Biorefinery Co-Products E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Wiley Series in Renewable Resources
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 794

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

In order to successfully compete as a sustainable energy source, the value of biomass must be maximized through the production of valuable co-products in the biorefinery. Specialty chemicals and other biobased products can be extracted from biomass prior to or after the conversion process, thus increasing the overall profitability and sustainability of the biorefinery. Biorefinery Co-Products highlights various co-products that are present in biomass prior to and after processing, describes strategies for their extraction , and presents examples of bioenergy feedstocks that contain high value products. Topics covered include: * Bioactive compounds from woody biomass * Phytochemicals from sugar cane, citrus waste and algae * Valuable products from corn and other oil seed crops * Proteins from forages * Enhancing the value of existing biomass processing streams Aimed at academic researchers, professionals and specialists in the bioenergy industry, Biorefinery Co-Products is an essential text for all scientists and engineers working on the efficient separation, purification and manufacture of value-added biorefinery co-products. For more information on the Wiley Series in Renewable resources, visit href="http://www.wiley.com/go/rrs">www.wiley.com/go/rrs

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Wiley Series in Renewable Resources

Title Page

Copyright

Series Preface

Preface

List of Contributors

Chapter 1: An Overview of Biorefinery Technology

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Feedstock

1.3 Thermochemical Conversion of Biomass

1.4 Biochemical Conversion

1.5 Conclusion

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 2: Overview of the Chemistry of Primary and Secondary Plant Metabolites

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Primary Metabolites

2.3 Secondary Metabolites

2.4 Stability of Isolated Compounds

2.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 3: Separation and Purification of Phytochemicals as Co-Products in Biorefineries

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Conventional Separation Approaches

3.3 Supercritical Fluid Extraction

3.4 Separation and Purification of Phytochemicals from Plant Extracts and Dilute Solution In Biorefineries

3.5 Summary

References

Chapter 4: Phytochemicals from Corn: a Processing Perspective

4.1 Introduction: Corn Processes

4.2 Phytochemicals Found in Corn

4.3 Corn Processing Effects on Phytochemical Recovery

4.4 Conclusions

References

Chapter 5: Co-Products from Cereal and Oilseed Biorefinery Systems

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Cereals

5.3 Oilseed Biorefineries

5.4 Conclusions

Chapter 6: Bioactive Soy Co-Products

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Co-Products Obtained from Industrial Biorefineries

6.3 Technologies Used to Extract Co-Products

6.4 Bioactivities and Nutritional Value in Biorefinery Co-Products

6.5 Modern Technologies for Efficient Delivery – Nanoencapsulation

6.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects

References

Chapter 7: Production of Valuable Compounds by Supercritical Technology Using Residues from Sugarcane Processing

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Filter Cake

7.3 Process Simulation for Estimating Manufacturing Cost of Extracts

7.4 Hydrolysis of Bagasse with Sub/Supercritical Fluids

7.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 8: Potential Value-Added Co-products from Citrus Fruit Processing

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Fruit Processing and Byproduct Streams

8.3 Polysaccharides as Value-Added Products

8.4 Phytonutrients as Value-Added Products

8.5 Fermentation and Production of Enhanced Byproducts

8.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 9: Recovery of Leaf Protein for Animal Feed and High-Value Uses

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Methods of Separating Protein

9.3 Protein Concentration

9.4 Uses for Leaf Protein

9.5 Integration with Biofuel Production

9.6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 10: Phytochemicals from Algae

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Commercial Applications of Algal Phytochemicals

10.3 Production Techniques for Algal Phytochemicals

10.4 Extraction Techniques for Algal Phytochemicals

10.5 Metabolic Engineering for Synthesis of Algae-derived Compounds

10.6 Phytochemical Market Evolution

10.7 Conclusions

Acknowledgement

References

Chapter 11: New Bioactive Natural Products from Canadian Boreal Forest

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Identification of New Bioactive Natural Products from Canadian Boreal Forest

11.3 Chemical Modification of Bioactive Natural Products from the Canadian Boreal Forest

11.4 Conclusion

References

Chapter 12: Pressurized Fluid Extraction and Analysis of Bioactive Compounds in Birch Bark

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Qualitative Analysis of Birch Bark

12.3 Quantitative Analysis of Bioactive Compounds in Birch

12.4 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Diode Array, Electrochemical and Mass Spectrometric Detection of Antioxidants

