Building With Flint E-Book

David Smith

• Herausgeber: The Crowood Press
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Seitenzahl: 317

Beschreibung

The use of flint is uniquely interlinked with the history of mankind. In the evolving relationship between humanity and the natural world, the provenance of flint as a resource is, arguably, unparalleled. Its continuing use today is simply another link in a long chain of association that can swiftly transport the craftsman back to his ancient ancestors. In historical terms, humans were relatively quick to discover the usefulness and versatility of flint. It offered itself up readily, rising to the surface of the land. But perhaps part of the enduring fascination we have for flint is that it does not easily give up its secrets. Building With Flint is not only a comprehensive exploration of the history of flint and its traditional uses, properties and applications, but is also an invaluable practical guide for practitioners currently working in the professions of construction, architecture and design. As well as providing detailed insight and advice about good practice in flint work, it also inspires the reader to employ flint in innovative and versatile ways. In addition, this book is for anyone who is simply curious to unearth more about this versatile material and all its quirks and nuances.

Leseprobe

Contents

Introduction

Chapter One What is Flint?

Chapter Two History and Usage

Chapter Three Flint Architecture

Chapter Four Flint Styles

Chapter Five Construction Planning

Chapter Six Tools to Use

Chapter Seven Flint Knapping

Chapter Eight Building a Wall

Chapter Nine Support

Conclusion

Bibliography

Index

Introduction

This book is intended to be used as a practical resource of interest both to those working in the professions of architecture, building and design and to anyone with a curiosity and enthusiasm to discover more about this material, which has come to represent archetypal qualities of durability, versatility and strength.

In the evolving relationship between humans and the natural world, the provenance of flint as a resource is, arguably, unparalleled. Its continuing use today is simply another link in a long chain of association that can swiftly transport the craftsman back to his ancient ancestors.

In historical terms, human beings were relatively quick to discover the usefulness and versatility of flint. It offered itself up readily, rising to the surface of the land. But perhaps part of the enduring fascination that flint holds for humans is that it does not easily give up its secrets.

Within the stone are held the solutions to many of the fundamental challenges of early human life – how to successfully hunt for and prepare food, protect oneself from enemies and provide heat and shelter for self and tribe. But flint provides no easy answers. It requires observation, investigation, technical learning, and dedication to practise its use. It could be fancifully imagined that its availability and the tantalising alchemical promise of it, has challenged humans to organise their efforts more methodically, systematically, and experimentally in the manner of mathematical calculation and scientific enquiry. It rewards creativity too, the ability to closely observe and imaginatively predict; the artist’s skill in recognising the potential of a chance discovery.

Flint has been used for a number of diverse purposes, ranging from weapons, hand tools, farm equipment, jewellery and personal adornment, ceramics, glass making and even musical instruments. However, it is perhaps not surprising that the potential of flint is currently enjoying something of a renaissance within the practice of architecture, a field that aspires to combine and balance function with aesthetics.

Although touching on some of the above uses of flint, the majority and practical elements of this book predominantly focus on the uses of flint as a material for construction. Its contents and terminology are by no means exhaustive: it would be impossible to include every single example of flint use and style of architecture. Throughout the book there are examples of other applications that demonstrate some of the under-explored qualities of this versatile stone. Does it yet have solutions to offer to some of the contemporary environmental problems of sustainability that we face today?

Flint has historically been a material available to everyone, it is ‘the crop that never fails’. It is hoped that this book will help to create a spark of excitement and interest in its readership and to encourage the continuation of the timeless tradition of learning from this unique stone, the story of which is so fundamentally bonded with our own.

Chapter One

What is Flint?

Formation

Flint (SiO2 – silicon dioxide) is a microcrystalline sedimentary material composed of silica. Its very pure silica content is made of quartz, opal and chalcedony. It formed in the chalk deposits of southern England and western Europe during the late Cretaceous period, 65 to 95 million years ago. The silica in flint is derived mainly from the skeleton remains of marine organisms and micro-organisms such as sponges, diatoms and radiolarians. Some silicon spherules may have precipitated directly on the seafloor.

