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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Well-illustrated introduction to building pathology, bridging the gap between building surveying and the detailed understanding of building defects, their prognosis and remediation
Building Pathology introduces the concept of building pathology and aims to give the reader a greater awareness and understanding of buildings and their users, to assist in defect diagnosis and the design and implementation of specific and appropriate remedial measures. By focusing on the process, rather than specific solutions, the book helps the reader to use the information in their practice in a wide variety of situations.
The new third edition features new case studies which have been integrated into the text. Written by a highly qualified author with significant experience in the field, the third edition of Building Pathology contains information on:
- Building performance, covering environmental factors, user requirements, building structures and materials
- Defects, damage, and decay, covering atmospheric and climatic action, excess moisture, chemical, physical, and biological action, movement, fire and human factors
- Survey and assessment, covering building inspections and surveys, how to prioritize defects, unoccupied buildings and sites, and redundant and ruined buildings
- Remediation in practice, covering real-world examples
With comprehensive coverage of the subject, Building Pathology is an essential learning resource for students of building surveying, as well as professional architects, building surveyors, property managers and those working in heritage disciplines.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
About the Author
Preface to Third Edition
1 Introduction
What is building pathology?
Why take a holistic approach to understanding buildings?
The relevance of building pathology
The principles and practice of building pathology
References
2 Understanding Buildings
What is a building?
Perceptions of buildings
Classification of buildings
Requirements of buildings
Our expectations of buildings
The way forward
Reference
Further reading
3 Building Performance
Why do buildings stand up?
Building structures
Building materials
Understanding building materials
Sources of building materials
Timber
Plant material
Stone
Ceramics
Binders and concrete
Metals
Glass
Bituminous products
Modern materials
Unusual materials
Building services
The building as a whole
Understanding buildings and building performance
Assessing building performance
How the construction industry needs to change
References
Further reading
4 Defects, Damage and Decay
What is a building defect?
Nature of building defects
Causes and effects of defects, damage and decay
Atmospheric and climatic action
Excess moisture
Chemical, physical and biological action
Movement
Fire
Human factors
References
Further reading
5 Survey and Assessment
Fault‐finding
Building inspections and surveys
Assessment of defects
Severity of defects
Prioritising defects and remedial works
Unoccupied buildings and sites
Redundant and ruined buildings
Diagnosis and prognosis of defects
Non‐destructive investigations
Monitoring defects
Environmental conditions
References
Further reading
6 Principles into Practice
Putting principles into practice
The changing fortunes of buildings
Looking forward by looking backwards
Cross‐laminated timber buildings and their common defects
Understanding buildings: St Fagans National Museum of History
Relationship between fire and building pathology
Carrying out inspections and working at height
Conservation management plan for Marx Memorial Library
Training surveyors using script concordance testing
Scientific investigations at Hill House
Monitoring seismic movement at a church in Corfu
Diagnosing defects in a Martello tower
Using simple measurements to understand a problem
Bats in churches
Lincoln Cathedral's west front and Romanesque frieze
Planned preventative maintenance for Britten Pears Arts
Retrofit for rural National Trust buildings
New Court – a retrofit workflow by ArchiMetrics Ltd
Buildings on paper and in practice
Heritage, health and well‐being
Dealing with chemical contamination in a building
Sustainable housing for the future
Lessons to be learned
7 Building Management and Aftercare
Planning the future
What can be done with buildings?
Managing building and change
Limitations of existing buildings
Finding the right use for a building
Making use of historic buildings and sites
Principles of conservation and building repairs
Principles of building maintenance
Planned preventive maintenance
Principles of retrofit
Climate resilience and mitigation
Planning for disasters and emergencies
Managing unoccupied buildings and sites
Heritage crime
Health and the built environment
Issues of sustainability and sustainable development
Stewardship and assessments of value
Buildings for the present and the future
References
Further reading
Appendix A Requirements of Approved Documents Supporting Schedule 1 to Building Regulations 2010
Approved document A
Approved document B
Approved document C
Approved document D
Approved document E
Approved document F
Approved document G
Approved document H
Approved document J
Approved document K
Approved document L
Approved document M
Approved document N
Approved document O
Approved document P
Approved document Q
Approved document R
Approved document S
Appendix B Hazard Identification Checklist
Before visiting premises or sites
Arriving and during visits to premises or at sites
Securing the site and leaving
Review on completion of visit
Appendix C Useful Contacts
Appendix D Warning Bells
Glossary
Index
End User License Agreement
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
About the Author
Preface to Third Edition
Begin Reading
Appendix A Requirements of Approved Documents Supporting Schedule 1 to Building Regulations 2010
Appendix B Hazard Identification Checklist
Appendix C Useful Contacts
Appendix D Warning Bells
Glossary
Index
End User License Agreement
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Building Pathology
Principles and Practice
David S. Watt
Hutton + Rostron Environmental Investigations Limited (a SOCOTEC company)NewarkUK
Third Edition
This edition first published 2025
© 2025 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Edition History
John Wiley & Sons Ltd (2e, 2008); Blackwell Science Ltd (1e, 1999)
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data Applied for:
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To palliate the shortness of our lives, and to compensate our brief term in this world, it is fit to have such an understanding of times past that we may be considered to have dwelled in the same. In such a manner, answering the present with the past, we may live from the beginning and in a certain sense be as old as our country itself.
Peter Ackroyd (1992) English Music.