12.5 Extraction of Bioactive Compounds

12.6 Discussion and Future Perspectives

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 13: Adding Value to the Integrated Forest Biorefinery with Co-Products from Hemicellulose-Rich Pre-Pulping Extract

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Hemicellulose Recovery

13.3 Hemicellulose Conversion

13.4 Process Economics

13.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 14: Pyrolysis Bio-Oils from Temperate Forests: Fuels, Phytochemicals and Bioproducts

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Overview of Forest Feedstock

14.3 Pyrolysis Technology

14.4 Prospects for Fuel Production

14.5 Chemicals in the Bio-Oil

14.6 Valuable Chemical Recovery Process

14.7 Selected Phytochemicals from Pyrolysis Bio-Oils

14.8 Other Products

14.9 Future Prospects

References

Chapter 15: Char from Sugarcane Bagasse

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Sugarcane Bagasse Availability

15.3 Thermal Processing in an Inert Atmosphere (Pyrolysis)

15.4 Technology for Converting Char to Activated Char

15.5 Char and Activated-Char Characterization and Implications for Use

15.6 Uses of Bagasse Char and Activated Char

15.7 Conclusions

References

Index

Wiley Series in Renewable Resources

Series Editor

Christian V. Stevens – Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium

Titles in the Series

Wood Modification – Chemical, Thermal and Other Processes

Callum A. S. Hill

Renewables-Based Technology: Sustainability Assessment

Jo Dewulf & Herman Van Langenhove

Introduction to Chemicals from Biomass

James H. Clark & Fabien E.I. Deswarte

Biofuels

Wim Soetaert & Erick Vandamme

Handbook of Natural Colorants

Thomas Bechtold & Rita Mussak

Surfactants from Renewable Resources

Mikael Kjellin & Ingegärd Johansson

Industrial Application of Natural Fibres – Structure, Properties and Technical Applications

Jörg Müssig

Thermochemical Processing of Biomass – Conversion into Fuels, Chemicals and Power

Robert C. Brown

Forthcoming Titles

Pretreatment of Plant Biomass for Biological and Chemical Conversion to Fuels and Chemicals

Charles E. Wyman

Introduction to Wood and Natural Fiber Composites

Douglas Stokke, Qinglin Wu & Guangping Han

Bio-Based Plastics: Materials and Applications

Stephan Kabasci

Cellulosic Energy Cropping Systems

David Bransby

Biobased Materials in Protective and Decorative Coatings

Dean Webster

This edition first published 2012

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Biorefinery co-products / edited by Chantal Bergeron, Danielle Julie Carrier, Shri Ramaswamy.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-470-97357-8 (cloth) – ISBN 978-0-470-97559-6 (pdf) – ISBN 978-1-119-96788-0 (ebk.)

1. Plant biomass. 2. Biomass energy. 3. Renewable energy sources. 4. Phytochemicals. I. Bergeron., Chantal, 1967- II. Carrier, Danielle Julie, 1959- III. Ramaswamy, Shri, 1957-

TP248.27.P55B568 2012

333.95039–dc23

2011044478

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Print ISBN: 9780470973578

List of Contributors

Mamdouh Abou-Zaid Canadian Forest Service, Great Lakes Forestry Service, Natural Resources Canada, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada

Venkatesh Balan Biomass Conversion Research Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Michigan State University, Lansing, Michigan, USA

Bryan D. Bals Biomass Conversion Research Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Michigan State University, Lansing, Michigan, USA

Chantal Bergeron Tom's of Maine, Kennebunk, Maine, USA

Liam Brennan Charles Parsons Energy Research Programme, Bioresources Research Centre, School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland

Danielle Julie Carrier Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA

Edgar C. Clausen Ralph E. Martin Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA

Michelle Co Department of Physical and Analytical Chemistry, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden

Bruce E. Dale Biomass Conversion Research Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Michigan State University, Lansing, Michigan, USA

Nurhan Turgut Dunford Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering and Robert M. Kerr Food & Agricultural Products Center, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA

Abigail S. Engelberth Laboratory of Renewable Resources Engineering, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Potter Engineering Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA

Navam Hettiarachchy Department of Food Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA

Hua-Jiang Huang Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering, Kaufert Lab, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota, USA

Arvind Kannan Department of Food Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA

K. Thomas Klasson USDA-ARS Southern Regional Research Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA

Jean Legault Laboratoire d'Analyse et de Séparation des Essences Végétales (LASEVE), Département des Sciences Fondamentales, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Chicoutimi, Québec, Canada

John A. Manthey USDA-ARS, U.S. Horticultural Research Laboratory, Fort Pierce, Florida, USA

M. Angela A. Meireles LASEFI/DEA/FEA/UNICAMP, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil

Anika Mostaert School of Biology and Environmental Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland

Cormac Murphy School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland

Philip Owende Charles Parsons Energy Research Programme, Bioresources Research Centre, School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland and School of Informatics and Engineering, Institute of Technology Blanchardstown, Dublin, Ireland

André Pichette Laboratoire d'Analyse et de Séparation des Essences Végétales (LASEVE), Département des Sciences Fondamentales, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Chicoutimi, Québec, Canada

Juliana M. Prado LASEFI/DEA/FEA/UNICAMP, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil

Shri Ramaswamy Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering, Kaufert Lab, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota, USA

Kent Rausch Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, USA

Srinivas Rayaprolu Department of Food Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA

Ian M. Scott Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, London, Ontario, Canada

Mahmoud A. Sharara Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA

François Simard Laboratoire d'Analyse et de Séparation des Essences Végétales (LASEVE), Département des Sciences Fondamentales, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Chicoutimi, Québec, Canada

Charlotta Turner Department of Chemistry, Centre for Analysis and Synthesis, Lund University, Lund, Sweden

G. Peter van Walsum Forest Bioproducts Research Institute, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA

Preface

We are entering a very interesting period in our history. It is more than likely that renewable energy will complement, or even in some instances replace, fossil-oil-based energy systems. Within the renewable energy portfolio, the conversion of biomass to electricity and liquid fuels is certainly touted as a credible possibility. It is recognized that lignocellulosic biomass can be converted to fuels, chemicals and other bioproducts, using thermochemical or biochemical strategies, or a combination of both. Biochemical conversion technologies for biomass are centered on the hydrolysis of cellulose and hemicellulose in biomass, followed by fermentation of the resulting sugars to biofuels and/or bio-based chemicals. Thermochemical biomass conversion strategies involve high temperatures, such as the gasification of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, to produce synthesis gas (syngas), followed by the conversion of CO, CO2 and H2 into liquid fuels by catalyst-based processes. Biomass also can be converted through fast pyrolysis to a dark-brown liquid, which can then be combusted for energy.

Depending on the conversion technology, 10–25 million tons of dry biomass feedstock will be required to produce 1 billion gallons of liquid fuel. It is estimated that approximately one billion dry tons of biomass will be required annually to ensure that the US can produce up to 30% of its liquid fuel demand from renewable resources. It is also estimated that assuming a conversion yield of 80 gallons of ethanol per ton of biomass, approximately 2000 tons of dry biomass per day are required to produce 50 million gallons of liquid biofuels. It should be recognized that even though corn- or grain-based biofuel has been in commercial production for some time, cellulosic ethanol is yet to become a prevalent commercial reality.

It is important to note that the biomass discussed in this book is generally not food-destined biomass, but rather non-food agricultural residues, waste sources or energy crops. Biomass conversion facilities, often referred to as biorefineries, will most likely be located in rural areas close to biomass sources, respecting sustainability needs and diversity issues. Locating biorefineries in rural settings will most likely result in the stimulation of rural economies. Given the seasonal nature of this nascent industry, it is more than likely that biorefineries will use various sources of biomass throughout the year. Supply chains that will deliver 2000 tons per day to facilities may be composed of mixed species. Depending on the season, herbaceous, annual and woody biomass will most likely be biorefinery feedstocks.

It is more than likely that some of this biomass will contain interesting phytochemicals, proteins or other value-added products which could be extracted prior to or post processing. Biorefining, bio-based products and alternatives to petroleum products are becoming increasingly important. In addition to biofuels and bioenergy, value-added biomass processing for bio-based co-products is an important area that should be simultaneously considered in an integrated biorefinery in order to achieve the future biovision. Phytochemicals could find use in human and animal healthcare products, cosmetic applications and as essential ingredients in green cleaning products. According to market research surveys, there is a growing preference among consumers for phytochemicals in the foods they consume, as well as other personal care and household products they utilize. Growth in the use of phytochemicals is predicted in the flavour industry, which includes beverages, confectionery, savoury, dairy and pharmaceuticals.