Silica from various sources is buried with the background chalk algal coccolith sediment. With depth of burial, bacterial systems working on the organic matter in the chalk cause changes in the chemistry within the seabed and these changes cause local acidic conditions where the chalk carbonate is dissolved and silica is precipitated, forming the beginnings of flint. The chemical change occurs at the ‘redox boundary’ (reduction/oxidation boundary), which is parallel to but below the seafloor and remains stable in cycles. Hence, flint bands form in layers parallel to the seafloor but not on it. The easiest places for the chemical reactions to take place are in the least compacted chalk, which is in the animal burrow-fills, and this is where the flint starts to form, retaining the shape of the original burrow systems.

The process in the formation of flint in chalk is called diagenesis. This refers to the chemical, physical and biological changes that occur in rock as it forms and metamorphoses. Certain periods of time brought changes including climate cycles, biological cycles and sea-level fluctuations. These changes in conditions created a warming of the sea. Unable to survive during these events, certain marine organisms died and their skeletal remains fell to the seafloor. The gases caused by this bacterial activity, together with the oxygen levels in the seabed, created strong acidic conditions resulting in their silica content to dissolve in the water contained in the chalk. The silica then builds up and consolidates in shallow voids, as well as a network of cavities previously formed in the seabed by worms, molluscs and crustaceans. The silica gradually crystallised and hardened to form flint.

The flint band frequency, density and size depends on the climatic conditions, the depth of the sea, the numbers of decaying organisms and their silica content. The horizontal bands of flint that can be seen today between the white chalk cliff faces of southern England show that there was more than one episode and climate cycle that created the optimum conditions to enable flint formation. In general, the younger white chalk strata contain larger formations of flint. Some of these exact same flint beds can be identified and traced as the same band from the south coast to a hundred miles away on the East Anglian and Yorkshire coastlines.

A detail of a flint band in chalk cliff, East Sussex.

Types

Although it has its own geological classification, flint in the United Kingdom is often confused with the substance known as ‘chert’. They are both composed of the same mineral properties but have different grain sizes and porosity. The main types of flint are termed field flint, chalk quarried flint, gravel pit flint and cobbles (sometimes known as sea flint).

Appearance

Flint can be found in different shapes and sizes. The shape of its formation was dependent on the terrain and conduits on the seabed. As well as animal burrows, these cavities included fissures, fractures and voids in the chalk. The main shape types formed are named as nodular, tabular, tubular and sheet flint. An unusual exception to this is the paramoudra, sometimes known as potstones or sea pears. These are trace fossils that are created by microcrystals of silica forming concentrically around a fragment of fossil and are often found in coastal locations, particularly around West Runcton, Norfolk. They can vary in size and be found up to 2 metres in diameter.

Paramoudra on a quarry floor. Also known as potstones or sea pears.

The outside of a flint is called the cortex, rind or skin. This is the transition between the flint forming and the incompletion of silicification. This can come in varying thickness, textures and in several colours. All of these can be influenced by the nature of the original formation, texture and the staining of mineral content of the parent rock, subsequent geological movement and exposure to the elements. Cortex colours can vary from white, brown, blue, green and grey.

The inside of a flint is called the core. Although flint has a high silica purity content, the small remaining impurities and absorption of mineral salts can affect its qualities and appearance in colour and patination. These trace elements can include iron, calcium, potassium, magnesium and sodium. Time exposed to the elements can be a huge influence on the colour and patination. In some instances, if split, the core will react with the change in chemical elements and can have an immediate change of colour. Due to an optical effect of both the high density of the silica reducing light movement and the cortex preventing light access, it is impossible to view the true colour of the flint unless either a thin flake or without any cortex remaining. Flint core colours and patination can vary from white, brown, blue, green and grey.