About the Author
David S. Watt is a chartered building surveyor and historic buildings consultant. He has worked in private practice, as conservation officer for Norfolk County Council and as a senior research fellow at De Montfort University. Since 2005 he has been an associate director with Hutton + Rostron Environmental Investigations Ltd (a SOCOTEC company) and in 2023 was appointed as a visiting professor at Oxford Brookes University. His particular interests relate to the influence of people and environmental conditions on historic buildings and the use of traditional building materials and practices.
Preface to Third Edition
In the quarter century since the publication of the first edition, significant events have changed the world in which we live. Each country has its own story, but in the UK the foot and mouth epidemics of 2001 and 2007, London bombings in 2005, financial crisis of 2008, Grenfell Tower fire in June 2017, withdrawal from the European Union (Brexit) on 31 January 2020, cost of living crisis starting in late 2021, death of Queen Elizabeth II in September 2022 and flooding across parts of the country in 2023/24 might be seen as some of the defining moments in the recent history of the nation. At a global level there have been natural and man‐made disasters, war and the Covid‐19 pandemic, as well as a range of emerging threats to public health (including antimicrobial resistance, mental health crises and environmental pollution), but perhaps the most pressing issue that will affect all of us is climate change. This is a book about building pathology, yet we cannot ignore how our world is changing when it comes to ways we choose to design, construct, manage and occupy our buildings.
Building pathology – both as a term and as a concept – has become widely used to define a holistic approach to understanding buildings. Such an approach requires a detailed knowledge of how buildings are constructed, used, occupied and maintained and the various mechanisms by which their structural, material and environmental conditions can be affected. It is, by necessity, an interdisciplinary approach and requires a wider recognition of the ways in which buildings and people react and respond to each other. It is not just about older or historic buildings, but all buildings.
Whilst the merits of building pathology have become more widely recognised (being a taught module on most building surveying courses and core skill for assessing professional competence), too often it is only the term, rather than the underlying principles, that has been adopted. In other professional training, such as for architects, little account appears to have been taken of the ethos for better understanding existing buildings and how they perform in time and place.
The purpose of this new edition is to put emphasis on the concept of building pathology and, with it, bridge the gap between current approaches to the surveying of buildings and the detailed – and often forensic – study of building performance and failures. It remains as a textbook for practitioners and students of built environment disciplines and will hopefully be of use to others who are responsible for managing buildings, structures and sites.
A criticism of books concerned with the survey, repair and maintenance of buildings is that no absolute answers are given, whether for the diagnosis of defects or recommendation for remediation. The reason is that such answers usually require more information than can be given in the pages of a book. It is partly in response that this current edition urges its readers to seek a greater awareness and comprehension of buildings to assist in the design and implementation of specific and appropriate remedial action.
This third edition includes case studies that demonstrate practical and often innovative approaches taken to address a range of issues and I am grateful to the respective authors and contributors.
Earlier editions of this book included thorough referencing of sources and lists of further reading, but increased use of the Internet and the increasing cost of publications mean this is no longer as important. Many of the suggested reference books have been around for several years, but the content remains relevant.
1Introduction
What is building pathology?
The term pathology is defined as the systematic study of diseases with the aim of understanding their causes, symptoms and treatment. In a medical context, the person becomes the subject of detailed examination and investigation, with consideration given to age, health and lifestyle. A similar approach is relevant in the study of buildings, and it is this methodical and often forensic practice that has come to be termed building pathology.
Building pathology, both as a term and as an overall concept, has become more widely used to define the holistic approach to understanding buildings. Such an approach requires a detailed knowledge of how buildings are designed, constructed, used and changed, and the various mechanisms by which their material and environmental conditions can be affected. It is, by necessity, an interdisciplinary approach and requires a wider recognition of the ways in which buildings and people react and respond to each other.
The definition of building pathology given by the Association of European Experts in Building and Construction (AEEBC) draws attention to three separate, though interrelated, areas of concern:
identification, investigation and diagnosis of defects in existing buildings
prognosis of defects diagnosed and recommendations for the most appropriate course of action having regard to the building, its future and resources available
design, specification, implementation and supervision of appropriate programmes of remedial works and monitoring and evaluation of remedial works in terms of their functional, technical and economic performance in use
Other definitions include:
study of failures in the interrelationship of building structures and materials with their environments, occupants and contents (Hutton + Rostron)
study of failures over time in building materials and components (Groák)
systematic treatment of building defects, their causes, their consequences and their remedies (CIB W86 Building Pathology Commission)
scientific study of abnormalities in the structure and functioning of the building envelope and its parts; it seeks to study the interrelationships of building materials, construction, services and spatial arrangement with their environments, occupants and contents (Singh)
forensic approach to inspecting, investigating and problem‐solving in buildings and finding solutions (CIOB Academy)
holistic approach to studying and understanding buildings and, in particular, building defects and associated remedial action. In a medical context, pathology is the study of diseases in order to determine their causes and prescribe treatment. Similarly, building pathology involves the methodical study of buildings, their components and their environment to address failures (Designing Buildings)
process by which the history and condition of a building, and its suitability for improvement, are analysed systematically as part of its assessment for retrofit (PAS 2035). The whole‐dwelling approach described in this publicly available specification considers a building to be a system of elements, interfaces and occupants that interact, rather than a set of elements that are independent of each other or of the practices or lifestyles of the occupants
The International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction (CIB; formerly International Council for Building) was established in 1953 to stimulate and facilitate international cooperation and information exchange. It has since developed into a worldwide network whose members are active in over 30 working commissions covering all fields in building and construction‐related research and innovation. The objectives of the Building Pathology Commission (W86) are to conduct basic and applied research; promote meetings and webinars about the application of building pathology; disseminate information to those involved in the design, construction and management of buildings; participate in creating international and national standardisation or technical notes and strengthen connections with relevant CIB commissions and other organisations.