This book was prepared with the intention of introducing the reader to the concept of using biomass to produce energy, but when it is possible, to also extract value-added bio-based chemicals. The first three chapters are intended to give the reader an overview of biomass conversion technologies, an introduction to phytochemicals and an introduction to separation processes. Afterwards, the reader will be presented with various feedstocks that, in addition to being excellent biomass sources, also contain useful value-added chemicals. Existing grain supply chains, algae and waste residues are examined in light of their phytochemical contents. Given the importance of the Brazilian ethanol industry and the prevalence of sugar around the world, sugarcane is also inspected as a phytochemical source. The possibility of extracting proteins from switchgrass is also presented. Woody feedstocks, grown in Canada and Scandinavia, are surveyed for their phytochemical content. Finally, current streams from paper mills and pyrolysis processes are assessed as interesting sources of value-added chemicals.

We hope that this book will continue the discussions on using biomass for fuels and energy production, and for extraction of value-added components, increasing the sustainability and economic feasibility of the biorefinery and helping to make this area a commercial reality.

Chantal Bergeron, Danielle Julie Carrier and Shri Ramaswamy

Series Preface

Renewable resources, their use and modification are involved in a multitude of important processes with major influences on our everyday lives. Applications can be found in the energy sector, chemistry, pharmacy, the textile industry, paints and coatings, to name but a few.

The area interconnects several scientific disciplines (agriculture, biochemistry, chemistry, technology, environmental sciences, forestry, etc.), which makes it very difficult to have an expert view on the complicated interaction. Therefore, the idea to create a series of scientific books, focusing on specific topics concerning renewable resources, has been very opportune and can help to clarify some of the underlying connections in this area.

In a very fast-changing world, trends are not only characteristic of fashion and political standpoints; science, too, is not free from hype and buzzwords. The use of renewable resources is again more important nowadays; however, it is not part of a hype or a fashion. As the lively discussions among scientists continue about how many years we will still be able to use fossil fuels, with opinions ranging from 50 years to 500 years, they do agree that the reserve is limited and that it is essential not only to search for new energy carriers, but also for new material sources.

In this respect, renewable resources are a crucial area in the search for alternatives for fossil-based raw materials and energy. In the field of energy supply, biomass and renewable resources will be part of the solution, alongside other alternatives such as solar energy, wind energy, hydraulic power, hydrogen technology and nuclear energy.

In the field of materials science, the impact of renewable resources will probably be even bigger. Integral utilisation of crops and the use of waste streams in certain industries will grow in importance, leading to a more sustainable way of producing materials.

Although our society was much more (almost exclusively) based on renewable resources centuries ago, this disappeared in the Western world in the nineteenth century. Now it is time to focus again on this field of research. However, it should not mean a “retour à la nature”, but it should be a multidisciplinary effort on a highly technological level to perform research towards new opportunities, to develop new crops and products from renewable resources. This will be essential to guarantee a level of comfort for the growing number of people living on our planet. It is “the” challenge for the coming generations of scientists to develop more sustainable ways to create prosperity and to fight poverty and hunger in the world. A global approach is certainly favoured.

This challenge can only be dealt with if scientists are attracted to this area and are recognized for their efforts in this interdisciplinary field. It is therefore also essential that consumers recognize the fate of renewable resources in a number of products.

Furthermore, scientists do need to communicate and discuss the relevance of their work. The use and modification of renewable resources may not follow the path of the genetic engineering concept with regard to consumer acceptance in Europe. Related to this aspect, this series will certainly help to increase the visibility of the importance of renewable resources.

Being convinced of the value of the renewables approach for the industrial world, as well as for developing countries, I was myself delighted to collaborate on this series of books, focusing on different aspects of renewable resources. I hope that readers become aware of the complexity, the interaction and interconnections, and the challenges of this field and that they will help to communicate on the importance of renewable resources.

I certainly want to thank the people of Wiley from the Chichester office, especially David Hughes, Jenny Cossham and Lyn Roberts, in seeing the need for such a series of books on renewable resources, for initiating and supporting it and for helping to carry the project to the end. Last, but not least I want to thank my family, especially my wife Hilde and children Paulien and Pieter-Jan for their patience and for giving me the time to work on the series when other activities seemed to be more inviting.