Occasionally, it is possible to find fossils in the flint itself. This is either due to skeletal remains in the cavities before silica build up, or animals entering the cavity whilst the silica is still in fluid form and before silicification has taken place. Formation of flint is post-depositional. As flint forms it replaces anything that is present in that band.

Geography

Flint can be found throughout the United Kingdom but is more prolific in the southern counties of England, from Devon to Yorkshire. Subject to erosion of chalk and glacial movement, flint can be found in numerous locations including on the surface of fields, in chalk cliffs, on the beach, in riverbeds and in gravel pits.

‘Flint’ in Many Tongues

Afrikaans:VuurklipHungarian:KovaAlbanian:SterrallIrish:Cloch thineArmenian:KhijabagiItalian:SiliceBulgarian:Krem’kNorwegian:FlintChinese:Huo shihPolish:KrzemienDanish:FlintRomanian:CremeneDutch:VuurstteemRussian:KremenEskimo:KukiksautSpanish:PedernalFrench:SilexSwedish:FlintaGerman:FeuersteinTurkish:Calmak tasiGreek:PyritesWelsh:Callestr

(Source: Shepherd, W., Flint, Its Origins, Properties and Uses)

Chapter Two

History and Usage

Prehistory

The oldest evidence of flint use as stone tools in the UK was at the start of the Lower Palaeolithic period (900,000–850,000bc). Typically, this would have been in the form of hand axes and scrapers. Flint would have been taken from cliff faces or sourced from river banks. People of this period would have used the tools mainly for preparing food and possibly hunting. The size, shape and quality of both axes and scrapers would vary, depending on use, origin of material and the skill level of whoever worked the flint. As the Lower Palaeolithic became the Middle Palaeolithic around 300,000 years ago, clearer evidence of our Neanderthal cousins appears. They employed a method of making stone tools that suited a more mobile lifestyle, including the start of core preparation and flaking techniques known as Levallois. Curiously, before the Middle Palaeolithic ended along with the Neanderthals, they reverted to producing hand axes such as the ‘boute coupe’ (flat-bottomed) hand axe. These later hand axes were finely flaked over the Lower Palaeolithic versions and were probably used for a variety of tasks instead of just butchery. By the Upper Palaeolithic (starting around 35,000 years ago in the UK), humans began using different materials for making tools for hunting and decoration such as bone, antler and shell. They used a slightly different prepared core technology to Neanderthals, known as laminar blade core technology. This technique produced several long, narrow flakes of a uniform shape that could be retouched into a wide variety of different tools including spear tips, bone and antler carving tools, scrapers and many more. By the Mesolithic period 11,300 years ago, people were still hunter-gatherers relying on seasonal greens, roots, migrating animals and seafood. Blade technology continued, and the requirements of core technology changed to accommodate new hunting equipment: the bow and arrow. As well as microliths, which were used as arrowheads and barbs, the first tree-felling axes and woodworking adzes were produced. It was possibly the start of specialisation. If you learned how to work flint and were good at it, you would do it for others. Tools used to work the flint would have included hammer stones, made from sandstone or granite for opening up, and working the flint, and soft hammers made from antler, bone and wood for more detailed work, and pressure flaking.

It was the start of the Neolithic period that saw the greatest change in use, working and understanding of flint. There is clear evidence of the introduction of mining for flint on a large scale. Tools and weapons again became more varied and sophisticated. It is thought that this was when working flint became more of a specialist skill. It was the true beginning of the ‘flint knapper’. More stylising and making of specialist tools occurred. Although during this period there was less transient movement of settlements for hunting purposes, it is clear that the transporting and trading of flint and stone was important. There is clear evidence that people of this period were the first to really understand the different qualities of flint.