Although each definition places a slightly different emphasis on aspects of the discipline – in particular the link to retrofit given in PAS 2035 – it is clear that building pathology, in its widest sense, is concerned principally with performance, defects and associated remedial action. The lessons that can be learnt from such a structured approach can also be brought into play when altering existing buildings or in the design of new buildings. The purpose of this book is therefore to expand the range of investigation normally undertaken in the surveying of buildings and to draw together various categories of information that are required to make informed decisions about how buildings might be adapted, repaired and best utilised now and in the future.
Why take a holistic approach to understanding buildings?
Buildings do not exist in isolation, but instead represent various levels of action and interaction between people and their surroundings – on the one hand, they can be expressions of creative impulse and, on the other, simple statements of functional need. Put another way, they are complex systems of materials and environments evolving over time. In whichever form the building exists, it is a physical response to people, place and environment. Shifts in the balance between these three factors are responsible for many of the decisions around which buildings are built, occupied, adapted and ultimately destroyed.
Buildings in context, reflecting intersecting systems and highlighting the importance of adopting an inclusive holistic approach to understanding performance and failure.
In order to understand a building, it must first be considered in context, from when it was designed and built, through changes over time, to its present use today. This progression takes into account various actions, some significant and others more mundane, but all giving information that may have relevance to understanding the building in the context of the present. Such an approach has much in common with archaeology, combining aspects of discovery, scientific analysis and creative imagination, but with the wider objective of informing decisions that will affect the present and the future.
Archaeological investigation that helps understand the history and development of buildings.
Taking a wider view of a building thus requires a level of understanding that, apart from simple examples, will often require the knowledge and experience of various disciplines. Those who might commonly be called upon to offer advice or an opinion as part of an interdisciplinary team may include:
administrators and asset, building or facilities managers
archaeologists
architects and designers
art and architectural historians
building control approver or building inspector
building services engineers
building surveyors
conservation officers
disaster/emergency managers
ecologists
environmental and material scientists
fire safety engineers
garden and landscape consultants
general practice and investment surveyors
insurers and loss adjusters
interior designers
quantity surveyors
town and urban planners
structural and civil engineers
Additional advice, information or comment may also be received from:
amenity societies and community groups
governmental departments and organisations
non‐governmental organisations
owners and occupiers
public utilities (e.g. communications, electricity, gas, water)
service staff (e.g. caretakers, cleaners, ground staff, security)
local authorities (e.g. building control, environmental health, planning, transportation)
More specialised information may additionally be required from other groups or individuals when dealing with particular building types or situations. Those who might contribute to an understanding of historic buildings may, for instance, include conservators, curators and craftworkers. Other sources of information may have to be sought and examined for each specific need.
The needs required to form an understanding of a building must consider the building in context with its location and use. Consideration of one without the others is a common fault that may ultimately lead to dissatisfaction, unnecessary expense or unjustifiable change.
Whilst it has become the norm to specialise, there is merit in retaining a wider set of interests and learning through a variety of means. Static learning solely from books can take one so far, but experience gained through dynamic learning – by watching, discussing and attempting a particular task – will provide a better grounding. Specialisation can also stifle the skills of problem‐solving and cause one to miss synergies (combined actions or operations) that might exist between one set of conditions and another. Far better to have several areas of interest or expertise and recognise that a task, such as understanding a building defect, can be better done by thinking in terms of systems rather than a more common reductionist view of seeing only a set of separate parts. This is at the core of what building pathology is about.
Needs of the building
Buildings, together with their contents, present a complex assembly of materials and parts. Each material, whether it forms an identifiable element or component of the construction or part of the internal fabric, has its own characteristics and requirements. Traditional buildings, which are essentially a collection of natural materials, rely on soft mortars, sacrificial renders, moisture–vapour permeable plaster and finishes and natural ventilation to retain their integrity and cohesion. This is in contrast to more modern buildings that make use of cement and concrete, plastics, composites and other artificial or human‐made materials to fulfil the requirements of client, designer and statutory authority.
The needs of the building, of whatever age or construction, must be understood, respected and responded to if it is to function to an acceptable standard. It is these needs, and the question of what is ‘acceptable’, that will be considered in later parts of this book.
The design, construction and use of contemporary buildings differ in many ways from those of previous generations.
Needs of the building user
The use and function of buildings change over time, and with each change comes a different, and often conflicting, set of requirements. These user requirements will typically leave evidence in the form of physical changes to the structure, fabric and services of the building; personal recollections and remembrances and associated documentation. Each of these levels of evidence will provide potentially useful information to be collected and considered when attempting to understand a building or collection of buildings. The question to ask is, ‘How have we arrived at the point we are now?’
