Fan et al. [10] obtained CNFs of 3–4 nm size from less chitin content biomass squid pen by ultrasonication treatment under acidic conditions; however, the crystallinity of the NFs from the source was relatively low. In addition to the method [1] of isolating CNFs from a cellulose source, one can isolate CNFs from a number of sources. In this chapter we describe isolation and characterization of natural CNFs from different sources and the composite preparations from these NFs. Most of the work described in this chapter has been conducted by our group, but we also describe and compare research carried out in other laboratories.

2.2 Isolation of Chitin Nanofibers from Different Sources

2.2.1 Processing of Chitin Nanofibers from Crab Shells

Extraction of CNFs from crab shells was conducted following a series of chemical treatments followed by mechanical grinding. Low cost commercial dried crab shell flakes of the species Paralithodes camtschaticus, commonly known as “red king crab,” were used as raw material. These crabs are in abundance and used as fertilizers for crops. Crab shells were milled to powder and purified according to the established procedure. Chemical treatment was as follows. Powdered crab shell flakes were treated with 2 N HCl for 2 days at room temperature to remove the mineral salts, then the suspension was filtered and washed thoroughly with distilled water. Afterward, the mixture was refluxed in 2 N NaOH for 2 days to remove the various proteins. The NaOH-treated solution was mixed with ethanol to extract pigments and lipids. The purified chitin was then removed by filtration and rinsed with water. The processed chitin cake was kept wet, which helped fibrillation by mechanical treatment. It was established that all types of proteins and minerals such as CaCO3 can be removed by NaOH and HCl treatment stages. The chitin content in crab shells was 12.1 wt% after purification. Various authors [4, 11, 12] established these individual steps separately, which helped us to extract chitin from complicated and tightly bonded fibril bundles. The different steps adopted for separation are based on reports in the literature. The purified wet chitin from dry crab shells obtained via the above process was dispersed in distilled water at 1 wt% content, and hereafter called slurry of chitin. The slurry was passed through a grinder (MKCA6-3, Masuko Sangyo Co., Kawaguchi, Japan) under a neutral pH condition. The grinding stones were cleaned and adjusted carefully. In reality, the presence of the chitin suspension between the grinder stones does not allow direct contact between the stones; thus, they remain safe during operation. After passing through the grinder the uneven slurry suspension of chitin changed to a highly viscous homogeneous suspension of CNFs, which remained wet and stable indefinitely if stored in a tightly closed container.

2.2.1.1 Structure of Chitin Matrix after Chemical Treatment before Grinding

Sheets of chemically isolated chitin were prepared without mechanical grinding. FE-SEM of the sheet was recorded after coating with a 2-nm layer of platinum by an ion sputter coating apparatus. Figure 2.1 shows the SEM image of pre-ground chitin. The image is of the crab shell surface after removal of the calcium carbonate mineral phase. From the SEM image of endocuticle, it is apparent that the cuticle takes up about 90% of the volume of the crab exoskeleton. One can observe that the chitin was made up of regularly structured chitin fiber networks strongly stacked into flat ribbon structured networks composed of bundles of CNFs.

Figure 2.1 FE-SEM image of crab shell surface after the removal of matrix.

2.2.1.2 Nanofibrillation of Chitin by Grinding and Effect of pH

Chemically treated slurry (1 wt%) described in Section 2.2.1 was passed for one cycle through a grinder under two pH of slurry 7 and 3. At neutral pH, the widths of the fibers were more widely distributed in the range of 10–100 nm (Fig. 2.2a). The bundles of embedded chitin–protein fibers were fibrillated successfully by grinding of wet chitin. It was easy to remove protein from water-soaked chitin to isolate chitin fibrils. Fan et al. [9] reported a preparation method of CNFs from wet squid pen β-chitin at pH 3–4. At low pH in acidic conditions, cationization of C2 amino groups in β-chitin occurred, which maintained a more dispersed and stable phase due to electrostatic repulsions. Similar electrostatic phenomena on cationization of amino groups was applied in purified α-chitin produced from crab shells by our research group [5] in acidic conditions (pH = 3) to produce very fine fibrils in the narrow range of 10–20 nm (Fig. 2.2b,c). The low pH was adjusted by the addition of acetic acid followed by grinding process. It is noteworthy that the chitin slurry of 1 wt% became a highly viscous gel phase after one cycle of grinding treatment due to the large surface area of NFs. In FE-SEM images, the unbroken high aspect ratio of homogeneously dispersed chitin nanocomposite was noticed in widely scanned areas. The physical appearance of the composite was a highly viscous gel phase, which is an indication [1] that fibrillation was successfully achieved and facilitated in acidic medium. Thus, CNFs (10–20 nm) were successfully isolated from crab shells in our laboratory [5], similar to the process applied to isolate cellulose NFs from wood cell wall [1].