There are Neolithic flint mines throughout the world, and within Europe most notably in Belgium, Poland and the Netherlands. It is thought that flint mining in England was introduced from continental Europe up to 1,750–2,000 years later. There are similarities in extraction methods, but changes to more open pit designs. Cissbury, Harrow Hill and Grimes Graves are probably the most famous mines in England. These are places where it was known that not just flint was of good quality but also in good quantities. At Cissbury there are 270 discovered pits ranging from 3 to 6 metres in diameter and up to 12 metres in depth. Harrow Hill had up to 245 pits, including some with double-chamber systems. Grimes Graves, which is thought to have been excavated approximately 1,000 years later, is the most extensive and complex mining system of the two. It covers an area of 91 acres (37ha) with 433 discovered deeper pits.

There are various theories on where the name comes from. Grim, grime or grimme are all words associated with the devil, a mask or dirt. Graves stems from the German word ‘graben’ for dig, burrow or mine. The pit digging at Grimes Graves was most likely to be seasonal work, probably from May to September. This would reduce the risk of flooding. These large open pits were dug up to 12 to 14 metres deep in search of the valuable floor stone. They understood that the flint at the floor stone level was much more predictable and workable. Once found, horizontal galleries were dug underneath the seam to undermine the nodules, improving access and making extraction easier. The digging was completed both skilfully and systematically with great understanding of pit digging, chalk stability and what they were looking for. They were really engineers and geologists. Many of the galleries joined up, but were then subsequently filled with excavated chalk spoil or unwanted flint. It is assumed that the work was completed by a group rather than individuals. There is evidence of the use of wooden platforms and ladders to remove the chalk spoil and to extract the large flint nodules. Approximately 2,000 tons of chalk was removed per pit. What spoil did not fit in galleries would be used to backfill already-mined open pits. The current landscape of Grimes Graves is quite extraordinary. The result of settlement in the numerous pits means that when the sun is low it looks rather like a golf ball.

Replica Neolithic polished and unpolished flint axe heads

Antler prop in flint gallery, Pit No. 15, Grimes Graves, Norfolk.

Mining relied on flint and antlers for picks, animal bones for shovels, and wood for levers to dislodge the flints. Of 28 pits excavated, on average 142 antlers were found in each pit. Hammer stones were used to break the floor stone up into more manageable size for lifting to the surface. It was quite a task, retrieving flint by crawling through these unventilated restricted galleries. It is assumed that with a large central shaft the miners relied on the reflective light of the chalk to see what they were doing. Some suggest that chalk bowls were used with ignited animal fat to light the way; however, there is little evidence of carbon on the ceiling, or chalk bowls with carbon marks. Recent archaeological excavations in European mines have found evidence of burnt sticks as a possible solution to the issue of light.

Although a single axe has been found on the site, there is little evidence of finishing work. There is, however, plenty of evidence of flaking and working of the nodules. It is thought that the respectable flint would have been selected and broken down into ‘rough outs’ or ‘blanks’. This would be a very efficient way of sorting out the workable flints, checking that they were free of impurities and thermal fractures. It would also reduce unwanted waste and minimise transporting unwanted material (identical to our modern-day process in preparing architectural flint). These were then made for either trading or working on at a later date. It is hard to know if there was a clear distinction between people mining or working out ‘blanks’, or if both tasks were completed by the same people. As with flint knappers today, the selection and quality of flint is crucial. This is definitely easier if you have knapping experience and therefore know what you are looking for.

Nevertheless, there was a clear function to mining and the extraction of flint. More recent research has studied the possible impact and social significance of the mines themselves, the action of mining and the act of flint knapping. The Late Neolithic was also a time of important social change and ideologies. The period saw the advent of individual status and power. The polishing of flint, particularly axes, was common. This was functional as it reduced shattering, but there were also possibly aesthetic reasons behind it or the polished flints served as symbols of status. Combine this with a period in the advancement of flint knapping, and many functional and occasionally beautiful non-functional flint objects were made.

The Hindsgavl Dagger. A typical example of a ‘fish tail’ dagger on display at the National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen.

Modern replica of a Danish ‘fish tail’ dagger.