Christian V. StevensFaculty of Bioscience EngineeringGhent University, BelgiumSeries Editor Renewable ResourcesJune 2005

Chapter 1

An Overview of Biorefinery Technology

Mahmoud A. Sharara1, Edgar C. Clausen2 and Danielle Julie Carrier1

1 Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA

2 Ralph E. Martin Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA

1.1 Introduction

Fossil fuel resources are being depleted and, whether we have 50, 100 or 200 years' worth of petroleum reserves, irrefutably, at some point in time, there will be no more oil to extract in an economical fashion. The world is gradually adapting to this new paradigm, and the price of petroleum-based energy systems is steadily increasing. The developed and developing nations alike are seeing a transition to renewable-based energy forms, with solar panels installed on buildings and wind turbines part of the landscape. Liquid fuels that are produced from renewable feedstocks, in the form of ethanol or biodiesel, are now commercially available. Fuels containing 10–85% w/w ethanol are available to power internal combustion engines throughout the US. Most of the commercially available ethanol, produced from corn in the US and from sugar cane in Brazil, is often referred to as first-generation biofuel. In 2011, nearly 14 billion gallons of ethanol were sold in the US. A thorough discussion of corn, other grains, and sugarcane-to-ethanol processes are described in the chapters prepared by Rausch, Dunford and Prado, and Meireles, respectively. Thus, this chapter will concentrate on second-generation biofuels.

Second-generation biofuels are characterized as fuels that are produced from non-food biomass systems, such as forestry and agricultural residue, and dedicated herbaceous and wood energy crops. Some of the second-generation fuels are in the mid to late stages of becoming commercially available. As examples, pilot- and demonstration-scale production facilities are now operational at POET, LLC in South Dakota and Iowa, and DuPont in Tennessee. The conversion technologies for these second-generation fuels use non-food crops, or lignocellulosic feedstocks, and are centred around:

1. the hydrolysis of plant cell wall polysaccharides into their single sugar components, followed by fermentation of the resulting sugars to fuels like ethanol or butanol;

2. the gasification of the plant material to produce syngas (synthesis gas), followed by the conversion of CO, CO2 and H2 to ethanol or other alcohols by fermentation or catalyst-based processes; or

3. the conversion of organic compounds in biomass through fast-pyrolysis to a dark-brown liquid, called pyrolysis oil, which can be upgraded for transportation fuels.

Depending on the conversion technology, 10–25 million tons of dry cellulosic biomass will be required to produce 1 billion gallons of liquid fuel. Partially replacing our consumption of gasoline with renewable fuels will require huge quantities of feedstock that will be obtained from both cultivated and collected biomass resources. Regardless of which conversion platform is selected, colossal masses of feedstock will pass through the door of a conversion facility. As an example, a 50 million gallon second-generation cellulosic facility will require about 2000 dry tons per day of biomass for processing. To complicate matters, it is very likely that the composition and quality of the feedstock stream will vary throughout the year. An annual biorefinery feedstock cycle could consist of agricultural residues in the fall, woody residues or crops in the winter, cover crops, like rye, in the spring, and energy crops, like sorghum or switchgrass, in the summer. Some of these bioenergy-destined feedstocks will contain valuable compounds that can be extracted prior to or after the conversion process. These compounds or products are often referred to in the literature as value-added biorefinery co-products.

In order to appreciate the array of possible biorefinery-related co-products presented throughout this book, this chapter will provide an overview of various feedstocks, as well as the steps involved in biochemical and thermochemical conversion processes. This chapter will also provide insight as to where co-product generation can be integrated in the biofuel manufacturing process.

1.2 Feedstock

If the US is to produce, as a target, more than 21 billion gallons per year of second-generation biofuels, more than 250 million dry tons per year of biomass will be required. Biomass will be available annually in the form of forest residues, mill residues, dedicated woody and herbaceous energy crops, urban wood waste, and agricultural residues (Bain , 2003; Perlack , 2005). It is important to note that most dedicated energy crops need time to be established. As an example, perennial warm season crops will take two to five years to establish (Propheter , 2010). Herbaceous energy crops include, amongst others, switchgrass (), sorghum (), and miscanthus ( spp). Woody energy crops include, amongst others, maple (), sweetgum (), sycamore (), and hybrid poplar ( spp.).