The relevance of building pathology
The relevance of building pathology to practitioners and students of built environment disciplines, and others who are responsible for managing buildings and their sites, lies principally in the need for more accurate and appropriate information on which to base decisions. This need may arise for a variety of reasons:
determine financial security against an intended loan or mortgage, or change of ownership
provide confidence on acquisition for occupation or investment by way of a report commissioned by a purchaser or vendor wishing to confirm or disclose material facts (technical due diligence survey)
determine stability and risk of failure following natural or man‐made disasters
establish liability for disrepair (dilapidations)
diagnose defects when symptoms appear to occupiers
determine the effectiveness of past repairs or maintenance
assess levels of disrepair in advance of legal proceedings
acquire information about a building including design, construction, occupation, refurbishment and ongoing management (e.g. knowledge acquisition survey, golden thread)
understand key aspects of buildings and facilities to inform strategies and manage risk (six‐facet survey)
ensure compliance with legal requirements
understand and document factors affecting condition
provide a basis for planned work (repair, maintenance, retrofit)
provide a basis for physical change (adaptation, change of use)
inform post‐occupancy evaluations
provide opinion in court (Part 35 compliant expert witness report)
Whatever the reason, this need for accurate and appropriate information, acquired at a cost that is acceptable to the client, will require a change in the ways in which buildings are perceived and dealt with. The acceptance and practice of building pathology – providing a holistic approach to understanding buildings – will add an extra dimension to what many professional advisers already offer. As such, its relevance needs to be acknowledged and understood, and its principles more fully adopted.
The principles and practice of building pathology
The principles upon which building pathology is based rely on a detailed knowledge of how a building is designed, constructed, used and changed and the various mechanisms by which its structural, material and environmental conditions can be affected. It is more than just a detailed building survey, for it acknowledges the relative importance of people, place and environment. Such a comprehensive approach to understanding buildings offers potential for developing a deeper understanding and providing more useful information.
It is often said that every art benefits from a little science and every science benefits from a little art. Building pathology is very much an art and a science. Whilst the diagnosis of building failures may require detailed investigation, which could include testing, analysis and monitoring, it also requires imagination to ask questions, reflect on events and causes and conceive appropriate courses of action.
The following chapters are laid out to provide a logical progression, with consideration of buildings, building performance, causes and effects of problems, survey and assessment, remediation in practice and principles of building management and aftercare.
What is building pathology?
Building pathology offers a holistic approach tounderstanding the built environment by recognising relationships between people, buildings, environments, uses and contents. This requires critical thinking. It encourages collaboration between different professional groups and embraces a wider set of interests.
This includes legislation (fire, safety, planning, environment), history (art, architecture, social, political), health and well‐being, building services, sustainability, ecology, technology, construction, engineering, archaeology and cultural studies, design (architecture, interiors, furnishings) and sciences (biology, chemistry, physics, geology, environment, materials).
References
AEEBC (1994).
Academic Guidelines: Policy Regarding Degree Validation
. London and Brussels: Association d'Experts Européens du Bâtiment et de la Construction.
British Standards Institution (2023).
Retrofitting Dwellings for Improved Energy Efficiency – Specification and Guidance
, 2nd ed. PAS 2035. London: BSI.
CIB W86 Building Pathology (1993)
Introduction
. CIB Report 155, June.
CIOB Academy (2023)
Building Pathology
, course summary,
https://www.ciobacademy.org/product/building-pathology/
, accessed 15 September.
Designing Buildings Ltd (2023)
Conservation Wiki
,
https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Building_pathology
, accessed 15 September.
Groák, S. (1992).
The Idea of Building: Thought and Action in the Design and Production of Buildings
. London: E. & F.N. Spon.
Hutton + Rostron (1989).
Building Pathology Conference (BP89)
. Gomshall: Hutton + Rostron.
Singh, J. (1997)
Historic Building Pathology and Health
. Paper presented at The Health of our Heritage conference, 2nd RIBA National Conservation Conference, 9 May, Bath.
2Understanding Buildings
What is a building?
What is a building? Although this might at first sight appear to be a relatively straightforward question, it can nevertheless be answered in a variety of ways. To most people who live and work in buildings, they are merely containers for activities that require shelter from the external environment. Such containers may vary in complexity from simple bus shelters to elaborate cathedrals or from traditional forms of construction to those that rely on sophisticated building services in order to create and maintain specified environmental conditions.
The image that a building acts as a container or envelope, which buffers or filters the external environment for internal needs, is one that is widely used in understanding how buildings work. An analogy of a building acting like a skin, which surrounds the occupants and modifies environmental conditions, is similarly useful in that it indicates how it must be strong, resilient and able to adapt to changing conditions if it is to succeed and survive. Self‐healing, both as a natural ability of the skin and inspiration for futuristic surface materials, takes this concept still further.
This image of a building behaving as a skin has been advanced with the notion that there is no such thing as a building at all! Instead, there is a series of layers or boundaries – shell, services, scenery and set proposed by Duffy and site, structure, skin, services, space plan and stuff offered by Brand – which tear or shear due to different rates of change. This is again useful in emphasising that buildings are more than just bricks and mortar. Taken together, a building might be considered to be an experiment in time from which lessons can be learnt and attitudes changed.
Whether buildings are more than the sum of their component parts, representing a synergistic relationship between building and user, is a matter of personal opinion and debate. This is not to suggest the existence of a built ‘superorganism’, similar to that of James Lovelock's Gaia, but the concept that a building has a birth, life and death is, however, known in various parts of the world and is acknowledged in the temple building of the ancient Mayan civilisation of Central America.
Buildings may be seen as a collection of different layers that react and respond to one another, but ultimately have to fit together, as with this Russian matryoshka nesting doll, in order to work.