The end of the Neolithic to the start of the Bronze Age (4600–4200bc) years ago was probably the height of the production of sophisticated prehistoric flint objects. Quality was still variable, depending on access to raw material, skill and knowledge. The migration of the Beaker people from mainland Europe introduced dagger making to the UK. Still discussed is the use and role of copper during this period. Evidence shows that some parts of Europe had access to copper and started to use bronze. In some cases, it replaced flint, in others copper was used to improve flint working techniques. An exceptional example of this is the ‘Hindsgavl Dagger’. This particular one was found in 1876 off the Danish coast; the dagger type is called a ‘fishtail dagger’ because of the fishtail-formed hilt. This was most likely for burial purposes, a symbol of status or power. The following Bronze and Iron Age periods saw the demise of knowledge and the need for flint as tools and weapons. Flint was still used as it was a relatively cheap and accessible material, but it was deployed less and less.

Gunflints

The mid-fifteenth and early seventeenth centuries were very influential in developing uses for flint. During this period, flints were worked for gunflints. These were then placed in a variety of specially designed spring-loaded weapons that when struck with a steel mechanism would set off a charge and fire a bullet. The working of gunflints was a large and lucrative industry. As a result of this, more people were able to knap and the availability of flint for use in architecture increased. Flint, or a particular quality of flint, again became a very important commodity. The difference was that now it was worked by iron and steel rather than antler and stone.

The Tale of Flint Jack

In the Victorian era flint archetypes became sought-after by amateur collectors, providing opportunities for forgers to exploit. The name most associated with these practices is that of ‘Flint Jack’, who appears to have started out in North Yorkshire as Edward Simpson, the servant of a minister and geologist. It might be assumed that this is where he began to gather an interest and knowledge of fossils and archaeological artefacts. With his own necessarily unreliable narration at its core, it is difficult to separate fact from myth. Accounts of the times credit him with a prodigious output of fake antiquities said to be acquired from Flint Jack (also known by a number of other names including ‘Bag o’ Bones’, The Old Antiquarian, Stone Jack and Fossil Willy). His skill in knapping flint objects fine enough to capture the imagination of credulous local historians and enthusiasts cannot be doubted. However, his own creative imagination was his undoing on occasion, and the authenticity of some particularly finely wrought fishhooks and a flint comb notably raised suspicions when assessed by museum experts.

With an increased awareness of the work of forgers, collectors became less easily duped and the fortunes of those who had mastered this duplicitous art declined. Some found more respectable occupations. ‘Flint Jack’ continued to live as an itinerant trader scratching a living, in ill health and descending into alcoholic addiction. The last official record shows that a magistrate’s court found him guilty of felony in 1874 and he was sentenced to one year’s imprisonment, after which only apocryphal stories remain. His legendary reputation was assured following the publication of an article in a Yorkshire newspaper in 1888, which claimed to chronicle his unscrupulous activities and condemned him as an irredeemable rogue.

Flint Jack.

Origins

There is no clear evidence showing when and where the gunflint industry started. On a small scale it may have been as early as the start of the seventeenth century. However, it quickly became a lucrative industry in France, England, Belgium and Germany. It is clear that the industry evolved as the arms industry and gun design advanced. Individuals were looking for more reliable ways of firing weapons, compared to the matchlock method (using a burning rope). During this time, the latest and most popular weapons (due to speed of fire and reliability) needed flintlocks. These included the Spanish ‘miquelet’ or the earlier German ‘schnapphahn’ (appropriately known as ‘the pecking hen’), the Dutch ‘snaphance’ and later the English ‘flintlock’.

An English flintlock blunderbuss pistol with gunflints.

The gunflint industry reached its peak during the Napoleonic period. At this time, there are records showing up to 800 individuals working as part of the flint industry in France. The Department of Loire et-Cher contained rich deposits of flint, as detailed in a museum at Meusnes. Alongside gunflint production, many iconic flint buildings were built by Napoleonic prisoners-of-war during this period. This may be due to the access of labour, and high-quality workable flint, plus the architectural flint fashions of the time. However, the possible flint knapping skills of the French labourers are also likely to have played a role.