Figure 2.2 SEM pictures of chitin nanofibers (CNFs) obtained from crab shell after one cycle of grinding at two pH values of slurry: (a) pH = 7; (b) and (c) pH = 3. The scale is (a) and (b) 400 nm, (c) 200 nm.

2.2.2 Chitin Nanofibers from Prawn Shells

We successfully isolated α-chitin NFs from crab shells with a uniform width of 10–20 nm and a very high aspect ratio, as described in Section 2.2.1. From crab shells thin fibers were prepared in acidic conditions of pH 3, which cationized amino groups of chitin before grinding the slurry. However, acidic pools and extra acetic acid (AcOH) in the CNF preparation is a matter of great concern when it comes to application of NF composites in pharmaceutical, cosmetic, biomedical, electric, electronics, and optical devices, as well as other applications. The above products are very sensitive to acid content, which as a contaminant can be toxic. Moreover, removal of acid from NFs is difficult, making these products expensive. Therefore, preparation of CNFs in normal conditions of neutral pH is preferable when used for the above products.

The following describes the extraction of CNFs from prawn shells conducted under neutral conditions without addition of any acid. Fresh shells of the species Penaeus monodon, commonly known as “black tiger prawn,” was used to prepare CNFs. This prawn is cultivated worldwide and its shell is typically thrown away as waste. Using NaOH and HCl aqueous solutions, proteins and minerals were removed, leaving the chitin and pigments in the shell [11]. The pigment from the sample was then removed with ethanol extraction. The yield of dry chitin from the wet prawn shells was approximately 16.7%. The degree of deacetylation (DDA) of the samples determined by elemental analysis was 7%. The SEM micrograph of the black tiger prawn shell surface after removal of the matrix components (without grinding treatment) is shown in Figure 2.3. The exocuticle, which is the main part of the prawn shell, is shown in the SEM picture. The prawn shell is still intact after removal of the matrix by chemical treatment; it is very important that uniform CNFs with an elaborate interwoven design are clearly visible.

Figure 2.3 FE-SEM image of the surface of the black tiger prawn after removal of matrix components.

The chemically treated 1 wt% chitin suspension was crushed by a domestic blender followed by passing through a grinder for fibrillation without addition of acid. The chitin slurry thus obtained was viscous after a single grinding treatment, similar to the CNFs from the crab shells. The resultant fibrous slurry was examined by FE-SEM (Fig. 2.4). In the crab shell preparation, the width of the fibers was widely distributed in the range of 10–100 nm by grinder treatment under neutral conditions. In the prawn shell preparation, we obtained a uniform shape of CNFs using the same extraction treatment. The CNFs were uniform (Fig. 2.4a), as observed by scanning over a wide area. The width of the NFs was approximately 10–20 nm (Fig. 2.4b), similar to that obtained in crab shells in acidic condition [5]. Hence, using prawns as the source, thin, homogeneous, uniformly distributed, well separated, and large aspect ratio CNFs were successfully prepared in neutral medium with much superiority over acidic crab shell preparations.

Figure 2.4 FE-SEM recording of CNFs from black tiger prawn shell after one pass through the grinder.