The success of a building in fulfilling its basic duties of containment and shelter depends on a series of related and interrelated issues. Much has been written on design theory and practice, and whilst it is not the purpose of this book to comment on how new buildings are procured, designed and built, it is useful to consider some guiding views on the subject:
In Architecture as in all other Operative Arts, the end must direct the Operation. The end is to build well. Well building hath three Conditions. Commodity [user satisfaction], Firmness [structurally sound], and Delight [aesthetically pleasing].
(Sir Henry Wotton)
When we build, let us think that we build forever. Let it not be for present delight nor for present use alone. Let it be such work as our descendants will thank us for.
(John Ruskin)
We start with the ground. This is rock and humus. A building is planted to survive the elements – the ground already has form. Why not begin by accepting that? Is the ground a prairie, square, flat? Is the ground sunny or the shaded slope of some hill, high or low, bare or wooded, triangular or square? Has the site features, trees, rocks, streams or a visible trend of some kind? Has it some fault or a special virtue or several? So essentially the site is the starting point of design.
(Frank Lloyd Wright)
Man puts available materials together to form shelter in such a way as to modify the indigenous climate in order to provide a satisfactory climate of comfort and convenience within. If the climate concept includes the cultural, social, political, aesthetic climates in addition to the physical one it suggests three kinds of information are needed [pattern of activities, available site with its indigenous climate and building technology]. Without satisfaction, an individual may be unhappy, inefficient and uncomfortable.
(Geoffrey Broadbent)
The reason for architecture is to encourage … people … to behave, mentally and physically, in ways they had previously thought impossible.
(Cedric Price)
What should we ask of a new shelter? We should ask for protection from the elements, an adequate level of comfort and a pleasurable environment that enhances our life. These features should be supplied economically, simply, reliably. Shelter should not dominate our lives but rather make minimum impact upon us. Ideally, a shelter should make us aware of the beauties and delights of nature rather than remove us from them.
(Rodale)
All buildings give their owners opportunities to recondition visitors' expectations and to lay down rules of conduct specific to them.
(Alain de Botton)
Each building is a box built not just of bricks and mortar, but of a series of practices, associations and taboos, the designation of what is acceptable, the design of normality … . Third Space is the place where real life occurs amid its theoretical design.
(Nick Hayes)
Buildings are also expressions of the people and society that built them – this forms part of the national identity. Changes in society are thus reflected in how and when buildings are designed, constructed, utilised, adapted and ultimately destroyed. Some of the most important concerns to have shifted building design and construction throughout history have been those of comfort and security – each has forced change that today represents history, whether it be architectural or social, political or economic. Chapter 6 case study The changing fortunes of buildings considers what has happened to two particular buildings over the past 400 years.
These changes, and the changing demands of modern lifestyles, continue to this day with the development of building automation and management systems that can control heating, ventilation, lighting, security and other facets of building use to allow simple and efficient management with greater comfort and reduced energy consumption and costs. The goal of a smart building is to self‐manage, learn, anticipate and adapt without intervention. Such changes, and corresponding shifts in attitude, will continue for as long as there is freedom of choice and action.
Although change is evident in how we use our buildings, there are nevertheless reminders of the past embedded in the buildings of the present. Such symbols of fashion or sentiment represent a visible link to earlier principles and practices, albeit often misunderstood and misapplied. This preoccupation with the past, driven by a growing awareness and interest in a nation's cultural heritage, also creates a tension between old and new, witnessed by buildings that are out of harmony with their surroundings in place and time.
The Dugald Stewart Monument on Calton Hill overlooking the capital city of Scotland, with Edinburgh Castle, Balmoral Clock Tower and the Scott Monument on the skyline. Edinburgh was inscribed as a UNESCO world heritage site in 1995 for its outstanding universal value reflected in the striking contrast and quality of architecture between the medieval Old Town and the Georgian New Town.
The Odeon on Alderney (Channel Islands) was built in 1943 using forced labour as a naval range‐finding tower to observe enemy ships and form part of a network with five other similar towers around the island. It is open to the public.
There is also a growing need to develop better ways of planning, designing, constructing and maintaining buildings to improve the sustainability of the built environment. The UK Green Building Council (UKGBC) has highlighted the importance of a built environment, which enables people to thrive by mitigating and adapting to climate change, eliminating waste and maximising resource efficiency, embracing and restoring nature and promoting biodiversity, optimising the health and well‐being of people and creating long‐term value for society and improving quality of life. This set of goals provides the challenge that will ultimately take buildings and their construction into the coming decades.
Perceptions of buildings
Since people first began to think of buildings as commonplace (probably with the advent of mass housing in the twentieth century), rather than essential for their survival, our perception of and regard for the built environment has progressively diminished. Buildings might thus be many things to many people, yet for much of the time their presence and purpose are ignored.