Meanwhile in England, new quarries were opening up across many southern counties to match the extensive demand and search for better-quality flints. These included Wiltshire, Essex, Kent and Norfolk. Numerous new gunflint practices opened up near these resources to cope with the increasing demand. There are also records that show that the skilled labour who were needed to make gunflints were peripatetic workers who would travel where their skills were needed.

Brandon knappers

It was, however, the town of Brandon in Suffolk that became the best-known home of the gunflint industry. There now remains little physical evidence in the town of the importance and magnitude that the industry once enjoyed in everyday life. There are no longer the numerous knapping booths, flint storage yards and tool shops. In fact, only one remains – the rest have either been demolished or converted for other uses. The only clues remaining are a pub sign, a few unusual decorative panels and cottages made of gunflint quartering waste and round gun-flint cores. There is some debate on why it was the village of Brandon that was such a centre of flint production. It is no coincidence that Brandon is close to Grimes Graves, one of the largest Neolithic flint mines in the country. Both Neolithic man and the flint knappers of the gunflint industry recognised the outstanding quality of the local flint, particularly the nature of the floor-stone flint. However, with other areas in other parts of the country offering similarly high- quality flint, there still begs the question why Brandon? Yes, there was the perfect match of both skill base and a source of good quality flint there that perhaps other places like Fleet in Essex had one, but not the other. But there are implications of family connections between local landowners and the Board of Ordnance. So, perhaps therefore it is no coincidence that in 1790 Philip Hayward of Bury St Edmunds, who was awarded a government contract of 100,000 gunflints, subsequently secured Brandon as a gunflint centre of such renown.

After this, Brandon flint masters had the sole contract to supply the British army with gunflints from 1804 onwards. The black Brandon gunflint was valued more than any other source due to its quality and reliability – so much so that less scrupulous traders would engage in the dubious practice of ‘spotting’ or ‘lamp blacking’ gunflint: darkening the gunflint and hiding any imperfections to guarantee a sale or to obtain a higher price. At the time the military would not purchase any flint with chert inclusions within a quarter of an inch of the edge of the flint. It was also said the Brandon flint was ‘jackdaw-coloured, free of impurities and of good running quality’. The best Brandon gunflint would last up to 50 shots. This was allegedly much more than the inferior gunflints sourced and supplied in other parts of the country. By 1804, the Board of Ordnance commissioned Brandon flint makers to supply 360,000 gunflints a month. By 1813, there were 160 recorded knappers and diggers. Although it was a male-dominated trade, records reference a female gunflint master named Elizabeth Grief. There are also records showing other female manufacturers and listed subscribers, but it is hard to know what their actual roles were. Family names that have become synonymous with the gunflint industry began to emerge: the Snares, the Carters, the Fields and the Edwards families. They were all family businesses, with specific reputations. Allegedly, it is said that skilled gunflint makers could identify their own craftsmanship by touch. Makers were not allowed to sub-contract any of the required gunflint orders. Although there are records showing that the skill levels and quality of gunflints varied, each maker prided themselves on the quality of their work. Orders were made to a specific gunflint maker depending on which of the 23 types of gunflint was required. As a result of this skilled craftsmanship, Brandon gunflint was shipped around the world for over 200 years, from 1790 to 1996.

As at Grimes Graves, flint was mined rather than quarried in Brandon. There are records showing up to ten main flint mine areas that have supported the Brandon gunflint industry over the years. These include Icklingham, Weeting and Santon – but probably the most famous and most productive of those areas was Lingheath. Here numerous shafts were dug just big enough to work the flint loose and transport it upwards. The layers of the flint strata would have been dug and brought to the surface. No machinery or mechanical means were used to extract either flint or chalk: everything was done by hand. The layers of the flint strata consisted of topstone, wallstone and floorstone. Shaft depths could be up to 40 feet (12.2m) deep depending on the level of the bottom floor-stone. Mining was not exclusively for supplying the gunflint industry. No flint went to waste, with the less workable topstone and wallstone produced when digging a shaft going to the local building industry. However, it was higher-quality flint floorstone that the diggers were in search of exploiting. This flint was much more predictable and workable. Furthermore, it would have received more money per weight. It is for this reason that most galleries were only dug at the floor-stone level.