A possible explanation for this observation is as follows. The outermost skeleton (exoskeleton) of prawn or crab shells is made up of two parts, the exocuticle and the endocuticle. The exocuticle has a very fine interwoven plywood-type structure; endocuticle is rather more coarse and has thick fibers in the form shown in Figure 2.1. About 90% of the crab shell is made up of these thicker endocuticular fibers [6]. Thus, a low pH of 3 is used to obtain nanofibrils in the crab shell. On the other hand, the exoskeleton of Natantia prawn, including black tiger prawn, is made up of mostly semitransparent soft shell of fine (Fig. 2.3) exocuticle [13–15]; thus, their fibrillation occurs at neutral pH and is easier than crab shell. The preparation for CNFs from prawn shells in neutral pH can also be applied to other species of prawn. Figure 2.5 shows SEM images of the CNFs prepared from Marsupenaeus japonicus (Japanese tiger prawn) and Pandaluseous (Alaskan pink shrimp). These prawn also exist in abundance as a food source. These CNFs were prepared by the same method described for prawn in general in neutral pH. Figure 2.5 shows the uniform width of NFs in the range of 10–20 nm, as from black tiger prawn described previously. These results suggest that CNFs can be obtained from other prawn species having a very fine exocuticle structure by nanofibrillation under neutral pH conditions. Since many materials are sensitive to acid chemicals, this study will expand the application of CNFs.

Figure 2.5 FE-SEM images of chitin nanofibers (a) from Japanese tiger prawn shell and (b) from Alaskan pink shrimp shell.

2.2.3 Facile Preparation of Chitin Nanofibers from Dry Chitin

The isolation method of α-CNFs from crab and shrimp shells conducted by our group [5] is described in Section 2.2.1. CNFs with homogeneous thickness of 10–20 nm and a high aspect ratio were produced. Until now we have discussed the chemical and mechanical treatment of wet CNFs where hydrogen bonding between NFs was relatively weak compared with dried chitin or cellulose fibers; in the latter there is strong hydrogen bonding, which makes fibrillation difficult. Therefore, chitin and cellulose must be kept wet after removal of the matrix to facilitate the process of nanofibrillation [1, 5, 16–18]. However, this requirement is a disadvantage in commercial production of NFs. From the viewpoint of industrial production, the preparation of NFs from dry chitin or cellulose dry powder has an advantage since it is easier to store, preserve, and transport than wet materials. Thus, for industrial production of NFs, priority should be given to developing NFs from powdered chitin. As described above in Section 2.2.1, treatment under acidic conditions is necessary [10] to fibrillate the chitin strongly embedded in the matrix, as shown in Figure 2.1. Amino groups of chitin are cationized by the addition of acid, which facilitates the fibrillation of chitin into NFs due to electrostatic repulsion. Similarly, if the electrostatic repulsion among the cationized amino groups can break the strong hydrogen bonds in chitin bundles of dry chitin, fibrillation of dry chitin can be achieved. The method has been tested by Ifuku et al. [19] in our laboratory by successfully fibrillating strongly embedded CFs in crab shells. The method was then applied to fibrillate commercial dry chitin powder (from Nacalai Tesque, Kyoto, Japan). In Figure 2.6a, we can see that commercially available dry chitin powder from crab shells is also composed of NFs. Figure 2.6b,c shows FE-SEM micrographs of chitin fibers after one pass through the grinder with and without acetic acid. We can see that the chitin powder was not fibrillated (Fig. 2.6b) at all because of the strong interfibrillar hydrogen bonding. While the powder was completely fibrillated (Fig. 2.6c) into uniform NFs (10–20 nm width) by grinder treatment at pH 3, the degree of substitution of amino groups was just 3.9% and the slurry obtained was a gel phase. Such fine NFs of chitin were obtained because of electrostatic repulsion resulting from the cationic charge on the chitin fiber surface that overcame the interfiber hydrogen bonding. The preparation of CNFs from commercially pre-purified dry chitin powder is advantageous for laboratory study and commercial production of CNFs, as CNFs can be made available in a few hours by following the established method of grinding in acidic conditions rather than by purifying crab shells for removal of proteins, minerals, lipids, and pigments, which may take about a week as described earlier.

Figure 2.6 FE-SEM images of (a) commercially available dry chitin powder, (b) chitin fibers after one pass through the grinder without acetic acid, and (c) passing through grinder with acetic acid. The length of the scale bar in (a) is 1000 nm and (b) and (c) 300 nm, respectively.