Whether one likes a building or not depends on personal preference and refinement. This is derived from a host of conscious and subconscious judgements, including personal values, beliefs and meanings; knowledge and experience of a building or space; and mental or visual stimuli based on prompts such as books, films and childhood memories. These personal, and often intimate, perceptions or sensations – many acting as dualisms – include:
light and dark (e.g. visible, hidden)
hot and cold (e.g. comfort, discomfort)
dry and humid (e.g. airless, clammy)
sunshine and shadow (e.g. glare, movement)
colour and texture (e.g. cold/warm, rough/smooth)
smells and odours (e.g. musty cellar)
sound and silence (e.g. echoes, music, stillness)
location and situation (e.g. hilltop, valley)
size and scale (e.g. intimate, intimidating)
context and use (e.g. recognition, confusion)
character and association (e.g. ‘haunted house’)
people and contents (e.g. familiarity, caution)
private and public (e.g. boundary layer)
contemplation and pilgrimage (e.g. labyrinth)
disenchantment and wonder (e.g. mystery, rationalism, ordinary/fantastic)
disguise and deceit (e.g. camouflage, trickery)
As well as such palpable observations, buildings – as with pictures and sculptures – are able to cause the user or observer to experience their surroundings in less apparent ways. Cognitive perception and sensory responses that might be experienced when in and around buildings may thus indicate a latent awareness or ‘feeling’ of what is ‘good’ and ‘bad’. These feelings have been used by designers throughout history to bring about differing emotions, sensations or behaviours that reflect the nature and use of the building. Such stimulation or arousal is one of the essential elements of good architecture. Architecture may not be intentional, but rather accidental, and develops through various individual design decisions – often based on a single consideration – rather than a unified design.
Left: Rushton Triangular Lodge (Northamptonshire). In plan, this building is an equilateral triangle, with three storeys having three windows on each side and on each floor. Each side has three gables, rising to three tapering pinnacles. At the intersection of the roof is a three‐sided chimney stack. Below the gables is a frieze with a continuous inscription carried round the three sides, each side (33 ft long) bearing 33 letters. The Lodge, built by Sir Thomas Tresham in 1593–97, is symbolic of the Holy Trinity and linked to the doctrine of the Mass and contains allusion to both religious literature and personal imagery. Right: The Mausoleum in Blickling Park (Norfolk) was built in 1793 to a design by Joseph Bonomi and erected in memory of John Hobart, Earl of Buckingham (d.1793). The regular pyramidal structure was modelled on the pyramid of Cestius in Rome and represents one of the best examples of the influence of ancient Egyptian culture on the Roman Empire and an early example of Egyptian Revival architecture.
Various feelings generated by architecture
‘Good feelings’
‘Bad feelings’
homely
welcoming
claustrophobic
lonely
peaceful
comfortable
intimidating
morbid
spiritual
spacious
overwhelming
isolated
restful
uplifting
demoralising
uncomfortable
atmospheric
exciting
cramped
impoverished
inspiring
breathtaking
oppressive
squalid
These judgements are, however, essentially subjective in nature and may only partly answer the question of whether a building is really ‘good’ or ‘bad’. Objectivity comes from acknowledging the various requirements of the building and assessing it against accepted criteria. These might include:
fitness for purpose (e.g. needs, expectations, functionality)
accessibility (e.g. able and disabled persons)
energy efficiency (e.g. SAP ratings, energy performance certificates)
sustainability (e.g. resource management, carbon neutrality)
whole life performance (e.g. construction, repair, maintenance, operation, obsolescence, disposal)
Perceiving or ‘seeing’ buildings for what they are, as well as what they have been and might become, demands consideration at various levels. Most people can understand buildings in terms of construction, space and cost, usually based on their own experiences of buying and selling, yet each of these considerations, and more, can form the basis for detailed enquiry that takes the object of everyday life into the realms of academic study. The depth of such investigation will depend on the reasons for wishing to ‘see’ and understand the building – in the case of historic buildings, this may include learning the ‘language’ of the architecture in order to ‘read’ the design.
It should be noted, however, that even when taking an objective view of a building, you will likely do so with preconceived ideas and a measure of unintended bias as you come to the building with personal prejudices. It is not easy to let a building speak for itself without imposing your own translation – you must think beyond yourself.
Conventionally, knowing something relies on empirical information gathered by the body and interpreted by the mind, but indigenous ways of knowing suggest that a thing cannot be understood unless it is known by all four aspects of one's being: mind, body, emotion and spirit (Kimmerer).
Not often in contemporary society can a building express a person's individuality, originality or non‐conformity unless through innovative design or deliberate affront.
Classification of buildings
A simple way to see and understand buildings is to classify them according to how they look and what they do. Such classification typically attempts to bring together a number of similar building types or uses for one or more reasons.
Buildings may be seen in terms of their architectural or historic interest and can be categorised according to their age and rarity. Criteria used to assess the ‘special’ interests of a building for the purposes of listing are given by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media & Sport (DCMS):
before 1700, all buildings that retained a significant proportion of their original fabric were likely to be regarded as of special interest
from 1700 to 1850, most buildings that retained a significant proportion of their original fabric were likely to be regarded as of special interest, though some selection is necessary
from 1850 to 1945, because of the greatly increased number of buildings erected and the much larger numbers that have survived, progressively greater selection is necessary
careful selection is required for buildings from the period after 1945
buildings less than 30 years old are not normally considered to be of special architectural or historic interest because they have yet to stand the test of time
Beyond this, classification is sought by legislation or regulation to impose order and conformity for a particular purpose, including land use, planning and matters of health and safety:
Town and Country Planning (Use Classes) Order 1987, as amended, prescribes classes of use within which change can take place without constituting development and so requiring planning permission. These use classes are Class B (B2 general industrial and B8 storage or distribution); Class C (C1 hotels, C2 residential institutions, C2A secure residential institutions, C3 dwellinghouses and C4 houses in multiple occupations); Class E for commercial, business and service; Class F for local community and learning (F1 learning and non‐residential institutions and F2 local community) and
sui generis
(of its own kind) being specifically defined and excluded from classification by legislation.