Mining

To reach any flint, a vertical shaft would have to be dug through the topsoil and down into the chalk. It would take around one week to dig a single shaft. Shafts were dug surprisingly close to one another, but skilfully enough that they did not encroach on each other or have dangerous structural issues. They would always be dug at an angle to aid the lifting process and to reduce any risk of falling debris. The average shaft could produce up to six or seven months of flint mining. At various stages down the shaft would be toe holes and platform steps. These would be used as staging posts for tools and to bring the heavy flint up to the surface. The ledges would be dug on three sides with the fourth side used to extend the main shaft. This system of digging at an angle or slant with a series of ledges was (and still is) known in East Anglia as ‘bubberhutching on the sosh’. The term ‘soshed’ is comically still used locally to refer to a tipsy character who may be walking at an angle or ‘on the sosh’.

Pony Ashley mining flint at Lingheath, Suffolk.

Any mining would be carefully performed to reduce any excess chalk waste and save unnecessary time and labour. It was hard physical work. Most diggers worked either alone or sometimes with one other, who would help to bring either spoil or flint up to the surface. At Lingheath flint mine, records show that digging for flint was male dominated, although as with the gunflint making there are written records showing a couple of female diggers. With the exception of the shaft size and shape (smaller and less vertical), and small changes in technology, the process of mining for flint did not change much from the time of the Neolithic men at Grimes Graves. In alignment with the flint strata, horizontal galleries would also be dug. These would enable the digger to work and remove the flint that had been geologically formed at that level. For safety reasons, diggers would usually begin working the bottom floor stone galleries and gradually move up to the higher top stone galleries. This was a slow process, as it involved hand tools and very cramped working conditions.

Tools to remove the chalk and extract the flint were basic: a pronged pick, a spade, a crowbar and a hammer. The crowbar was used to dislodge the flint and the heavy hammer was used to break up any large nodules that were either too heavy or large to manoeuvre through the galleries or lift up to the surface. In contrast to the miners of Grimes Graves, the Lingheath diggers would excavate the galleries above the flint strata to remove the flint nodules. This may have made it harder to dislodge the flint, but it did reduce the excess chalk spoil. It is often assumed that for the Neolithic miners of Grimes Graves, excess spoil was less of an issue. Not only were the shafts to remove the spoil much bigger, but it would appear that the diggers worked as a group.

Despite the reflective qualities of chalk, the limited light in galleries and shafts meant that digging would have been undertaken by candlelight. Candles would also have been used as timepieces, as the repetitive tasks and absence of daylight made it hard to keep track of time. Most miners would use two candles a day. When a miner entered the shaft at the start of the day they would light their first candle. When that candle had burnt down to half its size, the miner would return to the surface for a sip of tea and some clean air before returning to the shaft. A second trip back to the surface would occur when the first candle had completely burnt down. This would be time for the digger’s ‘docky’ (midday meal). When the second candle had burnt down completely, it would indicate the end of the working day.

Mined flints were measured by the ‘jag’ or cartload. A jag was usually measured by eye and not weight (however, it was equivalent to around a ton in weight). If they reached a good stratum, a digger could produce between three to four jags a week. A jag would be lifted up to the surface and placed in a crescent shape around the shaft. Some records indicate that flint stored at surface level would be protected from the elements with branches of Scots fir. Flints of different strata quality would be kept in separate piles due to their differences in value. Floor stone was sometimes almost worth twice the value of the top stone. This was because a jag of better-quality flint could produce almost double the amount of gunflints (around 12,000) than a poorer quality flint (around 6,000).