2.3 Characterization of Chitin Nanofibers Obtained from Crab, Prawn, and Dry Chitin Powder

The degree of N-acetylation of CNFs obtained from the crab shell was 95% as worked out from C and N elemental analysis, rendering a DDA of only 5% even after several chemical and mechanical grinding treatments. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectra of three samples—commercially available pure chitin, newly prepared CNFs from crab shell, and unpurified dried crab shell flakes—were recorded, as shown in Figure 2.7. The spectra of unpurified dried crab shell flakes were different from the other two chitins due to the matrix component presence in the shells. The spectral features of purified CNFs was in good agreement with the spectrum of commercial pure α-chitin [5, 19]. It may be assumed that the current chemical processing has removed the matrix, proteins, and minerals by the series of chemical processing steps. The protein band at 1420/cm completely disappeared in prepared CNFs. The OH stretching band at 3482/cm, NH stretching band at 3270/cm, amide I bands at 1661 and 1622/cm, and amide II band at 1559/cm of the CNFs are characteristics of pure α-chitin [4]. Figure 2.8 shows the X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectrum of commercially available pure α-chitin, newly prepared CNFs from crab shell, and dried crab shell flakes from red king crabs. The band at 29.6°, characteristic of calcium carbonate, disappeared completely from the spectrum of CNFs,confirming that the chemical treatment of crab shells has completely washed away minerals from processed CNFs. The four diffraction bands of 9.5°, 19.5°, 20.9°, and 23.4° correspond to planes 020, 110, 120, and 130, respectively. The bands are characteristic of α-chitin crystal and correspond to the pattern of commercial α-chitin [20]. Thus, X-ray investigation proved that even after difficult chemical and mechanical treatment of crab shells, the resultant purified CNFs maintained the α-chitin crystalline structure. The application of FT-IR and XRD techniques of analysis of newly prepared CNFs from a number of sources has justified the success of this method.

Figure 2.7 FT-IR spectra of (a) commercially available chitin powder, (b) prepared CNFs, and (c) crab shell flakes.

Figure 2.8 XRD profiles of (a) commercially available chitin powder, (b) chitin nanofibers, and (c) crab shell flakes.

2.4 Preparation of Chitin Nanofibers from Edible Mushrooms

CNFs were isolated [21] from the cell walls of mushrooms by a number of chemical treatments to remove glucans, minerals, and proteins associated with mushrooms followed by grinding treatment in acidic conditions. NF widths ranged from 20 to 28 nm, depending on the type of mushroom used. The goal of extraction of CNFs from edible mushrooms was to produce a novel functional food ingredient. The detailed extraction method and final SEM images of extracted NFs and methods employed to characterize them are described below. The mushroom species Pleuotuseryngii (king trumpet mushroom), Agaricus bisporus (common mushroom), Lentinula edodes (shiitake), Grifola frondosa (maitake), and Hypsizygus marmoreus (buna-shimeji), commonly used as human food, were used in this study. The purification was carried out by a series of chemical treatments to remove associated compounds (proteins, pigments, glucans, and minerals) according to the procedure describe in the literature [21, 22]. In brief, sodium hydroxide was used to dissolve, hydrolyze, and remove proteins and alkali-soluble glucans. Hydrochloric acid was used to remove minerals. At this stage partial neutral saccharides and acid-soluble protein compounds were also removed. The extraction step with sodium chlorite and acetic acid removed pigments from the sample. At the final stage, the sample was treated with sodium hydroxide again to eliminate and remove the residual glucans, including trace amounts of proteins. After chemical treatment, if the extracted mass is allowed to dry, it causes strong hydrogen bonding between CNFs when all matrix substances are washed away, making it difficult to fibrillate chitin to NFs [1]. Thus, the sample was kept wet after removal of the matrix for preparation of CNFs. The purified sample with 1 wt% content of chitin was passed through a grinder for nanofibrillation in acetic acid medium at pH 3. After grinder treatment, the chitin slurry thus obtained formed a gel after a single grinder treatment, suggesting nano-fibrillation was accomplished, because of its high dispersion property in water and high surface-to-volume ratio of nanofiber. Figure 2.9