Approved Document B of the Building Regulations 2010, which is concerned with fire safety, identifies seven purpose groups that can refer either to a whole building or to particular compartments within a building: group 1 residential (dwellings), group 2 residential (institutional and other), group 3 office, group 4 shop and commercial, group 5 assembly and recreation, group 6 industrial and group 7 storage and other non‐residential.
Building Safety Act 2022 (s.65) defines a ‘higher‐risk building’ to be one that is at least 18 m in height or has at least seven storeys and contains at least two residential units.
Although such classifications allow buildings and building types to be ‘understood’ at the most general level, they do not attempt to distinguish or define one particular building from another. For this, it is necessary to understand the purpose of the individual buildings and the expectations of those who own or use them.
Requirements of buildings
In order to be successful, the design and construction of a building have to acknowledge a variety of issues. Or, to put this another way, a building, once it has been built, must fulfil certain criteria. These may be considered as being:
functional requirements
performance requirements
statutory requirements
user requirements
Functional requirements
Every building, regardless of its original, intermediate or ultimate use, can be expected to fulfil certain basic functional requirements. These requirements are primarily concerned with protection from the external environment, human comfort and organisation of activity and space. Other functional needs might include the creation of a particular sense of identity or place and the control of competing or conflicting internal uses.
Unless the function of a building is known, it cannot be judged to be good or bad.
Hay Castle in Hay‐on‐Wye (Powys) reflects the changing attitudes and fortunes of past and current generations. A castle was first built in the eleventh century, later abandoned and rebuilt around 1200, attacked and burnt in 1231, rebuilt by Henry III in 1233, captured by Prince Edward in 1263 and burnt in the following year, damaged by Owain Glyndwr in c.1401 and later in 1460 and recorded as ‘wonderfully decaied’ in the sixteenth century. The castle was expanded in the seventeenth century to create a Jacobean mansion, divided between tenants in 1702, purchased in 1844 and later used as a vicarage. The house was restored in 1910, damaged by fires in 1939 and 1977, repaired during the 1980s and sold to the Hay Castle Trust in 2011 with plans to restore the building as a centre for arts, literature and learning. The castle opened to the public for the first time in 2022.
Performance requirements
For a building to be successful, it must satisfy the basic functional requirements noted above. The way in which it meets these demands, both as a building and as a collection of related and interrelated parts, may be determined by how it performs in relation to a number of defined performance measures or standards.
The location of a traditional building is reflected in its design, use of materials and robust detailing. In this exposed coastal setting, there is an emphasis on solid construction and protection from wind and rain. Psychogeography is the study of how a geographical location affects a person's emotions and behaviour.
The performance requirements of a building and its various elements may be considered under the following headings:
access and egress
appearance
durability
dimensional stability
strength and stability
weather exclusion
sound control
thermal comfort
fire protection
lighting and ventilation
sanitation
security
cost
sustainability
Performance requirements for buildings. Reproduced from Mitchell's Introduction to Building by D. Osbourn and R. Greeno (1997).
(Reproduced from Mitchell's Introduction to Building 1997/Longman).
Many of these performance requirements form the basis of statutory and non‐statutory demands that need to be met in relation to both new buildings and the continued use of those already in existence. Problems can arise when a building – or container such as a shipping container – is converted or re‐purposed for an alternative use where the original performance requirements do not match those of the new tenure. Some level of compromise is often required – whether to facilities or lifestyle – in order for the new use to be judged successful. The level of adaptation may also be constrained by planning and heritage controls.
Left: Water tower in Finedon (Northamptonshire) built in c.1904 and converted to private residential use in 2007. Middle: The Broadland drainage mill at Reedham Ferry (Norfolk) was built in the 1840s and converted for residential use in 1957. Right: Shipping containers repurposed for use as business units at the Krynkl shipping container development in Sheffield (South Yorkshire).
Statutory requirements
There are various statutory and non‐statutory requirements that make demands on those who design, build, manage, repair, maintain, occupy or demolish buildings. In practice, many of these demands are made in relation to the health, safety and well‐being of such persons.
Examples of primary legislation relating to buildings, construction and occupancy (many with subsequent amendments and revisions) include:
Occupiers' Liability Acts 1957 and 1984
Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974
Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979
Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981
Housing Acts 1985 and 2004
Town and Country Planning Act 1990
Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990
Environmental Protection Act 1990
Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992
Party Wall etc Act 1996
Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002 (COSHH)
Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act 2004
Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005
Climate Change Act 2008
Equality Act 2010
Building Regulations 2010
Localism Act 2011
Control of Asbestos Regulations 2012
Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations 2013 (RIDDOR)
Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 2015 (CDM)
Conservation of Habitats and Species Regulations (2017)
Homes (Fitness for Human Habitation) Act 2018
Environment Act 2021
Fire Safety Act 2021
Building Safety Act 2022
Fire Safety (England) Regulations 2022
National Planning Policy Framework 2024 (NPPF)
User requirements
The user of a building expects to live or work in a space that satisfies basic human requirements and, in addition, certain needs that are specific to the activities being performed. The ways in which these are met, and whether one is in conflict with the other, is a measure of how appropriate the building is for the activity or activities in question. Fitness for purpose is thus an important measure of how a building matches the requirements of its user.