Quartering, flaking and knapping

Gunflint makers were in charge of sourcing and preparing the flint. It was their job to transform the raw material into either gunflints or knapped flints for the local building industry. They were stationed in numerous booths, sheds and yards in Brandon itself. The flint would have been transported by cart from the shaft to the knapper’s yard. For practical and health reasons quartering was often completed outside, whereas the flaking and knapping was done in booths and sheds. The sheds were often cramped and small with limited natural light. The numbers of people working in a single workshop changed over time from three or four to one or two as the industry declined. The working conditions were poor, as any ventilation would be blocked to reduce draughts blowing into the booth. This created a dangerously dense atmosphere of fine flint dust particles. In the early days of the industry little or no precautions would be taken. Later on in time and more aware of the risks, to reduce dust inhalation, knappers would either tie wet sponges and cloth around their face or drink beer. Unsurprisingly, both interventions only briefly prolonged the almost inevitable development of silicosis. The average life expectancy for knappers was only 44 years.

Flint quartering. William ‘Billy’ Carter, at the Carter’s workshop on London Road, Brandon, c.1900.

In the hands of the knapper, the flint went through a three-stage process: quartering, flaking and knapping. This was an editing and sorting process. A skilled knapper could accurately predict the quality of an unworked flint by feel or sound (for example, the ring it makes when hit with a hammer). However, often it is not until the flint has been opened up and inspected that the potential of the nodule can be understood. To reduce the risk of wasted labour, some poorer-quality nodules would have been put aside for the lesser demands of either the building industry or used for road building. These flints would have been graded into ‘unworked’, ‘rough face’ and ‘snapped’. In addition, flints of a good workable quality would have been occasionally set aside for fine-gauged square architectural work by a gunflint maker.

Quartering involved breaking down a large nodule into a more manageable size; this could be done by a knapper of any skill level with a large lump hammer. Depending on the flint size and knapper preference, the hammers varied in shape (square or hexagonal) and weight (3 to 7 pounds). The flint nodule would be placed on the knapper’s knee. Following this, the top corner would be struck at a 45-degree angle. As well as making the nodule more manageable, knapping would open the flint up, exposing the flint ‘face’ and producing a platform for the flaking process to begin.

The flaking process relied on skilful knappers called ‘flakers’. Similar to quartering, different hammers were selected depending on the flake size and gunflint required. Each individual firearm required a custom-sized gunflint. Normally a hammer with a square end was used to hit the outer part of the flint and create flakes of material. It must also be noted that French knappers were the first to use this unique ‘platform’ technique. The use of a square-head hammer meant longer and predictable flakes were produced. These resulted in less trimming and often more gunflints per flake. Though it is not known how English knappers acquired the French technique, it may have been learned and shared by travelling flint knappers. This plays into the flint knappers’ myth that if you were ever captured in a war, proving your knapping abilities could save your life. Records show that the ‘platform’ technique was predominantly used in Norfolk and Suffolk, whereas the ‘wedge’ technique remained in Wiltshire and Essex.

The flaker would gradually work around the circumference of the nodule until the flint became unworkable. The unworkable matter was known as the core and would be discarded or set aside for the building industry. Depending on the quality of the flint, a skilled flaker could produce up to 6–7,000 flakes a day. Flakers created numerous terms for working the flint. These include a ‘wrung’ describing a flake with a twist in it, and a ‘bruckly’, a flake that is not easily worked.

The final part of the process was working the knapped flakes into gunflints. To do this, the flaker would place the piece of flint on a small anvil; then, by using a long, flat hammer (similar to a file in shape and weight), and placing the flint on an anchored vertical metal stake, the flake would be trimmed down to the finished product. Depending on the desired size of gunflint, and size of flake, sometimes four or five could be produced from a 6-inch (15cm) flake. Using good quality flakes, a skilful knapper could produce an average quota of around 300 gunflints an hour or up to 2,000 gunflints a day.