User requirement studies attempt to identify purpose in terms of activities (the things people do) and human needs (physical, psychological, physiological and social), and for a building to be fit for its purpose it must allow its occupants to carry out their activities economically and conveniently and have a satisfactory environment to suit the user. Such a study will typically consider:
classification of user (e.g. task orientation)
analysis of activities (e.g. social interaction)
requirements of space (e.g. circulation in and around building)
environmental conditions (e.g. sensory stimulation)
structural implications (e.g. compatibility)
cost (e.g. improvements)
The activities and requirements of a building user determine the form of initial construction and subsequent alteration. The three‐dimensional qualities of a building and the interconnectedness of its spaces – horizontally between rooms and vertically at stairways and chimney flues – may be appreciated in this doll's house.
VK Studio/Adobestock‐Generated with AI.
Where buildings are designed or adapted for specific needs, these basic requirements may be replaced or supplemented by further considerations. These may be prescriptive in nature and, as such, might include requirements under specific headings (such as floor loadings or lighting levels). In such a situation, study of the particular needs of the user will assist in identifying what the building has to provide in order to satisfy user activities and human necessities.
The user requirements within a particular building may at times conflict with the structural, material or environmental needs of the building or its contents. This may be of particular concern when dealing with historic buildings, where careless alterations or adaptations can cause irreparable damage both to the structure and fabric of the building and to the aesthetic qualities of its spaces. Where such conflict exists, it is important that the needs of both the building and its user(s) are clearly recognised, the significance of the building assessed and the implications of bias or compromise fully understood.
Our expectations of buildings
Our understanding of buildings is based largely on expectation. When required to consider what buildings are, what functions they perform and what faults they might have, much depends on what we anticipate in their design, construction and usage. Some of this information is inherent within the building itself, yet much requires investigation to ascertain details and facts.
The ‘use’ and ‘type’ of a particular building are often evident in how it looks and performs:
agriculture – barn, byre
commerce – shop, office
defence – castle, Martello tower
education – school
entertainment – cinema, theatre
habitation – house, flat
health – surgery, hospital
horticulture – glasshouse
industry – mill, mine
manufacture – factory
navigation – lighthouse
security – prison
social interaction – café, restaurant
travel – airport, railway station
worship – chapel, church, mosque
Such classifications carry with them certain expectations, yet in understanding a building, it is important to be aware of changes and differences from what is perceived to be ‘normal’. The uses to which a building might be put, which may not necessarily be the same as that for which it was designed and built, are many and various. They may change as a building is altered or adapted, or two or more uses may be combined in one building such that a museum or art gallery combines education and entertainment and a restaurant combines eating and social discourse.
Buildings, however, also need to be considered beyond mere type, usage and the fulfilment of basic requirements. They may demonstrate or represent creativity, offer inspiration or arouse emotions. They may also represent the genius loci or spirit of the place, embracing physical, historical and aesthetic values and giving inherent meaning and context. It is therefore necessary when attempting to appreciate a building to understand how and why it was made and what the designer or originator set out to achieve. The term topophilia refers to a particular sense of place, which is often mixed with cultural identity and love of certain aspects of such a place. A building might therefore be considered as one or more of the following:
art – expression or application of human creative skill and imagination
architecture – art and science of designing buildings and structures
archaeology – evidence of human history and prehistory informed by excavation and analysis of artefacts and other physical remains
Gasholders 10, 11 and 12 at the former St Pancras gasworks in London were built in 1860–67 and enlarged with new interconnected guide frames and telescopic lifts in 1879–80. Known as ‘The Triplet’, the conjoined frames have been moved, restored and re‐erected to enclose and create a setting for 145 apartments.
cultural resource – prehistoric or historic remains or indicators of past human activities
cultural symbol – physical manifestation that signifies the ideology of a particular culture or that has meaning within a culture (e.g. apotropaic mark or symbol)
landscape feature – natural or man‐made feature that expresses cultural values or history of a site
monument – erected to commemorate a notable person or event
heritage asset – building, monument, site, place, area or landscape identified as having significance as a consideration in making planning decisions
economic or financial unit – asset or commodity
status symbol – visible expression of social position or indicator of economic or social status (e.g. wealth)
social or political statement – act or non‐verbal communication intended to influence a decision to be made for or by a political party
religious edifice (e.g. cathedral, synagogue)
social conscience – sense of responsibility or concern for problems and injustices of society
psychological response – personal experience of mental and corporeal phenomena (e.g. presence of divine being)
functional machine (e.g. windmill)
ecological habitat or niche – where an organism lives and its role in an environment
Left: Customs House and statue of Captain George Vancouver at Purfleet Quay in King's Lynn (Norfolk). Customs House was designed by Henry Bell and opened as a merchant's exchange in 1685, being the first classical building in the town and showing influences from the capital and Holland. George Vancouver was a Norfolk sea captain and explorer who ‘discovered’ the Canadian city of Vancouver in 1792. Right: Memorial erected by 10th Battalion Arnhem Veterans in 2019 as a tribute to the 10th Battalion, part of the 1st Airborne Division, barracked in the three Leicestershire villages of Somerby, Burrough on the Hill and Thorpe Satchville and who took part in Operation Market Garden at Arnhem, Holland, in September 1944. Out of 582 men who flew out on 18th September on the second day of the operation, only 36 returned on 30th September.
The tympanum at the Church of St Mary and St David in Kilpeck (Herefordshire), built in the 1140s, depicts the tree of life and includes an angle, birds, fish and dragons or serpents swallowing their own tails (ouroboros
